Plant hormones and growth regulators Definition - a plant hormone is an organic compound synthesised in one part of the plant

and translocated to another part, where in very low concentrations it causes a physiological response. Plant hormones can promote or inhibit growth and differentiation. 100 years ago the idea that special chemicals were involved was projected 1930s IAA (indole acetic acid) identified 1950s Giberellins discovered Not only does each hormone affect different parts of a plant but the response also depends on the plant itself the species the developmental stage the hormone concentration interactions with other hormones Differential sensitivity was an idea put forward in the 1980s to go with the idea of different concentration effects. This is probably related to changes in receptor proteins on cell membranes
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Action of plant hormones Target cells recognise and bind the hormone on receptor proteins in the plasma membrane. This causes a metabolic change that leads to amplification of the signal. Hormones control gene activity. Although the evidence is available, just how this happens is unknown. Auxins The word was first used in 1926 to describe a substance causing curvature in oat coleoptiles (now known to be IAA) Synthetic auxins are described as growth regulators because they are not synthesised by the plant. Transport is not through the xylem and phloem but through the parenchyma cells next to the vascular bundles. It is very slow but faster than diffusion and it requires energy. Auxin transport is Polar i.e. always away from the shoot tip whatever the orientation of the stem. Auxins increase growth in all areas of the plant by making cell walls softer (wall loosening) so that they stretch as water is absorbed.

The growth of the ovary into a fruit is another auxincontrolled effect. The fruit is stimulated to tremendous growth through an increase in cell size and cell numbers. There are increased levels of auxin at this time and exogenous auxins can enhance the process even sometimes substituting for normal pollination. One particular auxin can be daubed onto a tomato ovary to produce a fairly typical red and tasty fruit but one lacking in viable seeds. Auxins can be used as herbicides. A synthetic version is cheap to produce and very effective. It is used to kill dicot weeds in a monocot crop. Why this happens is unknown. Auxins are also involved in Phototropism Geotropism Delayed abscission of leaves, flowers and fruits

Gibberellins They are named after a fungus from which it was first extracted. Growth of this fungus on rice crops observed the rice to grow excessively tall and die due to weakness of the stems. This was observed in Japan in 1930s.

By 1990s 84 gibberellins had been identified - as many as 20 can occur on a single plant although not all are active. E.g. gibberellic acid GA3 1. GAs cause stem elongation. Very little GA is produced in dwarf plants. They are synthesised in germinating seeds and young leaves. Transport is not polar and occurs through either xylem or phloem. 2. GAs overcome dormancy in seeds and buds. May substitute for light or chilling in some seeds. 3. Some GAs may enhance flowering in some plants 4. In some species GAs cause Parthenocarpic (seedless fruit to develop. 5. May be involved in activity of cambium in woody plants. 6. Delay senescence (ageing) in leaves and citrus fruits 7. It seems that a plant could control internal processes by metabolising an active gibberellin into an inactive one or vice versa.

Mode of action 1. 2. 3. Stimulate cell division in shoot apex Promote cell growth by increasing hydrolysis of starch Increase cell wall plasticity (i.e. loosen cell walls)

Commercial uses of GAs There are problems with costs, but used in California for Seedless grape production and to change the shape of grape bunches so that the fruit is separated to reduce fungal attack. Used to promote seed production in certain species. Used by some breweries to increase rate of malting by enhancing starch digestion. Used in Hawaii to increase sugar cane growth and yields.

Cytokinins Cytokinins were discovered when trying to culture haploid embryos in 1940s. This was never achieved, but it was found possible to promote growth of very young normal embryos through the use of coconut milk. Kinetin was so called because of its great activity in inducing cell division (cytokinesis) in tobacco pith when applied together with auxin. Researchers were then able to look for similar materials and developing cereal grains proved to rich sources of activity. A substance was isolated from maize (Zea mays) and called Zeatin.

Action of cytokinins 1. 2. 3. 4. Promote CELL DIVISION particularly in the cambium Levels are the highest in developing seeds, fruits, young leaves and root tips. Synthesis is thought to be in the root tips. Transported through the xylem. If pith from dicotyledon stems is grown on agar with IAA and nutrients it developed into CALLUS i.e. unspecified cells. Addition of cytokinin to form a high ratio with auxin leads to production of shoots and a low ratio with auxin leads to production of roots.

Therefore they are seen to have an effect in combination with auxins. Cytokinins are also thought to have an antisencescence (anti-aging) effect. They are very valuable to the tobacco industry. When tobacco leaves were cut they had a very short life span. The incorporation of kinetin into the nutrient solution bathing the petiole of the leaves caused a prolonged retention of the green colour of the leaves. Application of cytokinin to leaves on intact plants has also been shown to retard their senescence. They also prolong the life of fresh leaf crops such as cabbage and lettuce by delaying senescence, as well as keeping flowers fresh.

Ethylene This is a volatile gas, which stimulates fruit ripening and also causes senescence and abscission of leaves. It is usually synthesised in meristems and leads to increased synthesis of enzymes. One effect of a gas leak in town gas was seen to be that trees lost their leaves. Tissues do show a marked rise in ethylene production prior to shedding and this provides some further evidence to link ethylene gas with abscission. The use of silver nitrate inhibits ethylene and this seems to delay the senescence of leaves, flowers and fruits. Silver nitrate is used by horticulturalists to enhance the vase life of flowers such as carnations. It was known by the ancient Chinese that picked fruits ripened faster in a room with a burning fire. In Puerto Rico bonfires are built by pineapples and in Philippines by Mangoes which help to promote flowering but only in these and related species. The bonfire smoke contains ethylene. Ethylene ripens tomatoes. Bananas and oranges are not transported together from Jamaica, to stop bananas ripening oranges by producing ethylene.

Ethylene also promotes female flower production in cucumbers. They are the only ones to produce viable cucumbers. Abscisic acid 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Causes closure of stomata Leads to embryo formation in seeds Prevents premature germination or growth in buds and seeds i.e. promotes dormancy Growth inhibitor Once thought to be the promoter of the abscission layer but more recent evidence questions this role.

It is synthesised in chloroplasts. Transport is through the xylem, phloem and vascular bundle parenchyma but not polar. Mode of action 1. It has effects on plasma membranes of roots and changes ion balance. 2. It inhibits protein synthesis. 3. It causes specific activation and deactivation of certain genes this is subject to much current research.