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The Four-stroke-cycle spark-ignition (petrol) engine 1.Induction Stroke: The inlet valve is open. The movement of the piston creates suction pressure that induces (sucks in) fresh charge of air and atomised petrol. 2.Compression stroke: Both the inlet and exhaust valves are closed. The piston moves upward. The charge is progressively compressed to 1/8 to 1/10 of the original volume, increasing the charge pressure and temperature. 3.Power stroke: Both the inlet and the exhaust valves are closed. Just before the piston reaches the TDC during the compression stroke, a spark plug ignites the charge. When the piston reaches the TDC, the charge begins to burn, rapidly raising the pressure and temperature and forcing the piston to move downward in the power stroke. 4.Exhaust Stroke: At the end of the power stroke, the exhaust valve opens. Because the cylinder pressure is much higher than atmospheric (about 4 bars). The remaining burnt gases in the cylinder will be pushed by the movement of the piston upward in the exhaust stroke. The Four-stroke-cycle compression-ignition (diesel) engine

The induction and exhaust strokes are the same. 3. Compression Stroke: Both the inlet and the exhaust valves are closed. The piston moves upward. The charge is progressively compressed to 1/12 to 1/24 of its original volume, raising the pressure to 30-50 bars. 4. Power Stroke: Just before the end of the compression stroke, diesel fuel is injected, vaporised by the heated charge. The mixture is ignited. The burning of the mixture raises the pressure inside the cylinder very rapidly and forces the piston to move away from the cylinder head. Comparison between the spark-ignition and compression-ignition engines Thermal efficiency: Petrol engines can have thermal efficiency ranging between 20% and 30%. Diesel engines have improved efficiencies, between 30% and 40%. Noise: Diesel engines are noisier. The combustion process is quieter in the petrol engine and it runs smoother than the diesel engine. Cost: Due to their heavy construction and injection equipment, diesel engines are more expensive than petrol engines. The two-stroke-cycle petrol engine 1.Induction and exhaust stroke: The piston moves down the cylinder and initially uncover the exhaust port (E) releasing the burnt gases to the atmosphere. Such a movement also compresses the charge in the crankcase. Further movement of the piston uncover the transfer port (T) allowing the compressed mixture to be transferred to the inside of the cylinder pushing out any remaining of the burnt gases.

2.Compression and power stroke: The piston moves in the direction of the cylinder head, sealing off all ports and compressing the mixture. Further movement of the piston increases the volume in the crankcase, creating suction so when the inlet port is uncovered fresh charge is sucked in the crankcase. Just before reaching the TDC, a spark plug ignites the compressed mixture, raising the pressure and temperature of the mixture very rapidly. The burnt gases expand forcing the piston to move down the cylinder. Comparison of the two and four-stroke cycle petrol engines Theoretically, the two-stroke engine should develop twice the power of the four-stroke engine for the same cylinder size but actually the factor is 1.3 because the induction exhaust stroke of the two-stroke engine is less effective. The cooling load is greater for the two-stroke engine and it is thermally less efficient than the four-stroke engine. The two-stroke engine has fewer working parts so it is cheaper to manufacture. Two-stroke cycle diesel engine: The piston moves away from the cylinder head and when it is half way down its power stroke the exhaust valves open allowing the burnt gases to escape through the exhaust valves. When the piston moves down near the end of the power stroke, the inlet ports are uncovered, allowing fresh air from the blower to be admitted. The piston moves upward toward the cylinder head sealing off the inlet ports and helping the fresh air to push any remaining burnt gases through the exhaust valves and the exhaust valves close. The piston continue to move

upward compressing the charge of air and raising the temperature and the pressure to about 30 to 40 bars. Before the piston reaches the TDC fuel is injected into the charge. The heated charge vaporises the fuel and ignites it. The rapidly burning mixture raises the pressure and temperature very rapidly inside the cylinder and forces the piston to move away from the cylinder head in the power stroke. Piston & Connecting-rod assemblies Piston-Ring action: Piston ring can be divided into two groups: i) Compression rings, whose function is to seal the space between the piston and the cylinder wall so that gas can not escape. ii) Oil-control rings, whose main purpose is to control the amount of lubricant passing up to the top of the cylinder walls. Compression-ring action: The piston ring is designed to expand radially outward when fitted in its groove so the ring will tend to spring outwards to apply pressure on the cylinder wall. On the upward compression stroke, the compressed charge will move between the groove and the ring side faces, press the ring against the lower groove of the piston. This provide a very effective compression seal without leakage. On the downward power stroke, piston acceleration is greater than that of the ring so that the upper groove and the ring side faces will be held firmly together to form the seal.

Oil-Control-ring action

During the crankshaft rotation, oil is splashed from the big end bearing on to the cylinder walls. The oil control scraper ring performs two functions: first, it regulates the amount of oil passing to the combustion chamber and secondly, it distributes a film of oil over the cylinder surface to lubricate the cylinder wall and the compression rings. On the pistons upward stroke, the lower face of the ring will be held firmly against the lower groove so that the upper face of the ring will scrape a proportion of the oil. The excess oil will accumulate in the clearance space of the groove until it overflows through the drillings to the sump. On the piston downward movement the ring will snap over to the top of the ring groove. The sharp edge of the working face of the ring will scrape the oil down the cylinder wall. The surplus oil accumulates in the space of the groove and overflows through the drillings. Piston and piston-ring working clearances 1. Piston-ring side clearance: Is the gap between the ring and land side faces. With insufficient clearance, the expansion of the lands will wedge the rings in their grooves and could destroy the oil film and cause overheating. A lose fit will cause the ring to flutter. This hammers the ring against the groove faces, producing rapid groove wear. Ring side clearance can be checked by removing the ring from the piston and rolling it around the outside of the piston in its groove, suitable size of feeler gauge can be slipped between the ring and the groove to check the clearance. Typical minimum ring-side clearances for pistons between 6 and 12 cm in diameters are as follows:

Compression ring: Petrol 0.05 mm, Diesel 0.06 mm Oil control ring: Petrol 0.04 mm, Diesel 0.04 mm Piston-ring joint clearance A clearance must be allowed at the piston-ring joint to compensate for the expansion, which takes place from cold to hot working temperature. Insufficient clearance will cause the ring ends to buckle, expanding the ring against the cylinder wall, affecting the oil film and can cause overheating. Rings with large gaps may cause a loss of compression. Typical minimum ring-joint clearance are as follows: Water-cooled four-stroke engines 0.03 mm per cm diameter. Air-cooled four-stroke engines 0.04 mm per cm diameter. Piston-skirt-to-bore clearance The correct clearance between the skirt and the cylinder wall is necessary to eliminate piston slap when the engine is cold. To check the clearance, insert the feeler blade into the cylinder bore for its full length, then slide the corresponding piston into the bore so that it traps the feeler blade at its largest diameter then hold the piston and pull the feeler. Piston and connecting-rod Gudgeon pin Joints The piston and connecting-rod are coupled together by a Gudgeon pin , which is supported in holes bored in the piston at right angles to the piston axis at about midheight position, the central portion of the Gudgeon pin passes through the connecting-rod small-end eye. To secure the connecting-rod and Gudgeon-pin in position, the connecting-rod small-end faces are polished

with emery cloth and heated evenly with an Oxyaccetylene torch (230 320 C) then the Gudgeon-pin is forced through both the piston and the small-end eye until it is centrally positioned. The small-end then cools and shrinks tight over the pin. Crankshaft Construction Main Journals: are the parallel cylindrical portions, which are supported by the plain bearings. Counterbalance Weights: are attached or integrated with the crankshaft. Their function is to counteract the centrifugal force created by each individual crankpin and its webs. Crank-webs: The cranked arms of the shaft, which provide the throws of the crankshaft are known as crankwebs. Their purpose is to support the big-end crankpin. The flywheel: The flywheel serves three main purposes: i) to support the clutch assembly and to transmit the drive between the crankshaft and the gearbox by means of friction between the friction face of the flywheel and the clutch driven-plate. ii) To provide a carrier wheel for the ring gear when the engine to be started. iii) To store energy on the power stroke so that it will be given out on the three idle strokes, this being necessary to reduce crankshaft speed fluctuation throughout each cycle of operation. Valve Timing Diagrams and Camshaft Drives: The inlet valve opens before TDC for the following reasons: 1.To prevent excessive cam-follower shock loads and spring vibration, the inlet valve is opened very gradually.

2.Due to its inertia, it takes some time for the charge to enter the cylinder after the inlet valve opens. 3.To make use of the partial depression in the combustion chamber caused by the outgoing gases. The inlet valve closes after BDC To maximize the air charge entering the cylinder and make use of the inertia of the incoming fresh charge particularly at medium to high engine speed. At low speed, the inertia is insufficient to oppose the upward moving piston so that a portion of the newly arrived charge will actually be pushed back and return to the induction manifold.

Exhaust valve opens before BDC for the following reasons: 1) Toward the end of the power stroke the burning process slows down because the burnt gases suffocate and prevent the mixing and burning of the unburnt charge so that the loss of power is small. 2) To take advantage of the kinetic and pressure energy of the exhaust gases to clear the cylinder before the end of the power stroke. Exhaust valve closes after TDC To take advantage of the exhaust gases. The momentum of the outgoing exhaust gases leave a vacuum that induces fresh charge to enter the cylinder and simultaneously push any remaining exhaust gas out.

Crankshaft to camshaft drive With the four-stroke cycle engine, the cycle of events of the inlet and exhaust valve opening and closing is performed by the camshaft in one revolution, but the piston strokes- induction, compression, power, and exhaust are completed in two crankshaft revolutions. Consequently; for the camshaft timing cycle to be in phase with the crankshaft angular movement, the camshaft has to turn at half crankshaft speed, that is a 2:1 speed ratio. The crankshaft to camshaft drive may be transmitted by three methods: chain, belt, or gear. Chain drives are more expensive than belts. They are noisy, but they last longer. Timing gear trains are particularly suitable for medium to large diesel engine applications where reliability is essential. In all cases the pulley-wheel of the camshaft has twice the teeth of the crankshaft pulley-wheel. Setting belt tension Adjustment of the belt can be carried out by loosening the jockey idler locknut and pushing it against the smooth face of the belt with a moderate thumb pressure at the midpoint between the crankshaft and camshaft pulleys. Poppet-valve operating mechanism A poppet valve resembles a cylindrical stem with an enlarged mushroom disk at one end. The stem of the valve is situated in a guide hole. When the valve stem is moved in and out, the valve disk head will open and close.

Camshaft with push-rod

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and rockers

That valve-mechanism is made up from the following components: a) a camshaft b) a cam follower c)a push rod d) a rocker arm e) a rocker shaft f) a return spring g) a poppet-valve Cooling Systems Engine heat distribution and the necessity for a cooling system The energy released from the combustion of fuel in the cylinder is dissipated in roughly three ways: 35-45% heat energy doing useful work on the piston. 30-40% heat expelled with the exhaust gases 22-28% heat carried away by heat transference The importance of the cooling systems If the cooling was not effective, the heat-flow rate through the metal will be low and the temperature of the inner surfaces will rise to a point where the heat destroys the lubricating properties of the oil film on the cylinder walls. Simultaneously, thermal stresses will be established, which may distort the cylinders. Methods of Heat Transfer 1) By conduction through solids or stagnant fluids
K Qcond = A ( T1 T2 )

where A is the area of heat transfer, K is the thermal conductivity of the material, is the thickness of the material, and T1-T2 is the temperature difference. 2) By convection through the movement of fluids
Qconv = Ah(T1 T2 )

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where A is the area of heat transfer, h is the heat transfer coefficient, and T1-T2 is the temperature difference. 3) By radiation (no medium is required)
Qrad = A1 F12 1 (T14 T24 )

where A1 is the surface area of the body emitting the radiation, T1 is the temperature of the body emitting the radiation, T2 is the temperature of the body receiving the radiation, 1 is the emissivity of the body emitting the radiation, F1-2 is the view factor from body 1 to body 2, and is Steven Boltezmann constant = 5,67 10-8 W/m2 K4 Types of cooling systems
i)

ii)

Direct air-cooling, where cool circulating air is made to come in contact with the exposed and enlarged external surfaces of the cylinder and head and thereby dissipate their heat to the surrounding air. Indirect cooling (liquid cooling), where a liquid coolant is used to transmit the heat from the cylinder and head to the radiator. Movement of air through the radiator then extracts and dissipates the unwanted heat to the surroundings.

Direct air-cooling system If direct air-cooling is to be used, the surface area of the outside walls of both the cylinder and the head

must somehow be enlarged to anything from five to fifteen times the plain cylindrical surface area. Fins are used to increase the external surface area of the cylinder. The length of these fins will be greatest where the cylinder is hottest-near the cylinder head and will progressively reduce toward the cooleroperating crankcase.

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Description of an air-cooled system Air-cooled engines mounted on a motorcycle frame are usually exposed to the surrounding atmosphere. They rely on the natural air stream caused by the forward movement to circulate air around the cylinders, head, and crankcase. For multi-cylinder engines, controlled air-cooling is usually achieved by incorporating a fan, which blows fresh air over the external finned surfaces of the engine. To improve the effectiveness of the blown air, the sides of the finned cylinders and heads are enclosed by a sheet metal. The shape of the sheet metal guides the forced convection current around all the cylinders and provide a direct exit after the air has extracted and absorbed the heat from the engine. Heat transfer in an indirect liquid-cooled engine system The heat released from the burning of the atomised mixture of air and fuel is transferred in all directions to the metal walls of the combustion chambers, cylinders, and pistons by direct radiation, by convection currents and then by conduction through a stagnant boundary layer of gas and a film of oil to the metal walls.

Due the difference in temperature between the inner and outer cylinder walls, heat will be conducted through the metals. It is then further conducted through a thin stagnant boundary layer of liquid to the coolant liquid in the passages around the cylinders. Thermo-syphon liquid-cooling system As the liquid around the cylinders receives heat it expands and becomes less dense relative to liquid which is not in contact with the hot metal walls; therefore, the lighter hot coolant will rise to the highest point of the system, which is the header tank over the radiator tubes. At the same time, the liquid in the radiator will be cooled by the air stream passing around the tubes and over the fins, consequently the density of the liquid in the tubes will increase so that the cooled liquid sinks to the bottom and replace the hot and less dense liquid in contact with the cylinder walls; thus, a convection current flows between the engine and the radiator and so forms an enclosed circulating loop known as the thermo-syphon cooling system.

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Description of a liquid-cooled system Radiator: the radiator transfers the heat absorbed by the liquid coolant to the surrounding air. The radiator consists of columns of spaced-out copper or aluminiumalloy tubes held in position at the ends by an upper header tank and a bottom tank. Attached to these tubes are layers of horizontal copper or aluminium sheets known as fins. These sheets improve the effectiveness of air-convection heat dissipation. The upper header tank

distributes the collected hot liquid evenly among the vertical tubes. The bottom tank collects the cooled liquid coolant from each tube and passes it to the engines coolant passages surrounding the cylinders. Flexible hosing: The flexible hoses are necessary to absorb the relative movement between the radiator, which is bolted to the body and the suspended engine, which tends to vibrate while operating. Coolant Jackets: are passages for the coolant water around the combustion chamber walls, the inlet and exhaust ports and their valve seats, and the spark-plug or injector holes. Fan: to provide a continuous air stream over the tubes and fins to dissipate the heat being circulated by the coolant. Limitations of the thermo-syphon cooling system a) Under heavy load condition, the rate of the coolant circulating cannot match (much less) the rate of heat transfer from the cylinder walls to the coolant. b) Without coolant-circulation control, the engine tends to be overcooled and very rarely reaches the optimum operating temperature. Forced-convection pump circulation A centrifugal pump is incorporated to speed up the rate of coolant circulating and heat removal. With the forced circulation of coolant, the coolant is uniformly distributed among all cylinders. This helps to prevent overheating of individual cylinders. Increasing the coolant flow rate enables the radiator to work more efficiently so it is reduced in size.

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The cooling process is controlled by placing a thermostat valve in series with the top hose. When the engine is cold, the valve is closed-this prevents the bulk of the liquid circulating . Once normal working conditions are reached, the thermostat automatically senses the desired working temperature and opens the valve and bulk circulation begins. To prevent excessive pressure build up in the engine coolant passages, a bypass pipe circulate about one tenth of the liquid directly between the cylinder-head thermostat housing and the inlet side of the pump. Comparison of air-and liquid-cooling systems Air-cooling: Advantages: a) Air-cooled engines operate extremely well in both hot and cold climates b) Air-cooled engines rapidly reach their working temperature from cold c)Air-cooled engines are lighter than similar-sized liquid-cooled engines d) Air-cooled engines have no coolant leakage or freezing problems. Disadvantages a) A relatively large amount of power is required to drive the cooling fan b) The large quantities of intake air passing into the cooling system can make the engine noisy c)The cooling fins can under certain conditions vibrate and amplify noise d) The pitch between cylinder centers has to be greater than in liquid-cooled engines to permit the fins to extend between cylinders

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e) Each cylinder has to be individually cast whereas a rigid monoblock construction is used by liquid-cooled engines

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Liquid Cooling Advantages a) Liquid-cooled engines provide greater temperature-uniformity around the cylinders compared with air-cooled engines. b) The combined power consumption of the coolant pump and the fan in liquid-cooled units is far less than that of the sir-cooled engine fan. c)The liquid-cooled engine cylinders are situated closer together, providing a very rigid and compact unit compared with the air-cooled engine. d) Mechanical noise from the engine is damped by both the coolant and the jackets. Disadvantages a) Liquid-coolant joints are subject to leakage b) Precautions must be taken to prevent coolant freezing c)Liquid-cooled units take longer to warm up d) The coolant passages tend to scale, and the hoses and radiator tubes deteriorate with time. Thermostat-controlled cooling systems The function of the thermostat is to regulate heat dissipation by controlling the rate of coolant flow through the radiator. Engines are designed to operate most efficiently over a narrow temperature range (usually

between 80 and 100 C for coolant) because of the following reasons: a) The working clearances of rubbing components such as piston rings and cylinder, the journals and bearings, the valves and guides, etc. will not be ideal until the engine is fully warmed up, so that both noise and wear will be accelerated during the heating-up period. b) Large amount of condensed corrosive vapour in the cold crankcase may contaminate the lubricating system c)An improved uniform air-fuel mixture will be formed at the optimum working temperature, so more useful work will be done during combustion d) The optimum operating temperature will maintain the lubricating oil at the correct viscosity, so that the rubbing parts have the best lubricant protection. Operation of the bellows-type thermostat The thermostat is usually situated in front of the cylinder head in a coolant-outlet housing, therefore, all the coolant flowing through the top hose from the engine to the radiator has to pass through the thermostat-valve assembly. The thermostat consists of a brass flexible bellows partially filled with a volatile fluid such as alcohol. A poppet valve is attached to one end, and the other end is mounted in a brass frame, which fits into the coolant-passage housing. While the engine is cold, the bellows lobes will contract together so that the poppet valve is closed and only small amount of coolant circulate in the engine through a bypass passage. Once the engine has warmed up, the heat will act on the bellows and the liquid will rapidly expand, pushing apart

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the individual bellows lobes so that the valve will begin to open. If the temperature continues to rise, the substance inside will change its state into gas, and further expansion of the bellows will result until the valve is fully open.

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Engine Lubrication System A portion of power is called friction power is lost to overcome the resistance to relative motion of all the moving parts of the engine. This includes the friction between the piston rings, piston skirt, and cylinder wall; friction in the big end, crankshaft, and camshaft bearings. Friction in the valve mechanism, friction in the gears, or pulleys and belts, which drive the camshaft and engine accessories. The Importance of Lubrication The lubricant and lubricating system perform the following functions: 1.Reduce the friction resistance of the engine to a minimum to ensure maximum mechanical efficiency. 2.Protect the engine against wear. 3.Contribute to cooling the piston and regions of the engine where friction work is dissipated. 4.Remove all impurities from lubricated regions. 5.Hold gas and oil leakage at an acceptable minimum level. Lubricating System

In that system, oil is circulated through the system using an oil-pump, which may be driven directly from the crankshaft or indirectly from the camshaft or any auxiliary shaft. When the camshaft rotates, oil from the sump is drawn through the submerged strainer and pick-up pipe to the pump. The oil is then compressed and discharged through a drilling to the lubrication system. Control of the oil pressure is achieved by a pressurerelief valve situated on the output side of the pump. If the oil pressure becomes too high, the relief valve will open, bleeding any surplus oil back to the sump. From the oil-pump, all the oil flows through drillings in the crankcase to a cylindrical filter unit. The oil circulate around the filter bowl, forces its way through the center and flows out to the main oil gallery (the main oil passage). By various branch cross-drillings in the crankcase, oil is distributed to the crankshaft mainjournal bearings and to the camshaft bearing. Main-and big-end bearing lubrication: Continuous oil feed to the big-end bearings from the oil grooves is provided by diagonal drillings in the crankshaft. Cylinder and Piston Lubrication One of the common methods for cylinder and piston lubrication is connecting-rod big-end radial-hole oil spray. In this method, through a small radial drilling in each connecting rod, a spray of oil is directed to the thrust side of the cylinder bore once every revolution. Valve rocker-arm-mechanism lubrication

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An oil drilling from one of the camshaft bearings supplies oil to the tappet-follower gallery drillings. Oil from this gallery flows through the hollow push-rod and to the rocker-arm. Petrol-engine Carburetion Fuel System Layout of a Petrol-engine Fuel System: A fuel system fro a carburetted engine includes: a) A fuel tank, which stores the petrol and has a fuel-gauge sensor unit incorporated to indicate the amount of petrol in the tank. b) A feed pump, which transfers the petrol from the tank to the carburettor. c)A feed filter, which prevents any contaminating particles from passing into the carburettor. d) An air-silencer and filter unit, which quietens the fast-moving air intake and prevents dirt from entering the engine. e) A carburettor, which merges air and petrol together so that they mixed in the correct proportions and the petrol is finely atomised. f) An induction manifold, which collects the prepared air-fuel mixture and distributes it to the various inlet ports in the cylinder head. g) Supply and return pipelines. Carburetion Air and petrol mixture strengths: According to chemical combination requirements, the air-fuel ratio, which gives complete combustion is 15. Rich mixtures, which contain more than the optimum amount of petrol, produce more power than optimum. The maximum power of the engine

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can be obtained when the mixture is about 15-20% rich (air-fuel ratio between 12 and 13). Prolonged running with very rich mixture will result in forming a black powder on the cylinder walls and on the spark-plugs. Weak mixture, which contain less than the optimum amount of petrol produce less power than optimum, but fuel economy is much better than for other conditions. For minimum fuel consumption, the mixture can be 15 to 20% weak (air fuel ratio is 17 to 18). Burning is generally slow and requires sufficient ignition timing advance to compensate for this prolonged combustion period. Single-jet Fixed-choke Carburettor It is a vertical tube that is connected to a petrol reservoir that has a float and a valve assembly as shown in the figure. Dividing the two sides of the U-tube carburettor at the base of the bent is a restriction orifice known as the petrol jet, its function being to meter the amount of petrol flowing into the venturi. As the air flow through the restriction its velocity increases and its pressure decreases so that the atmospheric pressure acts on the petrol in the float chamber, pushing the petrol into the venture. As the petrol enters the venturi it will immediately torn apart into various sizes of droplets so that the petrol will be finely distributed throughout the air stream as it is drawn into the engine cylinders. To control the speed and load output of the engine, a butterfly throttle valve is placed on the downstream side of the venturi. The spindle of the valve is connected to the accelerator pedal by a cable or levers. The quantity of charge entering the engine can be varied by the degree of depression acting at the discharge nozzle, which depends on the angular position of the throttle spindle opening the butterfly valve. The function of the

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float chamber is to provide a reservoir of petrol of constant depth under steady-running conditions. Limitation of the Single-Jet Carburettor The quantity of air consumed by an engine in unit time is directly proportional to the engine speed, but due to the inertia of liquid flow, the rate at which petrol is drawn out of the discharge nozzle into the air stream increases almost with the square of the engine speed. Therefore, if the engine is designed to have the correct air-fuel ratio at the design speed (2000 rpm in the figure), the engine will have weak mixtures at speeds lower than the design speed so that the limitation of the single-jet carburettor is that it does not meet the engine requirement for the correct air-fuel ratio at speeds that are lower or higher than the design speed. Capacity-well Compensation During initial acceleration when the throttle is open, the pressure drop created at the venturi will draw fuel from the discharge nozzle at a far greater rate than can be supplied by the petrol jet alone, but the capacity well will provide the extra fuel demanded for rich acceleration mixture. The level of fuel in the capacity well will drop quickly until the well is emptied. Petrol droplets suspended in air will be formed at the base of the well and will prevent any more enriching of the mixture. Any further increase in speed will only result in a constant amount of fuel flow from the compensation petrol jet since the air passage bleed reduces some of the depression created across the petrol jet. The limitation of the capacity-well compensation is that it is not flexible enough under varying operating condition.

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Air-bleed and capacity-

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well compensation

This system uses one fuel jet and suspension tube situated in the center of the capacity well. Under no-load conditions, the fuel level in the well will be the same as in the float chamber. With initial throttle opening, the fuel in the well will be consumed; thus, providing an enriched mixture. As the level of fuel in the well drops, it exposes the uppermost of the suspension tube holes. This allows more air to enter the well and mix with the fuel, thus preventing any tendency towards undue richness. As the petrol level in the well drops further it allow more air bleed correcting the composition of the mixture.

Coil Ignition System The combustible mixture of air and petrol is ignited by a spark occurring between two electrodes in the combustion chamber at the end of the compression stroke just before TDC. It is the function of the ignition system to periodically provide a spark of sufficient heat intensity to ignite the mixture at the predetermined position in the engines cycle under all speed and load conditions. The voltage necessary to ionise the air between the electrodes so that the spark will bridge the air gap can vary from as little as 500 volts when the gap is small and the engine is hot, to a value of 20,000 volts when the

spark-plug electrodes are badly eroded, the air gap is large and the engine is cold. Ignition-system equipment Battery: This is usually a 6 or 12-volt battery. It stores chemical energy, which can be converted into electrical energy to supply the flow of current through the ignition system when required. Ignition switch: This switch is connected in series in the coil primary-winding circuit. It enables the driver to switch on or off the electrical supply of the battery as required to operate the ignition system. Ignition coil: It is an electrical step-up transformer, which converts the relatively low battery voltage to a highintensity voltage. If the ignition switch is closed and the contact-breaker points are together, current will flow from the battery through the primary winding and the earth-return path back to the battery so that a magnetic field is produced, which interlinks both the primary and secondary winding. When the rotating distributor cam opens the contact points, the primary current falls very rapidly to zero and the magnetic field also decays rapidly. Self-induction acts so as to oppose these changes and a very large back e.m.f. is induced in the primary winding. By transformer step-up action, an even larger e.m.f. (200 times larger) is thus induced in the secondary winding and is fed to the spark-plug gap to produce a spark. Capacitor: The capacitor is connected in parallel with the contact-breaker points, the surge current in the primary winding when the contacts open finds an easier path through the capacitor so that the primary-current flow stops instantly and the back e.m.f. that is induced in the primary winding will be much greater. When the contacts close again, the charge stored in the capacitor charges

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into the primary winding and so helps to accelerate the build-up of a new magnetic field in the primary winding. Spark-plug: It periodically provides a spark of sufficient heat intensity to ignite the charge mixture.

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