Geography 121 Lecture Outlines, 2010

September 7, 2010 Prepared by Dr. Matthew Evenden Please note: The following lecture outlines provide students with a basic framework for note-taking during lectures. Feel free to write on them, or annotate them on your laptop. It goes without saying that outlines do not replace attendance at lectures, or note-taking. As these outlines have been prepared well in advance for ease of access, I reserve the right to change them in small or large part before any given lecture. When I do this, I will post revised outlines to the class website.

Geography, Modernity and Globalization Lecture objectives: Define and describe Geography Define concepts: Modernity and Globalization Raise critical questions I) Geography

A way of seeing, A long history, A discipline Two interacting halves: physical and human Core themes of human geography: 1) Human-environment relationships 2) Spatial patterns and processes, and the differences between peoples and places Is a one-line definition possible? Critical Questions: -Are human and environment separate categories? -Can spatial patterns and processes be abstracted from society and the world around us? -Does our descriptive language about peoples and places replicate assumptions or challenge them? The problem of authority II) Modernity

Modo; Modernus (Latin), Modernity (1627) Modern: a period of time Modern -ism, -ization, -ity Modernity= the condition of being modern Modernity has been described as: -A constellation of power, knowledge and social practices (Gregory) -An experience of unending change (Berman) -A project (Habermas) Modernity implies a break with the past, or tradition. Characteristically, this break revolves around several oppositions:

3 Localization: Globalization Superstition: Rationalization Stagnation: Transformation Rural life: Urban life Agriculture: Industry Critical questions: Is modernity a caricature? A misleading vision of progress? Are there multiple modernities? III) Globalization Global: 1. spherical, 2. an inclusive totality. Globalization: earliest use, c. 1959; draws on global village concept (McLuhan) Globalization: 1) Asserts the stretching and operation of linkages and connections across the world, 2) Implies an intensification in the levels of interaction, trade and communication among states, societies and economies. Critical questions: Are the processes of globalization geographically uniform? Do some forms of connection also produce disconnections for others? Is globalization only a contemporary process? How do geographers define geography? An appreciation of the diversity and variety of peoples and places is a theme that runs through the entire span of human geography, the study of the spatial organization of human activity and of peoples relationships with their environments. (Paul Knox, Sallie A. Marston and Alan E. Nash, Human Geography, 2001) Geography is a Los Angeles among academic cities in that it sprawls over a very large area and merges with its neighbours. It is also hard to be sure which is the central business district. (Peter Haggett, Geography: A Global Synthesis, 2001, prologue)

4 Archaic Globalization (1): Interacting Networks Lecture objectives: 1) To describe and analyze the range and extent of networks, c.1400 2) To consider the constraints on networks 3) To consider the implications of these constraints Archaic Globalization: The older networks and dominances created by geographical expansion of ideas and social forces from the local and regional level to the inter-regional and inter-continental level. (Bayly, Birth of the Modern World, 2004, p. 43) I. Some preliminary observations: How populous was the world in c. 1400? Dominant lifeways A peasant majority A small but growing urban population Few but powerful nomadic peoples A small group of foragers who nevertheless controlled vast territories How was the world imagined? II. The realms of long distance exchange: Three primary, but differentiated, realms: i) The Eurasia-Africa network ii) The American network iii) The Pacific network What precipitated movement within networks? Did the networks ever intersect? III. Some constraints: i) On movement: Long-distance vs. local trade ii) On communication: Oral and written iii) On energy generation: Somatic energy iv) On population growth Some implications of constraints: i) For the distribution of population ii) For the distribution of production iii) For the distribution of knowledge and ideas

5 Archaic Globalization (2) Land and Life in Agrarian States Lecture Objectives: To define and analyze the geographical features of agrarian states, c. 1400. To examine how social hierarchies were organized spatially. To consider the dynamism and limits of peasant lifeways. A generic definition: A large area with a centralized system of control, culminating in a point of sovereign authority (King, Emperor). The growth, power and limits of state authority, c. 1400 A crucial geographical division: city/town and countryside Fundamental division between dense nodes of settlement (towns and cities), and dispersed rural hinterlands (encompassing villages, and more dispersed settlements). A crucial geographical division: city/town and countryside A range of scales and sizes Upward limit: nearly a million (Nanjing) Largest city in Germany: Cologne, about 20,000 Why not more and bigger cities? Demographic drains/ dependent on immigration Cities and the state: a dynamic relationship Functions Administrative Religious Commercial Spatial Elements Walls, streets and public spaces Palimpsest landscapes Rural hinterlands: Wealth Generators The peasants burden: taxes, tithes, rents, labour servitude, conscription The peasants problem: balancing external and household demands Dispersed settlement patterns Variations: topography and ecology site and situation cultural and regional influences crop staples and labour requirements In western Europe A characteristic pattern of small plots and customary access to common lands.

6 Common lands were sometimes farmed in common, or served as a pool of extra resources for households. Peasant livelihoods A family economy Aims: subsistence and reproduction. village economies, exchange and reciprocity. Local lives and connections The village world The limits of movement Trade: a one-way relationship? But Long-term processes Religion as a connecting force Relationships of power

7 Archaic Globalization (3) : Foraging Societies Lecture Objective: Consider peoples and lifeways that did not connect strongly with the interactive networks of archaic globalization. Definition: Livelihoods based primarily on hunting, gathering, fishing No domesticated plants, and few animals. Social organization depended upon mobility (to exploit different environments seasonally) and flexibility (in group size and make up). In the context of archaic globalization Importance of foragers Territorial control Global distribution The oldest and most successful economic form Common misconceptions Foragers led poor, hard, miserable lives Foragers used primitive technology Foragers lived in harmony with one another and nature Man the Hunter

8 Encounters across the Atlantic Learning objectives: To analyze the conditions shaping the Iberian crossings of the Atlantic in the 15th and 16th centuries. To consider some of the consequences of these crossings for the Americas, Europe and global power relations. Encounter? Encounter rather than discovery Discovery is a one-sided process: one group is active, the other passive. Encounter provides a sense of mutual discovery and action on both sides of the cultural divide. Before 1492 Polynesian voyages across the Pacific, 10th Century(?) (settlement of New Zealand) Viking voyages across the North Atlantic, mid-9th Century (Iceland), 10th Century (Greenland, Baffin Island, Newfoundland) Chinese Sea Power, c. 1405-1433 Iberian expansion: contributing factors: The lure of Asian trade (and its difficulties) Reconquista: a militant mission Technological preconditions: ship technology (caravel/ lateen sails), instruments, experience Search for wealth (gold): Our lord in his goodness guide me that I may find gold (Columbus, 1/11/1492) Iberian approaches The Atlantic (Bartholomeu Dias, Cape of Good Hope, 1487; Vasco de Gama, Indian Ocean, 1497) The Columbian Voyages (1492, 1493-95, 1498-1500, 1502-04) The Caribbean and beyond Encountering Others Societies of the Americas Conquests (Cortez and Aztecs, 1521, Alvarado and the Maya, 1524-25, Pizarro and the Incas, 1531-33) Some military advantages: introduced disease; Spanish fighting techniques (horses, steel weaponry); exploiting internal rivalries.

9 The Columbian Exchange Lecture Objectives: To consider what plants, animals and microbes crossed the Atlantic with Columbus and his followers and in both directions. To analyze what were the effects of this biological exchange? Disease Exchanges: The origins and diffusion of Old World diseases How did diseases diffuse through Eurasia and Africa? Why were many of these diseases unknown in the Americas? Disease Introductions to the Americas: Disease types: Eruptive fevers: small pox, measles, typhus Respiratory Infections: whooping cough and pneumonia Patterns of diffusion: virgin soil epidemics An immunologically defenceless host population Rapid spread Almost universal infection Profound population losses, not abating in Central Mexico until the 1620s. . . . an epidemic broke out, a sickness of pustules Large bumps spread on people; some were entirely covered. . . .[The victims] could no longer walk about, but lay in their dwellings and sleeping places, . . . And when they made a motion, they called out loudly. The pustules that covered people caused great desolation; very many people died of them, and many just starved to death; starvation reigned, and no one took care of others any longer. -Excerpt from Sahagn, Historia general de las cosas de Nueva Espaa, c. 1575-1580; ed., tr., James Lockhart, We People Here: Nahuatl Accounts of the Conquest Mexico (Univ. of California Press, 1993) Disease introductions to Eurasia and Africa Venereal Syphilis: a debated case Plant and Animal Exchanges What Europeans brought to the Americas Patterns of Diffusion and Adoption In Agrarian Societies Selective adoption: plants and animals Tribute crops In Foraging Societies The horse Uncontrolled diffusions What the Americas sent to Eurasia and Africa Patterns of Diffusion and Adoption Demographic consequences

10 Some important food crops from the Americas Maize Beans of many kinds Peanuts Potato Sweet Potato Manioc (cassava, tapioca) Squashes Pumpkin Papaya Avocado Pineapple Tomato Chili Peppers Cocoa

Other important non-food crops include: Tobacco Rubber Varieties of Old and New World Staples (in millions of calories per hectare) American crops Old World crops Maize (7.3) Rice (7.3) Potatoes (7.5) Wheat (4.2) Sweet Potatoes (7.1) Barley (5.1) Manioc (9.9) Oats (5.5) (Source: Crosby and Food and Agricultural Organization)

11 A Plague of Sheep: Resettling the Valle de Mezquital Learning Objectives: Consider how the Spanish sought to extract American resources and establish authority in the sixteenth Century. Consider the tactics and consequences of Spanish imperialism on the land. Strategies of Imperialism The imperial problem: How to organize power, convert the population and extract revenue? A new centralized political system: Audiencias (legislative, judicial and executive functions) Resettlement and rights of control: Congregaciones (Christian missions) Encomiendas (Tribute and indigenous labour power) Geography and Imperialism The Relaciones Geogrficas Spanish Crown survey (starting in 1577). Seeks to document: population jurisdictions language(s) land and vegetation http://www.lib.utexas.edu/benson/rg Valle de Mezquital Or, the Valley of Mesquite Highland, Central Mexico In New Spain, it bore the reputation of a barren land with an impoverished indigenous population Strategies of Dispossession Thirty-five encomiendas granted in Valle in 1520s. Missionaries and Merchants follow. Importation of Old World foods for tribute: Wheat, barley, fruits. Hard-hoofed grazing animals (ungulates) pastured on indigenous agricultural areas and uplands.

12 A Plague of Sheep Animals introduced in successive waves by Spanish pastoralists: sheep, cattle, horses, goats. Mid-century, Spanish authorities ban cattle and horses from region after complaints. Sheep become dominant and numbers soar: about 420,000 (late 1550s) to 2,000,000 (1565). Declines Sheep increases coincide with major epidemic from 1576-81. Spanish pastoralism begins to displace indigenous agriculture. Expansion of sheep population changes environment and carrying capacity. After rapid growth, sheep populations crash in 1580s and 1590s. Why declines? Ungulate irruption thesis: Unmediated population expansion within a confined space-> Over-taxes resource base and diminishes food supply -> Ungulate populations decline. New Spain/ New Land Melville: The depiction of the Valle de Mezquital is a consequence of Conquest. Vegetation cover follows intensive pastoralism. Social and environmental change woven together.

13 Demographic (and other) effects of the slave trade in Africa Lecture Objectives: To consider the range of demographic effects in Africa of the Trans-Atlantic Slave trade. To analyze the effects of the slave trade on state formation, slave-holding practices and commodity production. Demographic consequences Did the removal of millions of people from Africa over several centuries impair the reproductive potential of African societies? What would we need to know to answer this question, or make an informed estimate? Some contributing factors: # of slaves in the Trans-Atlantic trade and sending societies by year/region/age and sex ratio. Fertility and mortality rate in sending societies Family formation patterns/ age of marriage/ nutrition/ health Mannings conclusions The slave trade had a seriously negative and distorting impacton the African population. (p.59) The greatest impact was in the 18th and 19th centuries before the decline of the export trade. Africa had a smaller proportion of world population in 1900 than in 1700. On state formation The trade presented commercial opportunities benefiting: Merchants/Centers of slave commerce/Authorities who taxed the trade Europeans introduced firearms to allied groups Military forces emerge to carve out slave-trading states Transformations in slavery The end of the Trans-Atlantic slave trade does not produce the end of slavery Slavery expands in several parts of west-central Africa in the 19th century Domestic slavery> Plantation slavery Emerging commodity trades use slave labour

14 China, commercial capital and networks of trade Lecture objectives: To consider what forces drove the formation of a global system of trade and exchange? To analyze how European trading powers engaged dominant states from the Indian Ocean to the Eastern Pacific? China at the centre China a major world power in 1500: a population probably over 100 million Land-based imperialism under the Ming dynasty (1368-1644) Influence over a vast ocean realm into the 15th Century The Importance of Silver European expansion for Asian connections? Portuguese expansion into the Indian Ocean de Gama/ Indian Ocean (1497) Portuguese armed trade disrupts existing networks Portuguese seize important locations Engage in spice trade to Europe and carrying trade between China and Japan Challenges in the 17th Century The importance of spices from India and South-East Asia Trading post empire Commercial outposts of a small group of traders and settlers along trade routes. Territory seized for post, trade channelled to posts. Bounded settlements, limited political reach. A Pacific link emerges Magellans circumnavigation (1519-1522)/ Balboa sights Pacific (1513)/ Spanish seize Manila (1571) Global links of trade emerge: Acapulco silver to Manila and traded for silks and spices and other precious cargo. Silver traded to China for gold and goods. Gold traded for goods in Asia and then shipped to Europe. The challenge to Iberian powers Dutch displace Portuguese (except at Goa and Macao) and establish control of spice trade. English encounter the Mughal Empire and local states in India and establish trading posts.

15 Advantages over Iberian powers in ship design and commercial organization: joint stock companies with broad powers. Consequences? Did trading-post imperialism provide a foothold for a broader-based European imperialism? Did the wealth generated in European overseas trade provide the foundations of industrial capitalism?

16 The English East India Company and the transition to formal empire Lecture objectives: To analyze the operations of the English East India Company To consider how political changes in south Asia and in Europe shaped the territorial expansion of Company authority The Companys origins: Charter from Queen Elizabeth I, 1600 Granted exclusive trading rights east from the Cape of Good Hope to the Straits of Magellan: Asia and Pacific A response to Dutch initiatives. Investors include Levant traders. Why an exclusive charter? Whats in it for the merchants and investors? Whats in it for the Crown? Voyages/ Cargoes Duration: there and back, 16 months Heavy loss of life: why? Cargoes: Export: broadcloth (wool), metals, looking glasses, coral, ivory Import: Spices Indian textiles (Bengal, Coromandel Coast, Gujarat) silks (from Iran) coffee (Yemen) Operating at a Distance: The Board of Directors vs. distance Moving from single voyage business to a joint stock organization (shareholders and dividends) The Presidency structure Governor and Council Company vs. Private interests The country trade becomes legitimate, 1674 (almost) Consolidating fortunes: both company and private Geopolitical Change in South Asia and Europe Instabilities in the Mughal realm, c. 1700 The rise of regional authorities French-English rivalry played out on India soil Battle of Plassey (1757): Clive defeats Nawab of Bengal. The company becomes a ruler

17 Connections and disconnections, c. 1750 Learning objectives: To consider some cartographic representations of the world, c 1750 To ask what connections and disconnections had been struck at a global scale from 1450 to 1750 To analyze critically the utility of the term globalization in the context of the world, c. 1750 Show visuals from Guillaume de Lisles Atlas Nouveau, published in 1742 by Covens and Mortier in Amsterdam. de Lisle was the first Royal Geographer of France (Premier Geographe du Roi) Connections? Disconnections? In what ways were different world regions more connected in 1750 than 1450? How significant were new connections? Can the processes of change be usefully described as globalization? Connections: travel/trade Seaborne travel and trade transforms the circulation of people and goods. Land-based travel remains difficult and expensive. Evidence of trade connections: tea and sugar in English countryside diet/ Spanish American silver in China/ Slave societies of the Caribbean clothed with cottons from India. Connections: Communications: Oral culture remains dominant. But confronted increasingly by the power of the press and printed word. Many books in vernacular tongues: systematize national languages. News broad sheets first appear in England in 1702. By 1753, 20,000 daily newspapers being sold. Probably read by more than one person. Imagined Communities? (Benedict Anderson) Disconnections: Connections produce inequalities/ relative disconnections/ and foreclose other kinds of connection. Some parts of the world still largely disconnected from the global web: Australasia and Pacific Islands, parts of African interior, vast sections of North and South America, northern sections of Eurasia. Taking a step back: 18th C globalization? Frederick Cooper, Colonialism in Question (2005): There are two problems with the concept of globalization, first the global, and second the ization. (p. 91) Concept emphasizes a single set of connections and a profound presentism: this is the global age. Coopers critique: Political and economic relations at a global scale were highly uneven, lumpy. Structures and networks penetrate certain places and do certain things with great intensity, but their effects tail off elsewhere. (p. 92)

18 Some kinds of interconnection stand alongside profound disconnections: Creole societies seek to separate politically from imperial powers, but claim status and authority through cultural connections.

19 Enclosures: property, people and power Lecture objectives: To consider how the privatization of common lands and the assault on custom in rural 18th C England commodified land and labour. Definitions: Enclosure: A legal process by which landed interests expropriated formerly common lands and converted them to private lands, fenced and developed for commercial agriculture. Commons: Lands held in common by rural peoples, which provided additional resources to the family economy. Commons might include: open fields, woodlands, or marshes. Forces of Change in the 18th C: New transportation infrastructure: Turnpike roads, canals, and sea-based commerce. Significance: Supports commercial interaction Links rural agriculture to urban demand Creates more standardized prices over distance Agricultural Improvement: A movement amongst the landed classes to improve yields Promotes changes in agricultural techniques: New crop mixtures, systems of rotation and fertilizers Enclosure: Legal process required landowners to apply to Parliament to enclose commons on their land. Uneven application across England: Some areas had long been subject to intensive commercial agriculture. Different effects north and south. Outer regions affected somewhat later: Scotland and the Highland Clearances Class Consequences Landowners: increased rents; increased value of land. Commercial farmers: more land for commercial operations; greater access to pasture; possibility to introduce improvements. Small holders, farm labourers, rural poor: lost access to commons; greater reliance on wages; lost traditional rights; becoming a rural collective of wage earners. Reactions to Enclosure: The rural poor protest:

20 Direct action to break physical enclosures Poaching, illegal subsistence Violence and threat of violence, machine breaking Survival strategies: Wage labour Putting-out system Out-migration Poor laws (Speenhamland, 1795) Subsidizes rural wages to subsistence Therefore also a subsidy to commercial farmers Depends on parish for administration Consequences: Transforms rural life and agricultural mode of production. Makes a more flexible and commercial agricultural sector. Provides impetus to commercial market in land. Creates a rural wage-earning class with few options but to sell labour.

21 Industrialization: Cotton, Lancashire and the World Lecture objectives: To consider the term industrial revolution: its origins and meanings. To analyze the place of cotton in English industrial change. To consider the global linkages shaping English industrialization. Industrial ? Revolution? Origins of the term Blanqui, 1837/ Toynbee, late 19th C Pollard: By general consent, the term has come to be applied to particular changes in industrial structure and technology, together with changes in other aspects of social life. Fores: A myth: virtually useless for serious debate. Competing terms: proto-industrialization, industrious revolutions (De Vries) Why England? The first industrial nation England as the workshop of the world Why Cotton? Important commodity in industrial growth Cotton textiles a primary British export Closely associated with emergence of a factory system and regional growth Cotton helps us to see British industrialization in its global setting The expansion in textiles: Contributing factors: Background of woolen trades and textiles in northern England and Scotland. Rising consumption of Indian textiles: produces a market. Mercantile strategies of the British state: ban imports of Indian cotton goods (1707); overseas markets in the empire. Investment in industrial capacity. Mechanization. An available pool of free labour. Advances in weaving and spinning technologies Mechanization breaks bottle-necks between spinning and weaving. Shift from cottage production to factory system increases output. Water and steam power provide industrial drive. At the center: Manchester A new Hades (de Tocqueville) Sublime as Niagara (Carlyle) The birth place of the English proletariat (Engels) Population change: 1773: 24,000> 1851: 250,000 (a ten-fold increase) By 1850, 2/3rds of Manchester residents over 20yrs born elsewhere.

22 Consequences for workers: Time, work discipline and industrial capitalism (E.P. Thompson) Re-location/ workers housing Age and gender in work Making a working class English textiles and global linkages Cotton, war and imperialism Shocks in the international system reverberate through the commodity chain By late 1850s US supplies 77 % of British raw cotton demand 1860-1864 US Civil War disrupts cotton production in the South Cotton famine leads to search for new cotton production sources: Egypt, India and Brazil

23 Steam power and commodity circulation Lecture objectives: To outline the connections between coal, steam power and railways. To analyze the development of railroad systems and their geographical effects. To consider how railroads structured human-environment relations in new ways. Before railroads: turnpikes and canals Steam engine development Early 18th Century: Newcomen engine Boiler underneath cylinder; steam condensed in cylinder A stationary engine Steam power and mining Steam engines used to pull wagons out of the pits, to ventilate and extract water. Wooden coal wagons run on tracks. Changes to steam engines produce mobility by c.1800 1820s-30s first lines service mining areas for coal export Early railroads: experimental Passenger lines: the shock of the new Space-time compression Phase 1: experimentation and growth (1830-1860) A North Atlantic Hub Connecting urban networks US development railroads Phase 2: a spreading web of steel (1860-1914) Technological diffusion Railways and industrialization Backward linkages Coal Iron, steel Machine industries Railways and imperialism Re-structuring the environment for rail travel An agent and artery of environmental change Refrigeration: another aspect of space-time compression Changing environmental perceptions Eliminating Night and Seasons Participant to Spectator Landscape as panorama Sun Time to Standard Time

24 London time (1847-48) North American standard time (1883) Steam at Sea

25 Speaking in code: expanding communications linkages Lecture objectives: To consider the speed of communication before the electrical telegraph To analyze how telegraph systems emerged and spread internationally. To consider the effects of telegraphs on the distribution and channeling of information. Before the electric telegraph Optical telegraph Semaphore Signal fires Direct contact: The mails, turnpike roads, animals and ships Overseas communication: take the Northwest Pacific Coast, for example 1830: over 6 months London to York Factory (Hudson Bay), overland to Fort Vancouver (Oregon); not much shorter by sea. 1860: 1.5 months primarily by sea: London to Panama (across the isthmus by rail) to San Francisco to Victoria. Why would a more rapid transmission of information be useful? To whom? What is an electric telegraph? Definition: An electrified system of long distance communication Wires carried the current along a network of wooden poles. Provided a signal of on or off Samuel Morse: Early experimentation: What hath God wrought? is the text of the first successful message between Washington DC and Baltimore , 1844 The expansion of the telegraph Expansion on land: Railroad articulation Commercial uses: Prices, Commercial Information Military considerations The Northwest Coast The San Francisco to Siberia Line 1861: the first US transcontinental telegraph 1865: New Westminster to Quesnel (400 miles in 3 months) 1866: Line went north to the Skeena River Stopped because of transatlantic cable success

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Expansion at sea: 1858 First transatlantic cable attempt 1866 first working submarine cable across Atlantic Submarine cables required insulation around the wire and reinforcing wire to protect the cable from currents and other factors. Imperialism: Military and strategic significance Implications for command Intercontinental lines The British line to India The political difficulties of land transmission Under water cable, 1870: control Technology and imperialism Governor General Dalhousie writes in an 1854 letter after the completion of the Calcutta-Bombay telegraph: what a political reinforcement it is! William P. Andrew, Memoir of the Euphrates Valley Route to India (1857): The railway and the telegraph are the pioneers of enlightenment and advancement; it is theirs to span the gulf between barbarism and civilization How did the telegraph change perceptions of space, time and information? Innis, the Bias of Communication McLuhan, the Medium is the Message: We shape tools and then our tools shape us. Modern news; the Hemingway style The internet? Cell phones? Twitter?

27 Demographic Change Learning Objectives: To analyze how demographic patterns changed in industrializing societies. To consider the factors that drove changes. Defining Demographic Transition: A process characterized first by a decline in death rates (leading to a rapid growth in population) and later a fall in birth rates (at which point population growth slows). Demographic transition model Counting People: Some approximations Variations at national, regional and local scales How do we know what we know? World Population Year Asia Eup 1750 1850 500 790 111 209 USSR 35 79 Africa 104 102 Americas 18 59 Oceania 3 2 World 771 1,241

European populations in millions Country 1750 1850 England Germany France 5.7 15 25 16.5 (2.89) 27 (1.8) 35.8 (1.43)

Life expectancy in two countries Country c.1750 England France 37 28

c.1850 40 40

Life expectancy in two cases England, 1541-1871: Survival time ranged from: 41.7 years (in 1581-85) to a low of 27.8 years (in 1561-65). Average for entire period: 35.5 years France, 1740-1790: Survival time ranged between 24 and 28 years (for males), and 26 and 30 years (for females) By the mid-19th Century, survival rates for both men and women

28 reached over 40 years for most western European countries. Thomas Malthus Population growth tends to outstrip growth of food production Populations must suffer periodic mortality increases in the absence of virtuous preventative checks because of declining living standards. Positive checks: Famine, Disease, and War Preventative checks: Abstinence, and Delayed Marriage Assumptions of Malthus model: The dynamics of a primarily agrarian society, in terms of : population characteristics The prevailing food production system, including the crops grown patterns of mobility and migration Change agents: Nuptial (ie marriage) patterns: Some argue that a decrease in the age at marriage allowed for an expansion in the number of births. Mainly applicable to the English case. English womens age at marriage decreased from about 26 (1750) to 23.5 (1850) Earlier marriage= increased possibility of number of births over life cycle= fertility increase Changing infant mortality patterns In pre-industrial regime, families might expect 1/3 to of their children to die in infancy. After 1750, more infants survive. In a cross-section sample of English parishes with records, the crude infant mortality rate decreased 1750: 124 per one thousand 1850: 113 per one thousand Mortality decline Why do people live longer? Food and resources New crops (e.g., potatoes) Decline in frequency and intensity of famines (despite high profile counter-examples, ie Irish famine of 1845-1849) Health and prevention Sanitation Sewerage construction, improvement of water supplies and housing reform London receives water filtration, 1829; Sewerage, 1858. The rise of germ theory

29 Particular organisms cause particular diseases. (Pasteur/Koch 1870s/1880s). Focussed attention on germs themselves and carriers (rats, mosquitoes, etc.) Changes in private behaviour: bathing becomes more frequent Disease prevention Surveillance and control: quarantine Public health authorities promote compulsory mass immunization. Control of plague: vaccination for small pox available at end of 18th C Towards the improvement of urban life? Towards a new demographic regime By end of 19th C: shifts in demographic patterns begin to occur in industrialized countries. Number of children families choose to bear decreases. Cost of child-rearing in industrial societies was very important in this. Mortality rates decline as fertility begins to decrease

30 Urban Growth Lecture Objectives: To consider the scope of urbanization in the nineteenth century world, and some of its driving forces. To examine the expansion of Chicago and consider the importance of urbanhinterland connections. The pre-industrial city: Before the industrial period, cities were not often large. Demographic black holes. In 1750, only a handful of cities around the world had a population of half a million or more: Edo (Tokyo), Paris and London. Industrialization and urbanization: Agricultural change Labour mobility/ migration New energy sources/ mechanization Changing modes of transportation/ communications The sanitary imperative Demographic change Urban growth in the long nineteenth century In 1800,<90 urban centres had 100,000 people. In Europe, the urban population made up only about 9-10 % of the total. By 1914, 8 cities had a population over 2 million: New York, Chicago, Tokyo, Berlin, St Petersburg, London, Paris and Vienna. London outstripped the rest. In the British census of 1801, 850,000 in London. In 1890, 5.5 million. Capital, commercial and industrial cities Capital cities expand in the 19th C with new state functions. Occurs at the same time as consolidation of Eup states: thinning states and thickening cities (Tilly) Commercial cities: Most urban growth in South Asia is focussed on port cities. London grows for many reasons, but one is its centrality in terms of trade. Industrial cities: a new phenomenonoccurring first in England, E North America, NW Europe and a few places in Asia. Cities built around new principles of industrial production; introduce new forms of settlement and density. Chicago: City and hinterland Early 19th C, Chicago a fur trading post. Early significance? Transportation via Lake Michigan Chicago emerges in New Yorks shadow; growth due to its transportation advantages in light of New Yorks urban hierarchy

31 Within emerging railroad system, Chicago is positioned advantageously: between western and northern hinterlands and eastern markets. Urban functions: Chicago emerges: as a major warehousing, trans-shipment and trading center as a center of finance as an industrial city, handling raw commodities and processing them for export, building farm equipment Settling the middle west Prairie hinterland settled with Chicago as an organizing center Agricultural landscape is partitioned : land bounded into property units and fenced into fields: prairie > agricultural production zone Until 1850, wheat shipped in sacks. Each farmers wheat could be identified Industrialization affects the wheat trade 1850s: steam-powered grain elevators transform grain marketing 1850s Chicago Board of Trade measures by weight, not volume; universal grading standards developed 1853-1856 volume of wheat shipped through Chicago triples Wheat trade and finance capital Elevator receipts can be retained, or traded By 1860s: Futures market develops to trade these grain receipts Traders speculate on grain prices distant traders could buy receipts because of trust in the system price information comes quickly because of telegraph

32 A new culture of imperialism? Lecture objectives: To describe the scope of late 19th C British imperialism at a global scale To identify what industrial factors strengthened imperialism To consider the new place of science in imperialism To analyze the culture of imperialism Defining Imperialism At some very basic level, imperialism means thinking about, settling on, controlling land that you do not possess, that is distant, that is lived on and owned by others. For all kinds of reasons it attracts some people and often involves untold misery for others. -(Edward Said, Culture and Imperialism) Imperialism and industrialism Space-time compression A growing weapons gap Artillery and gunboats Some military consequences Of new artillery Beyond Europe: weapons gap Eg, Battle of Obdurman (1898) Within Europe: weapons race Of gunboats Asserting British power abroad Eg, The Gunboat Nemesis (1840-42) Exploring the African interior Imperialism and Science Green imperialism? Coping with the killing tropics Green Inperialism Kew Gardens Starts 1772Sir Joseph Banks 1841- A national institution An international network of collectors A center of calculation (Latour) Tropical disease: malaria Chinchona bark Extraction: Quinine By mid-19th C seeds smuggled and dispersed in imperial plantations around the world

33 Contending discourses of imperialism Scientific racism Proponents conceive a sharp divide between races based on phenotypical features Produces a sense of racial superiority Salvation and civilizing mission Civilizing mission: impose a benevolent order on savagery An expanding missionary impulse: In the last 25 yrs of the 19th C, the Bible is translated into 120 languages

34 The British Raj Lecture objectives: To analyze the expansion of British imperialism in South Asia after 1850 and its causes To consider some of the ideologies and spatial practices deployed by the British to assert their rule The end of company rule Changing aspects of British involvement. The loss of company monopoly The increasing role of the British state The search for unified sovereignty in the early 19th C Territorial expansion The fortunes of war Inheritance practices and lapsed states The pre-text of mis-government Technologies of empire The railroad The telegraph and the submarine cable (1865) Steam powered ocean travel A postal system (penny post, 1854) 1857: watershed The Indian Mutiny/ The First War of Indian Independence Triggers: Animal grease and bullets The military revolt The revolt widens Uncoordinated, stronger in north, a mass movement in Oudh The loyal and the disloyal Broader causes: Cultural policies Land assessments Degradation of landed elites Imperial hierarchy/ lack of consultative structure in governance Outcomes: the Raj 1858 Government of India Act: transfers authority from East India Company to British Crown Establishes Viceroy as supreme authority in India, as well as advisory councils.

35 Elaboration of bureaucracy and technical system of control. Princely states bound to authority of Raj 1/3 of Indians under indirect rule until independence. Outcomes: the military Military policy Scientific racism and military recruitment Re-organizing regional/ethnic armies Increasing British presence Outcomes: settlements Colonial cities: metaphors of the Raj Shaped by fear and racial ideologies Making settler space Civil lines bound Br settlements Cantonments house Br soldiers Grids and modern services typify Br sections of cities In mountainous areas, hill stations established Outcomes: Ordering India Imperial authority studies, orders, and produces Indian human geography The Survey of India est 1878 The Census of India est 1872 Peoples of India (published in 1868) Caste and photography

36 Settlement Colonialism: New Zealand Lecture objectives: To consider the patterns and processes of settler colonialism To consider the environmental transformations that accompanied Anglo-European settlement in New Zealand Aotearoa A zone of Polynesian Colonization, circa 1200 Pre-contact population: 100- 500,000 Denser settlement on the North Island A Terra Incognita of Europe Early encounters Whalers 1790s-1820s massive slaughter of seals and whales Interlopers Lumbering for kauri trees Traders, guns, axes Missionaries (after 1814) Resettlement Pressures on the British govt to extend authority over New Zealand in late 1830s. Colonization, 1840: 2, 000 Pakeha settlers, numbers would increase rapidly over the decades Treaty of Waitangi (1840) Treaty terms The difficulties of interpretation Three broad elements: Ceding Sovereignty Crown holds exclusive right to purchase land; Maori maintain full rights of ownership over lands forests, and fisheries in their possession Maori granted rights and privileges of British subjects Demographic change Disease spreads amongst Maori and population drops. Diseases include: scrofula, tuberculosis, veneral diseases, and measles Maori populations (estimates and census figures) 1840:100-120,000 1857: 56,000 1896: 42,000 1981: 280,000 Demographic change: Pakeha

37 1860 European population surpasses Maori for the first time 1861-64 Gold rush, non-Maori population almost doubles 99,000-171,000 1881: 500,000 Pakeha Environmental change Fauna: One mammal before human colonization: a bat Polynesian islanders bring rats and dogs Maori hunt large land birds; burn and cultivate the land Flora: 89% of NZ native flora is exclusive to it. Joseph Banks could identify only 14 of the first 400 plants he collected in New Zealand Ecological Invasions 30 species of mammals introduced post-European encounter Enter new ecological niches No mammalian predators + food supply in grasslands and forests= animal population explosions Mammals become predators of native birds. At least 45 bird species become extinct Mammals browse selectively and alter native plant communities. Flora spread over the land as well Commercialization The land converted to commodity production Extraction: Gold rushes Lumbering Cultivation and Pastoralism: The wheat trade Sheep Normalization: Landscape Deer: a gentle society of the south Birds: the familiar sounds of home But also fish for game H Guthrie Smith: A virgin countryside cannot be restocked; the vicissitudes of its pioneers cannot be reenacted; its invasion by alien plants, animals and birds cannot be resuscitatedthe words terra incognita have been expunged from the map of little New Zealand

38 Tutira, the Story of a New Zealand Sheep Station, (1921)

39 The Scramble for Africa Lecture objectives To consider the contest for imperial territory in Africa in the late nineteenth century To analyze the factors shaping that contest To consider some of the outcomes of the scramble What precipitated the Scramble? Economic motivations? Raw material supplies palm oil, groundnuts, gold, timber, ivory, cotton Export markets Lenin on Imperialism The importance of surplus capital seeking an outlet The scramble as an outgrowth of European politics Tensions arise in the European state system defeat of France by Germany in the Franco-Prussian war (1870-71), Unification of Germany (1871), Unification of Italy. An amplified nationalism drives imperial adventures Overseas colonies become a marker of national status The Scramble In the early 1880s, a series of imperial claims placed in West and Central Africa by European powers. British imperialists shocked by the entrance of new players (eg, Germany) Developing rules The military risks of European competition in Africa The Berlin conference 1884-1885 Convened to determine rules for the assumption of imperial territories in Africa All major European states represented No Africans present The Berlin rules Claimants must inform other powers to allow for counter-claims Claims must be followed by effective occupation Treaties with African rulers should be judged to be legitimate documents assigning territorial sovereignty Coastal locations could be extended inland Niger and Congo rivers should be free for navigation How to acquire an African empire Treaties signed (sometimes by coercive means) with indigenous authorities Bi-lateral treaties signed in Europe, by which competing European powers recognize one anothers claims Occupation

40 Responding to the scramble Ambivalence Christian-educated elites in West Africa Rulers seeking military alliances against enemies Rulers exposed to the full force of European military power Military defense Most pronounced in Muslim North Africa Most pronounced in Areas of French annexation Consequences: 3 regional patterns West Africa: indigenous farmers grow cash crops for global market (groundnuts, cotton, palm oil, cocoa, etc.), shipped out from ports by European merchants Congo Basin: European concession owning companies establish extractive industries with forced labor East and South Africa: European settlers establish mines and farms, with African labor procured through taxes

41 East Asia, Imperial Encounters and Modernity Lecture objectives: To examine the course of western encroachment on Chinese trade and territory in the nineteenth century To consider the conflicts and consequences of semi-colonialism in China To place the Chinese experience in comparative perspective Limits on European trade in China before the industrial age Main European traders Portuguese and Spanish (16th C) Dutch (17th C) British (18th C) Southern points of contact Canton (Guangzhou) Macao Constraints on traders Place of residence (Guangzhou), duration of visits The missionary presence (Jesuits) British-Chinese trade 18th C: A meeting of monopolies English East India Company and the Co-Hong (official merchant guild of Guangzhou) New patterns of British demand Traditional Chinese exports remain popular (Porcelains, silks) But a consumer revolution opens the way for new products The tea trade British demand for Chinese tea soars in the 18th C Why? What is the significance for China and Britain? 1684: 5 chests 1720: 400,000 lbs 1800: 23,000,000 lbs By 1800 Britain accounted for 1/7th of the demand for tea in China Taxes on tea amounted to 1/10th of Chinese state revenues, c. 1800 The Opium Problem Chinese authorities wished to restrict and control opium trade Costly drain on silver from the economy Costly drain on society from addiction British hold different aims Greater freedom from taxation Greater capacity to move and trade within China

42 Direct diplomatic missions Opium war and consequences The Treaty of Nanjing (1842) Chinese cover Br war costs Co-Hong dismantled Five treaty ports opened to British: Guangzhou, Xiamen, Fuzhou, Ningbo and Shanghai Tariff fixed at 5% Extraterritorality clause British in China subject to British law Most-favoured nation clause British obtain lease on Hong Kong Semi-colonialism? Anglo-French expedition (1860) occupies Beijing Leads to concessions of 14 new treaty ports By end of century, more treaty ports added and areas within ports ceded to foreign powers Western powers enjoy much wider liberties within China A shaken dynasty Domestic dissent de-stabilized Qing dynasty Peasant revolts Religious movements Taiping rebellion (1850-1864) Estimates of 20 million dead Self-strengthening 1860s-1870s prominent officials argue for the adoption of western technologies in industry and military A limited technology transfer begins: China Merchants Steam Navigation Company (1872) Telegraph network (1879); Railroad line linking coal mines and port of Tianjin (1880) Why did industry not develop faster? Resistance within the state Unequal treaties meant that cheap foreign manufactured goods undermined domestic development Widespread opposition to railroads cutting across settled areas Challenges to Qing Power Sino-Japanese war (1894) Japan provokes war over influence in Korea China cedes Liaodong and Taiwan Pays fine

43 Allows Japan to establish factories in China Boxer rebellion: A Xenephobic critique of foreign influence Attacks on missionaries and Christian converts Qing empress dowager Cixi lends support Foreign forces seize Beijing Massive financial penalties imposed

44 A world in Fragments Lecture objectives: To consider the contours of the First World War and modernity To evaluate the wars political geography To examine the different landscapes of war Background pointers Alliances: a complex diplomatic system Britain, France and Russia, (and later) Italy, Japan and the United States Germany, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and the Ottoman Empire Tensions: national rivalries Br and German rivalry Contest for authority in the Balkans Fronts: West, East, South How did warfare reflect and transform modern experience? Space-time compression Communications and war The telegraph and the front The telegraph and the homefront Movement of goods and people Railroads and ocean transport Total war Building state capacity Secular authority versus the Old Order Citizenship and national belonging Mobilization Fighting forces Materials and supplies

45 The geopolitics of the peace To analyze the reconstruction of political geography after the First World War To consider the important elements of the Treaty of Versailles, 1919 Traditional geopolitics: The search for the geographical mainsprings of politics Term coined in 1899 by Swedish geographer Rudolf Kjellen Contemporary geopolitics: the hierarchical character of states within a global order links between the economy and geopolitics the meanings of geopolitical ideas and assumptions Wars end: Towards Versailles The war unwinds: Mutinies and social disorder An Armistice, November 11, 1918 An Accounting The role of the United States Wilson and the Fourteen Points 14 points Principles present undefined possibilities: V. A free, open-minded, and absolutely impartial adjustment of all colonial claims, based upon a strict observance of the principle that in determining all such questions of sovereignty the interests of the populations concerned must have equal weight with the equitable claims of the government whose title is to be determined. Paris 1919 Capital of the world The staging of world politics Representing power Reorganizing political geography What could and could not happen in Paris? Working against the clock? The military and financial settlement Weakening German industry and military capacity German military limited to 100,000 Germany had to hand over merchant fleet to the allies, build ships for the allies for five years, provide coal for France, Belgium and Italy and pay for the military occupation of the Rhineland Reparations:

46 final settlement in 1921: 32 billion marks or about $500 million US dollars. League of Nations Promoted by Wilson in particular Would oversee international disputes Negotiations would be public US Congress failed to approve the League Territorial Outcomes Trimming borders Carving up empires Creating new states Prohibiting states (Austrian-German union) Diplomacy/national lobbies/plebiscites The tangle of language/ethnicity and nationalism The Long view Except for the territorial clauses, nothing was left of the Treaty of Versailles by the mid1930s. - Eric Hobsbawm

47 A Second Industrial Revolution Learning objectives: To analyze the diffusion of industry in the late nineteenth century To consider the new forms of energy and materials applied in industry To consider the social consequences of technological change War and industry The sheer massiveness of the destruction of the First World War was in large part attributable to the power of the new technology: steel, chemicals, high explosives, barbed wire, internal combustion engines, mass productionthe nightmare of 1914-1918 reflects the achievements of the previous decades faithfully. Joel Mokyr Industrialization: A second wave Russia and Japan spurred to organize industry after 1850 A different industrial structure emerges External sources of capital and expertise important New energy converters, sources and networks Electric turbines: coal and hydro Large Technological Systems (Hughes) Generation, Transmission, Distribution Internal combustion engines: petroleum Changes in the production process: factories The American System of Manufacturing: interchangeable parts The role of electricity: drive, lighting, space Towards assembly lines: de-skilling labour?

48 Land and Life under Communism To what extent did the drive for rural collectivization in the USSR in the 1930s demonstrate the assumptions and practices of authoritarian high modernism? High modernism: A strong version of the beliefs in scientific and technical progress that were associated with industrialization in Western Europe and North America from roughly 1830 until World War I. (Scott, Seeing Like a State) High modernists: Assumed the virtues of: continued linear progress, development of scientific and technical knowledge, expansion of production, rational design of the social order, growing satisfaction of human needs, and, not least, an increasing control over nature (including human nature). Authoritarian high modernism *Regimes adopting AHM principles applied the full powers of the state to order nature and society. *In a range of destabilized states in the 20th C, a weakened civil society had difficulty resisting. War communism: war, revolution and civil war The assault on private property: theory and practice First stage: Nationalization under war communism The New Economic Policy Temporary restoration of market economy Small businesses returned Peasants can sell surplus Electrification Communism equals Soviet power plus electrification (Lenin) The first state economic plan Stalins Five-Year Plan A Program of industrialization -Focus on heavy industry not consumer goods -Magnitogorsk

49 Communism in the countryside Ideology: the Peasant Question Peasants: A sack of potatoes? Kulaks? Alternative Visions: Chayonov on the Theory of Peasant Economy Collectivization Mechanization for efficiency and scale Rid the countryside of anti-revolutionary Kulaks Resistance and violence Forms of resistance Procurement: for the cities The 1932 famine Centralized Control and the legibility of collective farms

50 Land and life under capitalism: The Great Depression and the dust bowl The Dust Bowl: What, Where, When? A geographical imaginary One dust bowl or many? A periodic event? A periodic event made worse by agricultural practices and the conditions of settlement? Before the Dust Land settlement policies US Homestead Act (1862; 1909) 160 acres grants conditional on improvement, habitation (5 yrs) and filing fee. 1909: 320 acre grants available An efficient land disposal system but what were the risks in terms of land stewardship? The great plow up Market demand drives expansion Rising grain prices in 1910s Wheat prices increase 2 times over course of WWI In 1919 38% more wheat was grown than annual average form 1909-1913 Mechanization, cropping and tillage (dry-farming) Towards the depression 1920s: A weakening international market in agricultural goods A cost-price squeeze emerges 1929 changes in the economy generally signal problems for agriculture Environmental and social change The storms come Drought conditions arrive with sharp effects starting in 1932. Lower than usual precipitation, high winds, and grass hoppers Coping strategies Family strategies (single men move on), families move on, charity and local community organizations The new deal in agriculture Supply management: pay farmers to take land out of production Varied effects on small and large landholders, as well as tenants

51 Land Management Soil Conservation Water development (irrigation) Resettlement

52 Water, dams and modernity The River Documentary Screening About the Film Written and directed by Pare Lorentz Commissioned by the US governments Farm Security Administration to publicize New Deal Offers a complex rationale for the importance of the Tennessee Valley Authority (1933). Why a river? Mississippi encompassed different regions, overlapping land and water uses The problems of the Mississippi could serve as a metaphor for the nation TVA suggested a hopeful response to the misery of the depression years TVA represented a modern reconstruction of landscape against a wasteful past Questions to consider while watching How does the language of the film help to drive its narrative? Are there villains in the piece? How are people represented? How does the film deal with racial politics? Gender divisions? Class and regional differences? How is the river represented?

53 The Second World War as a Global Event Lecture objectives: To examine the spatial reach of modern warfare To consider the logistical challenges of world war To analyze the reconstruction of civilian life on homefronts The Peace rejected The rise of Nazi Germany Nazi expansion The failures of collective security and appeasement East Asia and a militant Japan An expansionist militarism Japanese incursions in Manchuria (1931), and China (1937) Pan-Asianism 2 circuits of war Circuit 1) Europe/North Africa Nazi Germany and the Battle of Europe Nazi Germany strikes east, June 1941 Circuit 2) East Asia and the Pacific Japanese expansion in Asia Japan attacks US, Dec 1941 Circuits unravel Containing Nazi Germany Containing Japan The scope of global war Spatial scope: Eurocentric war to global war Sites and fronts of conflict expand Technologies of war reframe geopolitics Wars effects felt on distant sources of supply Logistical scope Problems of distance, resources and technology Expansionist battle strategies would be shaped partly by geopolitical considerations New technologies condition the geography of war: tanks, air forces, bombing campaigns, the nuclear bomb The human scope New strategies of war and technologies of warfare affect more civilians

54

Whereas about 9 million died in WWI, between 50 and 70 million died in WWII. Total war engages homefronts

55 War and Peripheries Lecture Objectives: To consider the extent to which world war integrated distant peripheries into modern, industrial societies Peripheries: a descriptive term used to denote areas distant from and dependent on centers of social, economic and political power (core regions) Integrating peripheries: why? To supply food and materials To provide strategic positions To solidify territorial claims and to defend them The location of US troops in 1945: one indicator of strategic peripheries Some immediate consequences: The rapid integration of distant regions into networks of modern industrial transportation and communications The commodification of resources and the integration of markets The imposition of a new political geography Resource peripheries Integrating supply regions: railroad, shipping, defense The transportation problems of war and peripheries War drives development and resource integration Strategic Periphery: Pacific war, Alaskan isolation and air routes Close Canadian-American alliance Permanent Joint Board of Defense (1940) Integrating the periphery Transportation (Alcan highway) Supplies (Canol Pipeline) Military Occupation Integration and its effects Local environmental and social change Integration into the continental resource economy Integration into the social and political geography of the nation state Surveying the new northwest The Arctic Survey and American interests Towards the cold war: a militarized north

56 Wars End Lecture Objectives: To consider the political geography of the world, c. 1945 To explore several dimensions of regional change To analyze the growth of international institutions Framing the post-war: Europe Wartime power politics Yalta and the big three (1945): Dismembering Germany Planning a for a Soviet role against Japan Calculating realms of influence The limits of diplomacy The importance of territorial control: Red Army was on the outskirts of Berlin during conference VE day, May 8, 1945: A re-divided Europe A continent on the move People more than borders moved after WWII: displaced persons and refugees An ethnicization of states Ethnic minorities were repatriated Jews fled west to Germany New regimes displaced ethnic Germans Allied armies sought to cope with the tide of humanity Beyond Europe: Re-inventing states South Asia The consequences of British weakness in India Wartime politics and post-war uncertainties Divisions within East Asia The road to civil war in China US-led Japanese reconstruction Framing the post-war International institutions The American role Bretton Woods (1944) Rules for currency conversion at fixed but adjustable rates International Monetary Fund est. to cover short-term balance-ofpayment problems

57 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank) National controls on capital flows retained The United Nations (1945)