1|Page

ON OIL-DRILLING - A BRIEF OVERVIEW A drill is a mining construction achieved through complex crust works , the primary elements of which are: well spring, bottom hole and well wall, during the actual drilling phase (dislocation and evacuation to the surface of the resulteddrill cuttings) followed, at certain depths, by consolidation through casing and grouting operations. Dislocation at the bottom hole is performed using drill bits or core cutter heads, and their connection with the surface drilling unit is realised through the drilling column. Cleaning of the bottom hole and drill cuttings evacuation is achieved through the circulation of the drilling fluid (mud). The drilling rig allows, through the component subsets, a safe achievement of the necessary operations for execution of a drill. Rocks forming the earth's crust are natural mono or poliminerale aggregates distinguished by chemical composition, mineralogy, structure and texture. There are three main types of rocks in relation to their formation: igneous rocks (through cooling of magma), sedimentary rocks - through transport and deposition of detritus, derived from destruction of magmatic and metamorphic rocks; metamorphic rocks result of the first two categories, under the action of temperature and / or high pressure (simultaneous or separate action). Dislocation process (cutting, crushing, erosion) of rocks (with drill bits or core cutter heads) and its efficiency is directly related to the physico-mechanic features of the rocks which will determine the type of the rock discolation tools, the system of drilling, and the necessary technical procedures for an optimum drilling process. From the drilling point of view (dislocation efficiency), there are only few physical features that are of interest. Porosity describes the volume of spaces, in the interior of an unoccupied solid substance rock. Porosity influences the mechanical features of the rock. Because of the prezence of the pores, the resistance and toughness to the penetration are diminished. The elasticity of the minerals and the presence of gas in the pores, offer the rock an increased compressibility. Under the pressure of a solid body, until a certain value of the pressure force, the rock will distort without achieving dislocation. Permeability the capacity of a porous body of allowing, through its connective pores, the circulation of a fluid. Because of the permeability of the rock, a drilling penetration occurs at the bottomhole, or, especialy, a filtration on a certain depth. This causes a decreasement, or even balancing, of the pressure difference between the region from above and the regiom from underneath the bottomhole, creating favourable conditions for dislocation of rocks by the active elements of the work instruments. Heterogeneity is one of the specific features of the rocks. These are heterogeneous bodies, from various points of view: mechanical constituion, porosity, permeability.

2|Page

The tension in the rock, when penetrated by a solid body, is extremely complex. It is determined by the mechanical features of the rock and its composition. The tension state is more uniform if the dimension of the component grains or cristals are much smaller then the dimensions of the contact surfaces between the penetration elements and the rock. As the pressure of the dislocation instrument increases, the tension keeps growing in the rock and finaly achieves a limit-pressure. Further increasing of the stress is followed (depending on the type of rock) by dislocation or plastic deformation. Because of the complexity of the tension estate and the strong connection between the features, aspect and intensity of the pressure, it is hard to make a clear separation between the elastic deformation to plastic deformation and finally, to dislocation. The penetration depth of the dislocation intrument does not depend on its pressure on the rock only. A substantial influence is expressed by the period of time and the speed of the application on the formation. At a certain pressure, and at a certain given striking speed, achiving a maximum depth is only possible through if the critical value is passed. The higher the striking speed, the higher the value of the critical period. If the period passes time passes the critic one, increasing the striking speed leads to increasing the penetration depth. The main factors in the drill that influence the mechanical features of the rocks and over the efficiency of the dislocation are temperature, pressure and fluid. During the dislocation, as a consequence of the circulation of the drilling fluid, the temperatura of the rock at the bottomhole decreases, nevertheless keeping high values. When the temperature increases, the domain of the plastic deformation also increases, which results in decreasing the rezistance. The influence of the temperature proved to be very important in various cases, having a more pronounced effect of the rezistance decreasement, then the resitance increasement produced by the exterior pressure. Considering a certain depth in the rock, we may consider the following pressures: lateral thrust, rock pressure, and formation pressure. Rock pressure is given by the weight of the rocks from above Lateral thrust is produced by the rock pressure Formation pressure is the pressure of the drilling fluid in the rock pores

3|Page

The influence of the fluid in the drill A special influence over the resistance of the rocks is expressed by the exterior environment, which is the fluid in the pores. In most of the cases, it is the water coming from the drilling fluid. It gets in through the communicant pores and especially through weaker connections (crocks, contact spots of the grains and other imperfections). Under the pressure of the active elements of the dislocation instruments, in the bottomhole rock form a crushed zone characterized by a network of small cracks. On the walls of the small cracks and of the existent pores, the substance is immediately absorbed, penetrating to the molecule-sized spots. When the stress estate comes to an end, the substance prevents the recovery of the cracks, and creates, in some time, pressure on the walls of the pores and cracks, causing the extension of the existing cracks and appearance of new ones. As it was shown, dislocation of a rock through drilling occurs, mainly, through penetration under pressure of the active elements of the dislocation instruments, in different shapes and sizes. For the majority of the instruments, penetration is accompanied by shifting. As a consequence of penetration and shifting, because of the normal strrvhing tensions, breakings occur, and because of the tangential tensions shears, slippings and detachments. Generally, the tensions mentioned above appear simultaneous, and the stress estate in the rock becomes very complex. Rock dislocation instruments Depending on their destination, dislocation instruments used in drilling are classified in three main categories: Drilling bits, used for dislocation of the rock on the entire circular surface of the bottomhole. Core barrel used for extracting samples of the rock, usually, dislocation is performed on a circular surface. Special destination dislocation instruments used for special operations performed in the well; in some cases, accidentally, they are used as drill bits. Drilling bits Drag bits which can have two, three or more blades Two way lead, also called fishtail bit. They are bits with thin blades or with thick blades. The main differences between these two bits are the thickness of the blades and the position of the flushing holes.

4|Page

The three-wing bits are used in harder work conditions with more pressure on the bit. It has a good centering, therefore less possibilities of deviations, a better functioning and a good evacuation of the drill cuttings, thanks to the three flushing holes positioned close to the bottomhole. The parts close of the two way leads and three wing bits that come in contact with the rock are reinforced with tough material and by welding. Diamond bit Diamond bits are used for dislocation of a large range of rocks, starting with less harder rocks, finishing with extra-hard ones. They are very efficient for abrasive rocks, especially in depth, and characterized by great resistance to wear, so through large periods of time of use. The active elements of those bits are industrial diamonds. The diamonds are distributed on the contact surfaces of the bit with the rock so that when the bit rotates, it will cover the bottomhole and calibrate the well wall. Depending on the nature of the rocks, the diamonds have different sizes: big diamonds are used for subtirirocks and small diamonds for tough rocks. Rolling cutter bits The active elements of the rolling cutter bit are generally called bit teeth, positioned on rolling bodies, called cutter. Rolling of the cutters on the bottomhole is the result of the bit rolling around its axis. The contact of the bit teeth with the rock is periodic and time limited. Because of the pressure on the bit, the bit teeth strike and penetrate the rock at the bottomhole. The penetration depth and the impression shape depend on a range of factors: the nature of the rocks and the pressure estate at the bottomhole, bottomhole cleaning degree, shape and dimension of the bit teeth, strike strength and speed, the pressure on the bit teeth and movements performed by the bit teeth on the period of time of contact with the rock. Simple penetration of the bit teeth determines what we call crushing. The dislocation capacity of a rolling cutter bit increases directly proportional with the increase in the active elements slipping degree. But as the slipping degree increases, the friction between the bit and the rock also amplifies. As a consequence, the wear speed increases. Trough construction, a well established report between the rolling and slipping movements is established, for different types of rolling cutter bits, depending on the rock nature. Core barrel

5|Page

During drilling of a well, especially exploration and coring wells, for the study of the penetrated rocks, (mineralogical and Petrographiccomposition, the nature of the useful substances contained), and the conditions in which these rocks are (stratigraphic and tectonic), samples are taken. These samples are called boring kernel, the operation is called mechanical coring, and instruments are called core barrel. The boring kernels are taken from the bottomhole or from the well wall, if the stratum has already been crossed. Core barrels for bottomhole coring Depending on their main construction, we have: single core barrel and double core barrel . regradless of their type, core barrels have the actual rock dislocatin instrument at the inferior position at their inferior part, called core cutter head. Single core barrels are used only in case of consolidated rocks. They are formed by a coring tube, which has, at its superior part, a fillet, for the drilling column, and at the inferior part, the core cutter head. In the interior of the coring tube, there is a core breaker. The circulation of the drilling fluid is performed through the annulus between the assay and the coring tube, the boring kernel having smaller diameter then the interior diameter of the tube. Double core barre have the largest utilisation in the drilling industry of petroleum and gas.

6|Page

Drill column The connection between the dislocation instrument and the surface installation is performed through the drilling column. At the fluid circulation drilling, the component elements of the drilling fluid are tubular-shaped, and the assembly is made through threads. In different phases of work, the drilling column fulfills the following functions: Transmits the rotation movement from the surface to the bit Assures the axis thrust on the bit for dislocation of the rock, pressure given by a part of the weight. Builds up an interior drain and a second exterior drain (with the well wall) through which clean drilling fluid passes along to the bottomhole and then, charged with detritus, to the surface. Represents the introduction and extraction assembly of the bits and other special instruments. Assures the accomplishment of other auxiliary operations: mechanical coring, stratum sampling. The drilling column is formed by heavy-weight drill pipes, drilling rods, and griefstems, connected by fillets and cross-overs. Heavy-weight drill pipes are located at the inferior part of the drilling column, and the griefstems, at the superior side. Between them, there are drilling rods, which represent the longest part of the drilling column. At the inferior end of the heavy-weight drilling pipes, the bit or the submersible engine is assembled and at the superior side of the griefstem, the swivel casing. Heavy weight drill pipe Heavy-weight drill pipes have the role to perform, through their own weight, the pressure of the axis thrust on the bit, and to mantain, through rigidity, the direction of the drillhole, preventing deviation. Another element that contributes to mantaining the direction of the drillholeis the fact that the game between the well wall and the exterior of the heavyweight drill pipes is reduced, compared to the one with the drilled rod. In normal conditions, the thrust on the bit is realized with 70% - 80% of the weight of the heavy-weight drill pipes but there are cases where the axis thrust is reduced (20% - 30% of the weight) because of the crossing of geologic formations with strong deviation tendencies.

7|Page

Drilling rods are 9 meters long pipes, which have a dowel at one end, and a sleeve at the other, both threaded, in order to be connected in between. It is composed out of three elements: the actual drilling rod (the body or the pipe of the rod) and two welded details at its ends the dowel and the sleeve the tool joint. Griefstem The griefstem is the connection between the drilling column, the drilling rod and the swivel casing. It receives the rotation movement from the turn table, through adapter pieces. To be able to receive the movement, in longitudinal displacement condition, the griefstem has shaped body to the exterior. Therefore, in cross section, the griefstem is square, hexagon or octagon shaped. The most popular are the square and hexagon shaped grieftems. During the work process, the drilling column is exposed to various kids of stress. The nature of the stress is determined by the drilling method, the conditions of the drill, and the operation that is to be made. The conditions may be static or dynamic, may act separately or simulaneous, and may act in dependency or in interdependence. Manipulating the drilling column During the manouvering operations ( introduction and extraction), specific tools are used at the surface, which form the so called small equipment. The links are used in pairs and connect the crane hook with the hoist. They are made up of alloy steel cylinder bars, with end with slings. The hoist sustains the drilling column. It is suspended in links. The drill pipe slips assure the sustainment of the drilling column at the well spring, through floats, that hold on to the exterior of the rods. For small weights, small drill pipe slips are used, and for bigger weights, longer ones. Apart from the manually maneuvered drill pipe slips, there are also mechanic ones, and pneumatically-actioned ones. The rotary slide tongs are used for screwing and unscrewing the rods from the drill pipe threads. The maneuvering is done manually but there are also mechanic ones, to which shifting to and from the well spring are realized through electric engine or pneumatic. The maneuvering operations of the drilling column requires increased carefulness of the performer personnel, as well as taking appropriate measures for avoiding accidents: wearing the protection helmet, using the special gloves. A continuous instruction of the staff must be assured, and a careful supervision of the process, insisting the interdiction of activity on the radius of action of moving equipments. Similar measures are imposed when operations of introducing the casing column are performed.

8|Page

Drilling fluids The system through which circulation of the drilling column is performed is divided in two subsystems: exterior and interior. The exterior part of the circulation system contains the elements located at the surface: ambar, pumps, pulsation dampeners, main piping systems, stand pipe, boring hose, swivel casing, and cleaning equipment on the way out of the wellbore. Then, the interior part of the system is formed out of the elements that are in the drill: drilling column, bit and the annulus (between the drilling column and the well wall). The normal circuit of the drilling fluid is: ambar pump main piping system stand pipe boring hose swivel casing drilling column bit annulus cleaning equipment ambar. The circulation that is performed as presented above is called straight circulation. Sometimes, in case of special operations, the circulation is performed in reverse; it is pumped through the annulus and raises through the drilling column, realizing the so called inversed circulation. At the beginning, the role of the fluid in drilling was summed up to removing the drill cuttings from the bottomhole, and evacuating it to the surface. Later, the role of the fluid amplified and demands regarding its features increased. During the drilling process, the drilling fluid fulfills the following: Transports the drill cuttings to the surface, cleaning the bottomhole. Maintains the drill cuttings in suspension when the circulation is stopped. Creates counter-pressure on the well wall, which stops crumbling of the instable rocks or deformation of the plastic ones, and does not allow in the wellbore fluids from the crossed geologic formations Clogs the well wall with a thin layer of solid particles, which isolate the drill from the crossed rocks. Cools and lubricates the bit and the drilling column Contributes at the dislocation of the thin rocks Reduces resistance of rocks, through moistening and absorption Apart from these functions, the drilling fluids must also correspond to a range of requirements: It must not affect the affect the rocks that it crosses It must be resistant to pressures and temperatures in the drill

9|Page

Must not cause erosion and corrosion of the drilling equipment Must not be toxic or represent a element of fire risk Must be easy to prepare and to maintain Must be cheap and need preparation materials and substances that are easy to achieve Not all drilling fluids fulfill the requirements presented above. Good quality drilling muds and some special composition fluids have larger use, corresponding to most of the drilling conditions imposed for a efficient drilling. Water was the first drilling fluid. Having a low viscosity, and relatively reduced density, water constitutes, when it can be used, a good drilling fluid. Thanks to certain advantages possibility of work with higher flow capacity, efficient cleaning of the bottomhole and the affected parts of the bit, and the fast balancing of the differential pressures from the bottomhole a high-speed drilling is performed. Still, usage of water is limited. The drilling fluids that are mostly used are drilling muds. Depending on their composition, they can be divided in: Natural or untreated muds Treated muds, obtained by adding certain substances to natural ones, in order to decrease their physic features. Special muds, where the main role is no longer held by the mixture of water clay but by the substances added in order to reduce viscosity and filtration. Emulsion muds, obtained through natural mud, treated or special, mixed with petroleum , in the presence of a emulsifier; the emulsion is oil mixed with water type. Drilling mud is a mixture formed by two phases: liquid water, and solid clay. Actually, drilling mud is not a simple mixture but a disperse, heterogeneous system. Its continuous phase is water, where we can find dissolved reagents, for control of viscosity, and the discontinuous phase is made out of clays, hardening materials, drill cuttings particles. Because the solid particles have very different sizes, the drilling muds are polydispers systems. Natural muds, built up during drilling, out of water and dislocated clay, or prepared at the surface using moistening and dispersible clays, is the simplest of the drilling muds Treated muds are obtained through adding relatively small quantities of reagents for decreasing viscosity and filtration, as well as hardening materials, to the natural muds. Because the base of the treated muds is clay, they remain sensitive to contaminate agents.

10 | P a g e

Special muds are used in case of intense and long term contamination, where treated muds no longer correspond. As it was mentioned, to these muds, the main role in maintaining stability and control of the features is no longer held by the water clay system, but of the fluidizing reagents Emulsion muds are natural muds, treated or special, mixed with petroleum or gas. They are relatively resistant to the action of temperature, and can stand strong loads of clay. Because of the reduced filtration, they are recommended to crossing clay deposits, which increase their volume to the contact with water, and productive firmations. Thanks to its moistening features, emulsion muds facilitate rolling of the drilling column and of the bit, and increase their durability. Petroleum products based fluids In the category of petroleum products based fluids, we may include two main types: oil-based mud and inverse -emulsion fluids. Oil based mud, or black fluid, are so called because of their dark brown colour. Some of them do not contain water, others have a relatively small content of water. The continuous phase of the fluid is petroleum, and the colloid, which gives it structural features and clogging, is the naturally oxidated asphalt. If water is included in the composition, emulsifiers are required. Inverse emulsion fluids are disperse systems, to which continuous phase is petroleum, and the dispersed phase is water. So, they are water in - oil type of emulsions. The structural features are given by a special clay, that disperse the petroleum product. Petroleum products based fluids own specific features: reduced filtration, inertness to contaminants, resistance to high temperatures, stability, and great moistening capacity. Therefore, they are recommended for crossing clay deposits, productive formations, preventing and solving technic accidents of gripping the drilling column. But, these fluids also present disadvantages, that limit their usage: high costs, fire risk, difficult maintenance, hard work conditions for the operating staff. It must be mentioned that lack of filtration causes the differential pressure to un-balance at the bottomhole, which slows down the speed of the drilling. Liquid gas mixture drilling fluid Some advantages presented by the gas fluids, in harsh drilling conditions, may be obtained by using liquid gas mixture drilling fluids. Among these, we may mention the aerated drilling fluid, which is obtained by injecting the drilling mud, through a mixing installation, of a volume of compressed air. Trough settling the air-mud report, we have a large range of densities for the drilling fluid. Forming of air-mud emulsions is not wanted, the presence of the air in the pump making it worsens the functioning of the pumps.

11 | P a g e

A special interest for drilling are the stable foams, which are obtained through injecting of a quantity of mud or water in the air course sent from the compressor to the drill., in the presence of a certain foam agent. In case of injecting a small quantity of water with a foam agent, we may obtain fog in the high speed air course. Features of the drilling fluids The quality of the drilling fluid, which makes it suitable for utilization, is given by certain features. Because the fluids that are most used in drilling are muds, we will refer especialy to the features of these fluids. The density of the drilling fluid conditions the appearance of the counter-pressure over the crossed geologic formations. The value of the density is determined by the pressure of the fluids in the rocks and by the condition of the stability of the rocks in the well wall. Rheology of mud characterizes its behavior when flowing. Viscosity and shear stress of the drilling fluid contribute to evacuating the drill cuttings, preventing it from sedimentation in the wellbore, and clogging the well wall. A too viscous fluid with high shear stress does not assure a good cleaning of the bottomhole but it leads to difficulties in separation of the drill cuttings and the gases and reduces the work capacity of the hydraulic submersible engine. Generally, for drilling, fluids with very low viscosity and shear pressure are recommended. Thixotrophy is a specific feature of the drilling mud. Left in repose, it forms a structure, with solid aspect. Through shaking, it becomes fluid again. The transformation phenomena soil geland gel soil can be repeated on a infinity of times. As a consequence of thixotrophy, when the circulation is interrupted, the drill cuttings are trapped in the formed structure and they no longer deposit, avoiding disadvatages that may appear because of the sedimentation. Filtration and clogging capacity. Through filtration we understand the penetration of the crossed rocks by a part of the liquid phase, usually water, contained by the drilling fluid, because of a pressure difference between the drill and the crossed layers. Simultaneously,, the deposit of particles in the superficial pores of the rocks and on the well wall takes place, which is called clogging. On the well wall, a crust of solid particles is formed, also called mud cake. Cleaning the drilling fluids The drilling fluid gets out of the drill loaded with rock fragments resulted from dislocation. At the surface, it must be cleaned. Separation is usually made, mechanically, with special equipment: oscillating screen, hydrocyclone, centrifuging. Oscillating screens are the devices that are most used for cleaning of drilling fluids. The base of the separation is a metallic sieve, that is in a continuous and complex oscillating move,

12 | P a g e

Hydrocycloneare the most effective separation devices for solid particles, specially those which are not normally separated with the oscillating screen. The introduction of the fluid is done using a centrifugal pump. The dimensions of the separated solid particles and, implicitly, the quantity of fluid evacuated, depend on a range of elements: the shape and dimension of the hydrocyclon, the rheologic properties of the fluid, speed when entering the hydrocyclon. When crossing geologic formation containing gases under pressure, they penetrate the drilling fluid, affecting its density and rheologic properties. In order to bring the fluid to its initial features, a degassing is necessary. When preparing especially treating drilling fluids, high or lower-level toxicity substances are used. In such cases, proper protection measures must be taken: work using special gloves, glasses, wearing special costumes. Casing and grouting of the drill Opening up the crust causes changes in the balance of the crossed rocks. Depending on the nature and state of the rocks, the nature of the fluid which is in the pores of the rocks and the nature of the fluid in the drill, on the diameter and position of the wellbore and other elements, after a certain time from the crossing, problems appear, especially rock crumblings. Such problems cause great difficulties in normal development of the drilling process. It can lead, in extreme cases, to impossibility of continuing the work, so to abandoning the drill. Supposing that there are no problems caused by rocks in the exploitation process, the extraction process is not possible without difficulties. The drill has crossed formations that contain different fluids which penetrate the well and negatively influence the extraction process. Also, there may be registered lose of exploitation fluids in layers with high permeability and low pressure. In order to assure a canal for the exploitation, without any unwanted penetration, the wellbore is consolidated, and the crossed layers are isolated in between. Only the layers which will be exploited may be related to the interior of the drill. Consolidation is performed through casing, and isolation, through grouting. Casing is performed through introducing, in the wellbore, a column made of steel pipes, which provides with an inside lining of the well wall. The casing column will prevent rock crumblings and will assure a tight and durable canal, through which the extraction process will develop. Simultaneously, the blow-out preventer control unit is assembled, during the drilling process. Grouting is performed through introducing, between the well wall and the casing column, a fluid mixture which left in repose, becomes solid. The mixture we mentioned is called slurry cement. After the slurry cement hardens, it prevents communication between layers behind the casing column. Also, it does not allow contact between the drilling fluid and the rocks in the well wall, which may be harmful to the stability of the rocks, and protects the casing column from the corrosive action of fluids contained in layers.

13 | P a g e

Construction of drills A drill was defined as a mining construction. The programme which is respected when a drill is realized is called construction programme. It only contains equipments that are used or stay in the drill during the normal drilling process The construction program includes The casing columns number, introduction depth, types and diameters. This part of the programme is called casing programme The drill bits types and diameters The drilling columns types and diameters of the component elements Grouting of the columns intervals and applied methods Construction of any drill through which fluids will be extracted must assure the following: Safety and reliability, regarding the drill as a technical construction Possibility of leading the drilling until it reaches the projected depth Applying the designed exploitation methods and systems, as well as rational use of natural energy for transportation of the extracted fluids to the surface Possibility of passing to exploitation of new productive spheres when exploiting the initial ones is no longer rational Performing different operations in the drill during the drilling process, as well as during the exploitation process , especially repairing operations.

14 | P a g e

General casing scheme of drills As part of the actual drilling method, casing has a discontinuous character. The well is drilled at a certain interval, then a casing column is introduced, then it is grouted. Then the drilling is continued, with a smaller diameter bit, then the second drilling column is introduced and grouted, and so on. The number of the casing columns, the introduction depth and their diameter are determined by the specific conditions of each drill. The conductor pipe before starting the actual drilling, a square section is dug (manually or mechanically)in the wellbore, with a transversal dimension of 0.8 1.0 meters and 3 6 meters depth. In this opening, a tube is introduced, with a 500 to 700 millimeters diameter. The superior end of the tube is raised with 1.5 2.0 meters over the soil level. On field, the tube is concreted. Laterally, on its superior part, there is the exit derivation of the drilling fluid. For the wells that are drilled in swampy locations or with unconsolidated superior formations, instead of a simple tube, a conductor pipe is introduced, tens or hundred meters deep. In such cases, digging the respective hole is done by drilling with the drill installation. The conductor pipe fulfills a complex role: Assures the initial vertical direction of the wellbore Assures raising of the drilling fluid to the penstock Consolidates the superior part of the wellbore where weaker rocks are located, which crumbling risk Protects the superior aquifer layers, by preventing their contamination with drilling fluid If the rocks from the surface are consolidated, and there is no risk of drilling fluid loss, the conductor pipe is no longer introduced. Surface casing - has the following functions: Consolidates the wellbore from its surface to a small depth, where there are weak rocks containing different fluids; Protects industrial or clean water sources from contamination with drilling fluid or other fluids resulted from crossed layers; Represents the secure element to which the blow-out preventer unit is mounted It is the support that holds the other columns and a part of the extraction equipment

15 | P a g e

The introduction depth depends on the nature of the rocks from the surface, on the existence of a high permeability layer of rocks where fluid loss may occur, on the nature and pressure of the fluids from the crossed layers, on the final depth of the drill, and other factors. In normal conditions, the introduction depth varies from 50 to 300 meters. There are cases where surface casing is introduced to 900 1000 meters (cases of deep or very deep drills). The diameter of the surface casing depends on the depth of the drill, on the number of the columns, and on the purpose of the drilling. This diameter usually varies from 273,05 to 425,45 millimeters. Extracting column-fulfills the following: Forms a safe circulating drain of the exploited fluids from the productive layer level to the surface, and, in the same time, protects the drill equipment; Allows a selective exploitation of the layers, the interior of the column being connected to the layers that are of interest only, through perforations; Assures realization of operations regarding improvement of the drilling process, such as introduction of fluids in the layer in order to increase the final recovery factor, interventions, and so on. The introduction depth of the extracting column usually corresponds with the depth of the drill. Its diameter is conditioned by flow capacity of the fluids which will be extracted and on the extraction methods that are used. It is usually between 114,3 and 268,27 millimeters. In very rare cases, larger or diameter extracting columns the ones mentioned are used. Protective casing is a column that is introduced in the drill, between the surface casing and the extracting column. It is not used at all drills but, in the same time, there are drills that have two, three or even four protective casings. In the majority of the cases, they are imposed by geologic conditions. The casing programme stipulates that protective casings should only be used if, through technic measures, the normal development of the drilling process is not possible. There are also situations that impose using of protecting casing: Existence of layers with high permeability, cracked rocks, which will cause drilling fluid loss The presence of low stability rocks, which may crumble, or other rocks with strong plasticity, which cause the reduction of the wellbore diameter , especially in contact with drilling fluid Existence of layers containing abnormal pressure fluids, especially in the case of succession of such layers

16 | P a g e

The introduction depth of the protective casing depends on the causes that imposed their usage in the programme. Usually, it has to cover the whole area that caused its utilisation. For the majority of the cases, the diameter of the protective casing is 177,80 339,72 millimeters. For all drills, the extracting column and the first protective casing are complete. Their superior ends reach the surface. For some drills, the extracting column or one of the protective casings only cover some parts of the wellbore. The superior end of this kind of column is in the interior of the drill, 50 150 meters above the base of the previous column. Such column is called liner or lost pipe. In some cases, the column that is previous to the lost pipe is not safe, weakened by the mechanic action produced by the drilling column, or affected by the corrosive action of the drilling fluid. In such situations, after introducing and grouting the lost pipe, another pipe, with the same diameter or larger, is added. The inferior end is assembled to the superior end of the liner. The graphic representation of a drills columns containing the introduction depths and diameters is called casing scheme.

17 | P a g e

Establishment of the construction programme A drill must correspond to the requirements of the drilling process, as well as requirements of the following stage: production and exploitation. In order to establish a programme, as rational as possible, a complex range of elements must be considered geological, technical, and economic. For establishment of construction programme for a drill, the following datas must be known: the purpose of the drill, (geological search or exploitation), depth of the drilling, drilling method which will be used, the geological formations which will be crossed and possible difficulties created by these formations, as well as the conditions in which the extraction of the fluids from the drill will be performed. For the beginning, the necessary columns and their introduction depth must be established, mentioning the grouting interval for each of these columns. The bit types are chosen, depending on the rocks which are to be crossed, and if necessary, types of engines that will be used. After these elements are established, we move on to determination of the diameters of the columns, the diameter of the bits, the elements of the drilling column. The diameters of the bit and columns are established in a unique process, called the down up method. We start with the diameter of the extracting column and finish with the diameter of the bits for drilling of the introduction interval of the surface casing. The diameter of the extraction column depends on the specific conditions of the exploitation (diameter of the extracting column conditions the diameter of the bits and other columns, so the cost of the drilling its advancing speed, the quantity of the drilling fluid, and so on). The extraction column must have the smallest diameter to which a normal drilling is performed, and a future extraction with no difficulties, in whatever applied exploitation method. For the entire process of establishing bits and columns diameter, the values resulted in the calculations must be the same with the existent values in standards. After the establishment if the diameters, drilling columns must be chosen (diameters of the component elements). In order to assure the verticality of the wellbore, heavy weight drill pipes with the maximum diameter are chosen. Still, it is necessary that a sufficient shell side is left, so that the drilling fluid can circulate easily. The type and diameter of the drilling rod are chosen on minimum energy consumption and assuring fast maneuvering criteria.

18 | P a g e

A casing column is made out of steel tubes, called drive pipes, assembled to the ends. The exterior diameter of the drive pipes varies between 114.3milimeters and 508.0 millimeters. For each exterior diameter there one to eight thickness models of the walls; the wall thickness varies between 5.21 and 16.13 millimeters. Column accessories In order to introduce the column without any difficulties and realize a good grouting, a casing column is provided with certain accessories. The foot stone is at the inferior end of the column and, through its round shape, it assures passing of the end of the column without damaging the well wall The buffer collar is located at 10 to 30 meters above the foot stone, in the interior of a connection sleeve of the drive pipes. It is made out of an easy to mill material. The role of the buffer collar is to stop the cementing plug from going above the foot stone , so that, that part of the cement grout mixed with the drilling is retained. It is known that cement grout mixed with drilling fluid does not assure a homogeneous and resistant stone. The centralisers are mounted on the exterior of the casing column, on its inferior part or even on the entire zone that is to be grouted. The purpose of the centralisers is to maintain the column concentric with the wellbore, assuring a uniform and continuous grouting ring around the column.

19 | P a g e

Execution of the casing operation Before the introduction of a casing column, preparing operations are made, to the surface and to the wellbore. The drilling rig is prepared through: control of the derrick drilling and its substructure, including remediation of eventual deficiencies, replacement of the steel line and mounting it in the system which is correspondent to the work during casing, control and deficiency remediation of the pumps from the installations and the air compressor, providing the blow-out preventer unit with floats that correspond to the diameter of the columns. The tools used for the casing are brought to the drill and prepared drill pipe slips, hoists, rotary slide tongs, and so on. Spare parts are assured. The jacketed barrels are brought to the drill, and arranged on wall thickness and material quality criteria, considering the order of their introduction in the drill, as well. Testing of the drive pipes to interior pressure with water is recommended, using a specific equipment. This operation is indicated for all extracting columns and the other columns for very deep drills. The column accessories (buffer collar, foot stone, centralizer) are controlled and assembled to the respective drive pipes. In order to assure an introduction of the column with no difficulties, and for obtaining an efficient grouting, preparing works are made in the wellbore. As it follows, using a corresponding diameter drill bit, the well bore is checked through its entire depth, insistently correcting the areas which may cause problems. After the bit has reached the bottomhole, a longer circulation of the fluid is performed; the entire volume of the fluid is circulated, while appliance of the corresponding treatment is made. For actual operation of casing, which consists in introducing the column in the drill, a set of basic rules must be complied: Respecting the order in which the drive pipes must be introduced Control of the interior of each drive pipe using a casing tester Careful maneuvering of the drive pipes Realisation of welding of the casing joints, for the first drive pipes, in order to prevent unscrewing caused by the turning of the drilling column, when the work continues; also, for the casing joints, special blocking substances can be used as well.

20 | P a g e

Careful realization of the screwing of each part of the drive pipe Control of the temperature in the drill pipe thread area; abnormal increasing of the temperature may be a sign of an non-corresponding unscrewing Launch of the columns in the drill, with speed that will avoid producing of additional, dangerous pressure, which could cause layer cracks, followed by circulation loss. Performing of circulations at certain introduction intervals, in order to evacuate the mud cake from the drill, and the rock particles Maneuvering of the casing column at the end of the operation, in order to remove the clogging; simultaneously, the circulation of the drilling fluid is performed.

21 | P a g e

Grouting equipment For performing of the grouting operation, specific equipment is used. Generally, such equipment is met at other methods of column grouting, as well Squeeze aggregate. Pumping of the cement slurry and drilling fluid for repressing the cement slurry behind the casing column is performed using special equipment, called squeeze aggregates. For grouting a casing column, one or more aggregates are used, depending on given conditions. Placing of the aggregate must be realised in such a manner, that the transport of the cement doesnt have to be done on distance, and to assure performing any maneuver, without any difficulties, or any other specific operation that may intervene during grouting. The main characteristic of a squeeze aggregate is the maximum pressure of the main pump, at its slowest, and to the smallest diameter of the pistons. Plug container. It is mounted at the superior end of the column, it represents the connection between the column and the slurry pipeline from the squeeze aggregates, allows launching of the cementing plugs and assures closing of the column at the end of the grouting operation. Cementing plug. Separation of the cement slurry from the drilling fluid in the interior of the column is assured by the cementing plugs, made out of tire or plastic material, and provided with metallic reinforcement. After hardening of the grout, they are destroyed by milling. For a usual grouting, two cementing plus are used, in the majority of the cases, tire ones. The first cementing plug is perforated, and provided with a separation membrane. When the cementing plug reaches the buffer collar, because of the pressure increase, the membrane is breaks and the cement slurry passes under it.

22 | P a g e

Grouting methods Grouting performed to the drills are organized in three categories: primary, secondary and special. Primary grouting are characteristic to drilling, and the other two types of grouting are met in following phases of the drilling. The secondary grouting completes the primary grouting remedies inefficient ones, and special groutings assures blocking of some layers through introducing cement slurry behind the column, or blocking of a part of a wellbore, through formation of a cementing plug. Primary grouting are casing columns groutings, which are made immediately after the casing operation. They consist in placing the cement slurry in a certain area of the annulus, between the column and the well wall.

23 | P a g e

Necesary documentation for drilling Conceiving the architecture of a drilling is performed under the responsibility of the Drilling Department, in several phases, synthesized through preparation of a general documentation, which consists in: Drilling proposal (geological report) Implantation report Drilling and casing programme The geological report (the main document that once prepared, offers the possibility of drilling), defines: location of the drill, (emplacement of the drilling, coordinates, altitude, or water depth for off-shore drilling), the objective (type, importance, estimated depth) and contains the basic data: geological, geophysical, correlation drills, difficulties and imposed restrictions. This document varies pending on the purpose of the drilling (exploration or developing drilling) and must highlight the decisions taken during the drilling, whether it was taken in consideration that certain operations take important periods of time (preparing the field and choosing the drilling device). It also initiates economical studies for confirmation of feasibility of the project and sends forth a pozitive or negative technical economical decision regarding the execution of the drilling. Implantation report is prepared after the drilling decision was taken. This is tasks notebook type of document and sums up the set of operations to be executed and allows the determination of the operating budget. It is the result and the establishment moment of the colaboration profile of different departments taking part (exploration, deposits, drilling, production).

The main chapters of the implementation report are: Geographical situation Drilling purpose and petroleun objectives (mentioning the basic datas or the objectives defined in the drilling proposal, and have been modified or completed during the study) Geological and geophysical framework Drilling and casing programme Mechanical coring and diferent drilling tests Production tests programme and study of the samples taken

24 | P a g e

All these report allows defining the necesary personnel, materials, services and consumables. Drilling and casing programme, regarding the geological section given, is the essential document that allows predictions about how and by which means will the drill be realised. Predictions regarding the estimation of the drilling price are generally recorded in additional programmes of the implantation report: the drill bits programme (the bores defined in the drilling programme corelate with the type of bits through driling studies of the formations which will be passed through; through the analise of the former performances, the speed of the progress can be deduced, quality, and number of bits); the drilling fluids programme defines the types and features of the fluids used on drilling phase , their possible transformation. The fluid programme depends on geology, architecture, objectives of the drilling, measurements and essential operations at the productive formation level. The volume and flow capacity are determined, which will guide the choosing of the drilling device and the calculation of the consums in products (mud, water, petroleum). The ecological restriction becomes a determinant for choosing the type of mud. To sum up, it all starts with the drilling proposal. Once it is approved, a general sketch of the drilling is made the implementation report for a general plan. Then, the drilling and casing programme, which are all about planning the particular elements of the drilling.

Once these documents are drawn up, the actual drilling may begin. The drill is dug in, using various dislocation instruments: drilling bits and drilling rods. For the dislocation of the rocks, certain types of drilling bits are suitable for certain types of rocks, determined by their features; the bits are chosen based on the previously made studies (coring), using the core barrel. The drill column makes the connection between the bits and the drilling rig, from which the whole drilling is controlled. While the drill is dug in, remains of the dislocated rocks (detritus) are evacuated to the surface through the circulation of the drilling fluids; drilling fluids also have the important role of clogging the well wall, avoiding their dismantling to the interior. Once the digging is over, in order to assure a canal necessary to exploitation, without penetration of other fluids then the desired ones, the wellbore is cased, isolating the crossed layers one from another. The interior of the drill is only connected to the layers that will be exploited. Casing is performed by introducing steel pipes in the drill, called casing columns, which will line the drill in, avoiding crumbling of the well walls. After the casing is over, the casing columns are grouted in place. The following part does not belong to the drilling domain: after the grouting, the wellbore is perforated, allowing the petroleum to get into the wellbore, from where it is extracted. Drilling went from practice to science fast. For a long period of time, progress obtained in drilling activity was based exclusively on the practic experience of the operators, on assumptions more than certainty. The increasing demands for hydrocarbon caused a considerable and fast growth of the drilling volume, as well as the depth of the drills, executed in more and more complex conditions. Due to the importance of petroleum nowadays, drilling is and will be a very important branch of the industry.

25 | P a g e