THE POLITICS OF FASHION

A Case Study Submitted to

THE FACULTY OF THE PUBLIC COMMUNICATION GRADUATE PROGRAM SCHOOL OF COMMUNICATION AMERICAN UNIVERSITY WASHINGTON, D.C.

In Candidacy for the Degree of Master of Arts

By Natalie M. Peart

May 2009

1 Abstract

Title: The Politics of Fashion During the 2008 Presidential election, the appearance and fashions worn by Cindy McCain, Michelle Obama, Sarah Palin and Hillary Clinton were under constant scrutiny. This study sought to determine why society places so much emphasis on fashion and appearance, especially that of a woman. Media coverage of these women was analyzed to conclude whether or not their appearance affected how they were perceived. It proved that fashion, a form of nonverbal communication, can be strategically used to convince others to think a certain way about someone else.

Table of Contents

Introduction..3

Methodology5

Literature Review.6

Cindy McCain18

Michelle Obama.23

Sarah Palin.29

Hillary Clinton...34

Analysis..39

Conclusion.42

References..43

3 Introduction Fashion can be defined as a continually evolving, self-expressive concept. It is a way to show an extension of ones personality. In a society obsessed with fashion and beauty, image is everything. What a person wears or does not wear will determine how he or she is perceived. Clothing has the capability to empower, create prestige or increase sexual attractiveness. 1 Dress is not only a powerful form of nonverbal communication; it is also very persuasive. Fashion played a major role in the 2008 Presidential Election. There was extensive media coverage involving the candidates and their spouses appearance. While some were criticized for their lack of style, others were hailed as fashion icons. Because appearance and persuasion are intertwined, outfits and accessories had to be chosen wisely. Any misstep could be damaging to ones influence or campaign. However, this was not the first time that looks and appearance were influential in politics. On September 26, 1960, Senator John F. Kennedy and Vice-President Richard Nixon participated in the first, televised Presidential debate. Nearly seventy-million Americans watched the debate on television, while a large percentage of the population chose to listen to it on the radio. 2 Nixon was hospitalized a month before the debate and lost a noticeable amount of weight. He arrived in an ill-fitting shirt and refused make-up to darken his pale complexion. 3 Kennedy, on the other hand, had recently returned from California, visiting with friends and campaigning. Californias sunny climate gave the presidential hopeful a beautiful tan to accompany his fitted suit and pressed shirt. Both presidential hopefuls spoke eloquently when answering their
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Schneider, Jane. From potlatch to Wal-Mart: Courtly and capitalist hierarchies through dress. The Fabric of cultures: Fashion, Identity, and Globalization. Eds. Eugenia Paulicelli and Hazel Clark. New York: Routledge, 2009. 13. 2 1960: Kennedy-Nixon Debates. Eagleton Institute of Politics. 2004. 2 Apr. 2009. <http://www.eagleton.rutgers.edu/e-gov/e-politicalarchive-JFK-Nixon.htm>. 3 Allen, Erika Tyner. The Kennedy-Nixon Presidential debates, 1960 The Museum of Broadcast Communications. 2 Apr. 2009. < http://www.museum.tv/archives/etv/K/htmlK/kennedy-nixon/kennedy-nixon.htm>.

4 questions. Listeners agreed that Nixon was better, while viewers favored Kennedy. Studies and further research determined that television viewers were distracted by Nixons sickly appearance and focused more on what they saw than what they heard. 4 It was concluded that Kennedys charisma and good looks gave him the extra boost to win the debate and eventually win the presidency. The outcome of the debates is more proof that appearance is as important as substance. There is an interesting relationship between fashion and gender. Men have less dress options that are considered to be culturally appropriate. A mans clothing must project masculinity. Women, on the other hand, can project masculinity or femininity in their clothing and accessories. This notion is a reflection of the cultural shift of American society and the blurriness of gender roles. Women are no longer limited in education and career advancement. Because of these changes, fashion plays an even greater role in how society views women. This paper will examine the role of fashion in the 2008 presidential election. The prominent women of this campaign were Michelle Obama, Cindy McCain, Sarah Palin and Hillary Clinton. Their appearance and media coverage will be analyzed to determine what impact, if any, they had on how they were portrayed or perceived.

Allen, Erika Tyner. The Kennedy-Nixon Presidential debates, 1960 The Museum of Broadcast Communications. 2 Apr. 2009. < http://www.museum.tv/archives/etv/K/htmlK/kennedy-nixon/kennedy-nixon.htm>.

5 Methodology The clothing and accessories worn by Cindy McCain, Hillary Clinton, Michelle Obama and Sarah Palin were frequently scrutinized during the 2008 presidential campaign. This study seeks to determine the importance of their appearance and how it affected their image. In addition the study will uncover the medias rationale for placing so much attention on the fashions worn by these four women. Most importantly, the research will address the effectiveness of their dress and what their styles communicated. Secondary research on nonverbal communication and appearance will serve as the foundation to understand fashion, its relevance in society and how it can be used to communicate. Then the personal style of each individual will be explored and analyzed to review how each was portrayed in the media during the campaign. Ultimately the study will analyze the role that fashion played in the 2008 Presidential campaign and what it said about each woman. Because fashion is directly tied to how one thinks of others, it is important to determine if how these women looked had an impact on how America viewed them.

6 Literature Review Flugal states that it is the indirect expression of an individual through his or her garments that tells people that whom they see is someone they know. When humans meet someone that they do not know, the clothes that person is wearing immediately signify something of his or her sex, occupation, nationality and social standing. 5 Before the person can speak, the other will make a preliminary judgment based on what they are wearing. The author says that to understand the existence of fashion in the modern world, one must examine the psychological and social causes that maintain it. Flugal separates this idea into two concepts; the why and how of fashion. The essential cause and reasoning of fashion is rooted in competition. An inconsistency is presented in fashion because everyone is simultaneously trying to be like and unlike others. To be like someone else is to regard them as superiors, whereas to be unlike them is to be more fashionable or better. The why of fashion implies a definite variability of the social structure of a community. The how of fashion is the most difficult to answer because fashions themselves do not magically appear. Though a designer may create something, it must be approved and accepted by the majority to be considered fashionable. Whoever is involved in this process must have great influence. Moreover, new fashions have to be in accordance with present ideals in order to be successful. Blumer argues that fashion needs to be recognized as a central mechanism in forming social order in a modern type of world. Fashion is not limited to adornment and is much more than a trivial subject. It is a continuously evolving concept that is constantly at work. To understand the process of fashion, one must consider its historical continuity, modernity, the role
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Flugel, J.C. The Psychology of clothes. London: Hogarth, 1950.

7 of collective taste in its operation and the psychological motives which are assumed to account for it. 6 A person that is fashion conscious is cautious and wary when choosing clothing items that will help him or her remain in style. Consequently, people who follow fashion have less dress options than those that do not. The first feature of the fashion mechanism is historical continuity, which says that new fashions are derived from the old ones. Trendsetters must consider the existing fashion to move from it or elaborate on it, making fashion continual. The second feature of fashion, modernity, is important because fashion must be modern and keep up with the current time. Fashion must be responsive to new developments and major social shifts. If it does not, it will lose its relevance and value. There are many psychological motives that lead people to partake or indulge in fashion. While some view fashion as a method of escape from boredom and confinement, others see it as playful and quirky. People also have varying ideas on what fashion can do for them; it can increase attractiveness or elevate social class. Therefore, thoughts and decisions about fashion are psychological. Fashion adoption is a fundamental part of human behavior. 7 A fashion helps to enhance ones lifestyle and reflect the culture in which one lives. When a previously accepted fashion is replaced, it is a sign that the society has changed. Certain styles allow people to manage their appearance and make deliberate impressions on others. Fashion is much more than clothing; it includes behavior, mode of dress, etiquette and style of speech for the time period. Furthermore, an individual can use fashion to communicate his or her age, sex, occupation or status. There are

Blumer, Herbert. Fashion: From class differentiation to collective selection. The Sociological Quarterly. 10.3 (1969) 28 Mar. 2009. <http://www.jstor.org/stable/4104916>. 7 Sproles, George B., and Leslie Davis Burns. Changing Appearances: Understanding dress in contemporary society. New York: Fairchild, 1994.

8 four major theories that examine the start and spread of fashion trends. Trends do not create themselves; someone has to say whether or not they should be accepted. The upper-class leadership theory implies that a new fashion begins in the upper class and trickles down to be copied by the lower class. Moreover, this theory says the fashions adopted by the upper class are symbols of exclusivity. The mass-market theory, also known as the trickle-across theory, suggests that new fashions are available to all social classes at the same time due to mass marketing. The sub-cultural innovation theory is the exact opposite of the upper class leadership theory and states that new trends originate from the lower classes and are eventually disseminated to the entire population. The final theory, innovativeness and collective selection, suggests that anybody can be a fashion innovator as long as the trend is collectively approved by the mass population. Fashion has several social-psychological meanings. It must be contemporary and modern because humans have a natural desire to be up to date and keep up with what is currently going on. Because people have to adjust to an evolving society, the clothing and accessories must do the same. Fashion helps people to adjust and accept change. People that constantly seek change can use new fashions as a method to escape boredom with existing ones. In sum, fashion must satisfy the psychological needs of society. Kaiser states that minding appearances is a process through which the awareness of having various identities can be explored and evaluated. 8 This process considers how appearance represents or creates personal truths. It is a vital part of daily life that permits interactions. Minding appearances allows people to sort through possibilities and separate them according to what is attainable and what is not. Style and truth are the two concepts that characterize minding

Kaiser, Susan. Minding appearances: Style, truth and subjectivity. Body Dressing. Eds. Joanne Entwistle and Elizabeth Wilson. Oxford: Berg, 2001. 79-81.

9 appearances. Style is more than type of dress; it can also characterize gender and sexuality. In order to appear a certain way, people often emphasize their gender. A man might do this by wearing a business suit while a woman might wear a dress, high heels and earrings. In short, gender is an identity that is communicated through style. People can also use style to show more than one identity. Truth is essential to minding appearances because one must be with oneself and others when conveying an identity. The process of minding appearances is continual and constant as people ask themselves whether they are projecting an accurate representation. Kaiser adds that there is not a true self waiting to be found under the disguise of an appearance. Minding appearances helps the individual make the best approximation of who one is and who he or she might become. Therefore truth is based on a self-correcting process of understanding oneself. Unlike style, truth is reflexive and lacks flexibility. It is difficult for people to encourage the trust of people that they do not know. Because of this people use their outward appearance to demonstrate that they are aware of the behavior that is expected of them. Dress can reinforce self-restraint and enable goal-directed behavior. Many people attempt to project the desired image, knowing that people find significance in such cues as manner of dress, body position, gestures and facial expression. 9 Rubinstein states that the connotation of appearance in the public place depends on its relevance to social rewards. There are three interactional spaces that explain the need for diversity in appearance; front stage, backstage and outside region. A person giving a speech is an example of a front stage interaction. When people are in the front stage interaction space, they are aware that they are subject to criticism or praise. Attire and demeanor are very important to ensure that the individual connects with the audience. If a president wore jeans to a press
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Rubinstein, Ruth P. Dress Codes: Meanings and messages in American culture. Boulder: Westview, 2001. 52-56.

10 conference, he or she would not be taken seriously and lose the attention and respect of the audience. In the backstage space, people prepare themselves for the front stage. Locker and dressing rooms are examples of backstage areas. It is in these places that people can be themselves and do not have to worry about appearance. Clothing and behavior are not scrutinized and the individual does not have to create or maintain an image. Appearance has the least social value in the outside region interaction space. The individual has no role relationships to establish or maintain. Outward appearance has little relevance because there are not any expectations. People walking to work are in the outside region because they usually do not know the people they are passing on the street and have no need to interact with them or prove something. Chapkis says that type of dress is instrumental in a person becoming successful. The image of success is as equally important as the path taken to reach it. Appearance is weighed more heavily than intellect and drive. Those that are successful in their endeavors tend to gather to be among similar people and also to see themselves reflected in each others appearance. 10 Looking as if one is doing well is a strategy that allows people to join a particular status group. Roach-Higgins et al. state that dress is an assemblage of modifications of the body and or supplements to the body. 11 Dress covers everything from pierced ears to styled hair. The authors claim that this definition leads some to believe the false notion that the term is interchangeable with terms such as appearance, adornment and apparel. Roach-Higgins et al. explain why the term dress is more comprehensive and its difference in meaning to similar terms. Dress comprises more than appearance because it includes body modifications and supplements that
10 11

Chapkis, Wendy. Beauty Secrets: Women and the politics of appearance. Boston: South End, 1986. 56-57. Roach-Higgins, Mary Ellen and Joanne B. Eicher. Dress and identity. Dress and Identity. Eds. Mary Ellen Roach-Higgins, Joanne B. Eicher and Kim K. P. Johnson. New York: Fairchild, 1995. 7-10.

11 cover all the senses. A womans perfume is part of her dress and not appearance because others cannot see the perfume but only smell it. Adornment and ornamentation are different from dress because they have aesthetic connotation and are viewed as positive and beautiful. Whether attractive or not, all body modifications are still part of dress. The word clothing is especially limited because it only refers to apparel or items that cover the body. Clothing can have positive or negative attachments. For example, society says that clothing that sufficiently covers is good while clothing that does not is inappropriate. Fashion is far removed from dress because it is transient and constantly changing. Fashion trends typically last for a few months before they are replaced; dress is static. Moreover, all types of dress cannot qualify as a fashion. Kaiser states that appearance has an influence on behavior. Studies show that attractive people tend to be more assertive and outspoken, while unattractive people are more shy and demure. 12 Clothing also affects how one behaves. When people wear business attire, they tend to be more reserved and well-spoken than when they dress casually. A suit communicates that one seeks to do business and deserves to be taken seriously. The decision of what one will wear is partly based on his or her interpretations of what others expect. Dress marks the boundary between the individual and society and serves as a visual metaphor for identity. 13 A persons style of dress is controlled by social forces and subject to social and moral demands. While people have to appear dressed, what constitutes dress is dependent upon ones culture. Appropriate dress varies and is based on the situation and occasion.

Kaiser, Susan B. The social psychology of clothing: symbolic appearances in context. New York: Macmillan, 1990. 195. 13 Entwistle, Joanne. The Dressed Body. Body Dressing. Eds. Joanne Entwistle and Elizabeth Wilson. Oxford: Berg, 2001. 33-37.

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12 According to Solomon and Rabolt, ones concept of self will affect how he or she dresses. Self concept can be defined as the beliefs a person holds about his or her attributes and how he or she evaluates these qualities. 14 There are many components that help analyze selfconcept and its relationship with clothing and appearance. Self as structure is evident when people categorize clothing and accessories as like them or unlike them. Self process refers to the ongoing examination and refinement of self. Some people continually change themselves for the benefit or approval of others. Our self image is based on a combination of how we see ourselves and how others see us. When people share their opinions about us, it has an effect on our perception. We might dress or carry ourselves differently if we know that the people close to us do not approve. Ones level of self-esteem can be expressed through dress. When people feel good about themselves, they emphasize their appearance. People with low self esteem have a tendency to be more self-conscious, either ignoring their appearance all together or overemphasizing it. Feminism is one of the biggest obstacles to fashion in that it encourages women to wear more functional types of clothing rather than impractical. Feminists believe that women dress how they think they should dress because of cultural roles. They are also against the notion that women have to dress in an overly feminine nature to be considered beautiful. Focusing too much on the look takes away from the art of fashion. 15 In short, feminists hope that people will no longer be judged by appearance and that each gender is equally judged and held to the same standards.

Solomon, Michael R. and Nancy J. Rabolt. Consumer behavior in fashion. Upper Saddle River: Pearson, 2004. 143. 15 Negrin, Llewellyn. Appearance and identity: Fashioning the body in postmodernity. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008.

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13 There is no longer a separate style of dress for each gender. In the mid-nineties designers began to create androgynous garments that earned a lot of attention. Pantsuits and ties were combined with feminine blouses and accessories to present a unique, modern look for women. As fashion has changed, the distinction between masculinity and femininity has been renegotiated as women have ventured more toward masculine influenced identities. As a result, sexual identity is now blurred and gender distinctions are decreasing. People learn the appropriate dress for their genders as they grow up. It is imperative that one is aware of his or her gender role to they look how they are expected to. Color, structure, design and texture are some of the characteristics that distinguish male dress from female dress. 16 Fashion has changed a lot over the last thirty years. It moved from oppressive to self expressive. This shift is a reflection of the social freedom of society. However, as more and more attention is placed on outward appearance, the meaning of dress becomes more ambiguous. 17 Keenan argues that dress freedom is a social freedom; a freedom to depart from the normative sartorial expectations of our social group. 18 Most people are less likely to deviate from normal dress to avoid being excluded from society. Though our society is now more open-minded, the boundaries of dress tolerance and freedom have not expanded. Dress deviance now appears to be intentionally resistant to cultural norms. Though Americans are allowed to wear whatever they want, no one is immune to scrutiny and judgment based on dress. Any type of dress will lead people to draw conclusions.

Eicher, Joanne B. and Mary Ellen Roach-Higgins. Dress, gender and age. Dress and Identity. Eds. Mary Ellen Roach-Higgins, Joanne B. Eicher, and Kim K. P. Johnson. New York: Fairchild, 1995. 101-105. 17 Negrin, Llewellyn. Appearance and identity: Fashioning the body in postmodernity. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008. 18 Keenan, William J. F. Sartor Resartus Restored: Dress studies in Carlylean Perspective. Dressed to ImpressLooking the Part. Ed. William J. F. Keenan. Oxford: Berg, 2001. 15.

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14 Clothing plays a significant role in the workplace. Researchers have studied the role of clothing in the work environment to discover whether or not dress is tied to advancement. Over the last few years, workplace attire has become more relaxed and casual. It is now appropriate for women to wear pantsuits and men to not wear ties. A study conducted n 1985 found that women who adopted male props and symbols were more successful in a male-dominated workplace. However, researchers warn women not to completely strip femininity from their apparel and accessories. 19 This conclusion is less relevant given the change in society.

Kimle and Damhorst say that women must find a balance between innovation and conservatism in their workplace attire. 20 Wearing drab colors and outdated garments will give the impression that one is boring or not up to date. Conversely, if a woman is overly trendy and overdone, she will be viewed as unintelligent and will not be taken seriously. Women must balance their wardrobe and cautiously use creativity with their dress. The color of ones clothing can also impact his or her success. Research has shown that gray, beige, maroon and a medium blue are taken seriously in the business world. 21 These colors present an intense and focused undertone. Studies have shown that bright, pastel colors should be avoided because they are considered to be fun and exotic. People that wear these colors in the workplace seem playful and attention-seeking. The color of apparel influences our emotions and judgments. Each color invokes a different reaction. Studies have shown that certain colors can calm people while others trigger excitement. An individuals opinion of a color is heavily impacted by his or her culture or environment. Some cultures associate purple with royalty while some believe it represents
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Solomon, M.R. & Douglas, S.P. The female clotheshorse: From aesthetics to tactics. The Psychology of Fashion. Ed. M. R. Solomon. Lexington: Heath, 1985. 387-401. 20 Kimle, P.A. & Damhorst, M.L. (1997). A grounded theory model of the ideal business image for women. Symbolic Interaction,20.1 (1997). 25 Mar. 2009. 45-68. 21 Chapkis, Wendy. Beauty Secrets: Women and the politics of appearance. Boston: South End, 1986.

15 homosexuality. 22 Hue is not the sole determinant in the impression people get from color. A colors value; light versus dark, or intensity, brightness versus dullness are just as important as the color itself. 23 A bright garment will obviously get more attention than a dull one. In its simplest form, fashion can be identified as a symbol. Symbols are used to represent something else. People use symbols to communicate with others. Fashion symbols are often used to describe aspects of ones personality. They can also present an image of modernity. Many parallels can be drawn regarding the relationship between fashion and language. Messages sent through fashion symbols are emotional impressions 24 Femininity and masculinity, power and physical attractiveness are some of the illusions that can be communicated through clothing. When someone approaches a person that is dressed out of the ordinary, he or she will make a judgment about that person. Therefore the response to fashion symbols is typically nonlinguistic. The code that is used to send fashion symbols is the opposite of the one used in verbal messages. If two people are having a conversation, one of them had to start talking first. With fashion messages, the person being judged does not have the chance to say anything before the judgment. The individual cannot explain or defend their dress. Fashion symbols are a form of nonverbal communication that surpasses the spoken and written word. Besides modernity, fashion can exhibit the society and environment one lives in. Clothing is the main element of appearance and reflects social norms. People can either conform or rebel against the social standards of clothing. According to Hoffman, there are three characteristics of fashion symbolism that characterize it as a form of nonverbal communication. First, fashion symbols are dependent upon
Carman, John. Purple-Hue Knew? Thanks to Rev. Falwell, Color is out of closet, San Francisco Chronicle 11 Feb. 1999, A1,A7 23 Solomon, Michael R. and Nancy J. Rabolt. Consumer behavior in fashion. Upper Saddle River: Pearson, 2004. 143. 24 Hoffman, Hans-Joachim. How clothes communicate. Media development 4 (1984) 1 Apr. 2009, 7-11.
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16 the context that they are in. A woman wearing a bridal gown at a wedding will be viewed differently than a woman wearing a bridal gown to the mall. Each context has different expectations. The next characteristic is fashion symbols are cast by their presence. The symbol must be visible in order to communicate what it is intended to. Because people often cannot control who looks at them, messages sent through fashion symbols are not private. The final trait of fashion symbolism is a high level of inconsistency in interpretation. Though some fashion symbols have obvious meanings, such as a swimsuit or wedding gown, others can be more ambiguous. Kaiser states that appearance is a form of nonverbal communication because how we appear to others determines how they think of us. Though we are not speaking, we are showing aspects of personality, culture and environment. Appearances aid the interpretation and understanding of others. An individuals clothing, body gestures, and facial expressions are also interpreted through nonverbal communication. Signs transmitted through appearance signal membership in a particular group, cultural category or occupation. 25 For example, a person wearing a police uniform is assumed to be a member of the police. However, there are times when the meaning of clothing is ambiguous. Or has several meanings. To get a clear interpretation, perceivers will reference the social context or setting. According to Kaiser, appearance communication has two dimensions; unintentional and intentional communication. The sender may or may not be aware of the messages he or she is sending through their appearance. The first takes place when the sender is not intentionally trying to send a particular message or is not even aware that one is being sent. Intentional

Kaiser, Susan B. The social psychology of clothing: symbolic appearances in context. New York: Macmillan, 1990. 195.

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17 communication is directed at the public or someone in particular. The sender is trying to get someones attention or receive a response. ONeal suggests that dress is a political instrument used to influence formal and informal relationships and interactions. Its ability to exert authority and control equates it with power. When people dress powerfully and present a dominant presence, they can more easily control others.

18 Cindy McCain Cindy McCain, wife of Republican Presidential nominee John McCain, changed her look and softened her appearance over the course of the 2008 Presidential campaign. Critics suggested that the change was necessary for her to appear more populist than pretentious. Cindy Lou Hensley was born December 31, 1954 in Phoenix, Arizona. She was the only child of James and Marguerite Hensley. Named best dressed girl in high school and crowned Junior Rodeo Queen of Arizona, Cindy had a wonderful upbringing filled with love and wealth. Her father, James, was a multi-millionaire beer distributor for Anheuser-Busch who showered his daughter with whatever she wanted, including a Porsche as a high-school graduation present. 26 Cindy graduated from the University of Southern California with a Masters degree in special education and began teaching at a high school near Phoenix. While vacationing with her parents in 1979, Cindy met ex-Navy pilot and Vietnam War captive John McCain at a cocktail party. Though still legally married, McCain pursued Cindy and the two were married a year later. Because of Johns political ambitions, the pair relocated to Washington, DC. After a few years in Washington, Cindy moved back to Arizona to raise the couples children. For the next twenty years, the couple lived on opposite sides of the country. When McCain announced his bid for the presidency in April 2007, Cindy was reintroduced to Washington and the world of politics. She began traveling with John as he attempted to garner support. Her expensive taste in fashion quickly got her noticed by fashion critics and designers. She is a classic dresser, favoring conservative high-end designers like Oscar de la Renta, Escada,

Levy, Ariel. The lonesome trail. New Yorker. 15 Sept. 2008. 84.28: 52-61. Academic Search Premier. EBSCOhost. American U Library, Washington. 14 Apr. 2009. <http://search.epnet.com>.

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19 and Carolina Herrara. 27 Cindy McCain often wore fitted blazers, tailored suits and shiny fabrics in a variety of colors. She was frequently seen in various shades of red and gray. For a ceremony at the White House in June 2008, Cindy wore a tweed suit and thin leather belt to show off her figure. Three months later, she wowed the Republican convention with a metallic Oscar de la Renta dress. She added a Chanel watch, three carat diamond earrings, and a four strand pearl necklace to complete her look. Vanity Fair estimated the cost of her look that night at close to three hundred thousand dollars, assuming the jewelry was real. 28 Cindys blonde hair was always age appropriate with either wispy bangs, wavy layers or a soft bun. 29 Red lipstick and heavy black eyeliner were her make-up necessities. Her husband teased her heavy makeup saying, At least I dont plaster on the makeup like a trollop!, when she teased him about his thinning hair. 30 Throughout the campaign, she accented her outfits with Stuart Weitzman pumps, pearl necklaces and diamond earrings. However, her most noticeable accessories were her crystal lapel pins. The forty-five dollar brooches were designed by Washington based jeweler, Ann Hand. She alternated between a USMC and NAVY pin to acknowledge her two sons military affiliations. McCain also frequently wore a Blue Star pin, which is usually worn by relatives of those in active duty. Toward the end of the campaign, she was spotted wearing a rhinestone encrusted McCain 2008 pin. Her love for brooches was more than evident in March 2008

Callahan, Maureen. Fashion First: Cindy, Michelle break dowdy First Lady Mold. New York Post. 5 June 2008. 17 Apr. 2009. <http://www.nypost.com/seven/06052008/entertainment/fashion/fashion_first_114025.htm>. 28 Brissette Mata, Brenda. The politics of fashion: Campaign trail puts spotlight on what women wear; whose fashion sense do you identify with? Flint Journal. 6 Oct. 2008. 17 Apr. 2009. <http://www.mlive.com/living/flint/index.ssf/2008/10/the_politics_of_fashion_campai.html>. 29 Callahan, Maureen. Fashion First: Cindy, Michelle break dowdy First Lady Mold. New York Post. 5 June 2008. 17 Apr. 2009. <http://www.nypost.com/seven/06052008/entertainment/fashion/fashion_first_114025.htm>. 30 Callahan, Maureen. Fashion First: Cindy, Michelle break dowdy First Lady Mold. New York Post. 5 June 2008. 17 Apr. 2009. <http://www.nypost.com/seven/06052008/entertainment/fashion/fashion_first_114025.htm>.

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20 when she wore three at once during a White House visit. 31 She has even worn them on the collar of her turtlenecks. She was criticized for wearing them excessively and a style writer for the Los Angeles Times compared her lapel to a Fourth of July fireworks finale. 32 Overall, she maintained a refined style of dress throughout the campaign with an occasional fashion faux pas. Despite her couture-filled closet, McCain describes herself as down to earth and easy going. She admitted that she was like any other wife and mother, constantly worrying about her children and husband. She said that it was her role as a mother that inspired her humanitarian efforts and founding of the American Voluntary Medical Team. In an interview with Good Housekeeping in October 2008, she said that she no longer wanted to be superwoman and instead wanted to be the best that she could. 33 She denounced claims that she was a Stepford Wife and stated that though she was not very vocal, she was still very intelligent. In another interview, she said her reserve should not be mistaken for standoffishness and that she was actually very shy. 34 McCain stated that she was often mischaracterized and is much tougher than one might expect. Some of her favorite pastimes include race-car driving, flying airplanes and playing Xbox. In sum, McCain felt that her sophisticated wardrobe and appearance should not be the basis of how the American people viewed her. Fashion critics were divided in their opinions of McCains attire. Some thought her clothing was appropriate for her potential role as First Lady while others thought she looked uptight and tense. Heather Laube, a sociologist in Women and Gender Studies at the University of Michigan-Flint, described McCains look as the epitome of a wealthy woman and that she
Corcoran, Monica. Checking in on Cindy McCains lapel pins. Los Angeles Times. 22 June 2008. 17 Apr. 2009. < http://www.latimes.com/news/politics/la-ig-rage22-2008jun22,0,6039625.story?track=rss>. 32 Corcoran, Monica. Checking in on Cindy McCains lapel pins. Los Angeles Times. 22 June 2008. 17 Apr. 2009. < http://www.latimes.com/news/politics/la-ig-rage22-2008jun22,0,6039625.story?track=rss>. 33 Ellis, Rosemary. A conversation with Cindy McCain. Good Housekeeping.com. Oct. 2008. 17 Apr. 2009. < http://www.goodhousekeeping.com/family/celebrity/cindy-mccain-interview>. 34 Dealey, Sam. Cindy McCain rolls up her sleeves. Marie Claire. Nov. 2008: 88. ProQuest. American U Library, Washington. 17 Apr. 2009. <http://www.proquest.com>.
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21 could get away with designer outfits because of her political affiliation. Laube suggested that her choices in fashion and silence were to blame for her appearance as Johns accessory. 35 A fashion writer described her as a chilly, blond beauty that lives in fear of chipping a nail. 36 The writer added that McCains humanitarian efforts seemed unbelievable based on the way that she looked and carried herself. Her tailored outfits gave some the impression that she was striving for perfection and did not know how to have fun with fashion. Some said she was too polished and put together. Tim Gunn, style expert from the fashion design based reality show Project Runway, described her look as buttoned up and duct taped. 37 However, McCains dress did not solely receive negative scrutiny. Suze Yalof Schwartz, executive fashion director at Glamour magazine, praised her glamour and elegance saying, She always looks appropriate and sunny. The fashion director also commended her ability to dress rich with ease. 38 McCains quiet demeanor and penchant for tailored suits has led many to compare her to Nancy Reagan, also known to wear red and high end fashion. Fashion heavily impacted McCains image. Her three hundred thousand dollar ensembles made her seem like untouchable royalty. Her clothing was too expensive and out of reach for the average person. 39 As a result, people could not relate to her. The fact that she owns ten houses

Brissette Mata, Brenda. The politics of fashion: Campaign trail puts spotlight on what women wear; whose fashion sense do you identify with? Flint Journal. 6 Oct. 2008. 17 Apr. 2009. <http://www.mlive.com/living/flint/index.ssf/2008/10/the_politics_of_fashion_campai.html>. 36 Dealey, Sam. Cindy McCain rolls up her sleeves. Marie Claire. Nov. 2008: 88. ProQuest. American U Library, Washington. 17 Apr. 2009. <http://www.proquest.com>. 37 Nichols, Michelle. Potential U.S. first ladies draw fashion buzz. The Star Online 7 Sept. 2008. 17 Apr. 2009. < http://thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?file=/2008/9/8/worldupdates/2008-0907T201901Z_01_NOOTR_RTRMDNC_0_-353602-2&sec=Worldupdates>. 38 Callahan, Maureen. Fashion First: Cindy, Michelle break dowdy First Lady Mold. New York Post. 5 June 2008. 17 Apr. 2009. <http://www.nypost.com/seven/06052008/entertainment/fashion/fashion_first_114025.htm>. 39 Nichols, Michelle. Potential U.S. first ladies draw fashion buzz. The Star Online 7 Sept. 2008. 17 Apr. 2009. < http://thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?file=/2008/9/8/worldupdates/2008-0907T201901Z_01_NOOTR_RTRMDNC_0_-353602-2&sec=Worldupdates>.

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22 while a lot of Americans are struggling to pay for one, did not help her pompous image. Though she described herself as a traditional American wife and mother, her clothing and appearance did not reflect that. When asked what she wanted to do as First Lady, she shared her interest in volunteerism and disadvantaged children in Third World countries. Unfortunately, volunteering is not at the top of the majority of American womens priority lists. Although McCain meant to appear warm and loving, her appearance is the reason many could not connect with her.

23 Michelle Obama Since her husband announced his plans to run for the President of the United States, Michelle Obama has been a permanent fixture in the media. Political commentators and bloggers dissected her every move and remark. When asked about the Democratic Partys nomination of her husband in the summer of 2008, she stated that for the first time in her adult life she was really proud of America. 40 This comment went far from unnoticed as many began questioning her character and whether or not she was anti-American. Months later, Obamas seemingly unfavorable image began to wane as she shared her aspirations and love for the country at the Democratic National Convention. Americans slowly began to accept the outspoken, potential First Lady. Michelle LaVaughn Robinson was born January 17, 1964 in Chicago, Illinois. Fraser and Marian Robinson raised Michelle and her older brother Craig, on Chicagos South side. She describes her childhood as very happy and has said that she always knew she was loved and treasured. Marian discouraged her children from watching a lot of television and urged them to read, focus on their homework and discuss current events. 41 Michelles academic capability allowed her to skip the second grade and eventually join the gifted program at her elementary school. In high school she excelled in Advanced Placement courses, was a member of the National Honor Society and graduated as the salutatorian of her class. 42 In fall 1981 she joined her older brother at Princeton University. After graduating from Harvard Law School in 1988, she took a job as an associate at Sidley & Austin law firm in Chicago. Shortly thereafter, she was assigned to mentor a summer associate named Barack Obama. He was intrigued by her
40

Watson, Elwood. Michelle Obama: One Classy, Resilient, Intelligent First Lady. [Weblog entry.] The Academy Speaks. Diverse Education. 7 Apr. 2009. (http://diverseeducation.wordpress.com/2009/04/07/michelle-obama-oneclassy-resilient-intelligent-first-lady/). 21 Apr. 2009. 41 Michelle Obama: Americas First Lady, More Than Camelot. Bart T. Senior. 2009 42 Michelle Obama: Americas First Lady, More Than Camelot. Bart T. Senior. 2009

24 intelligence and began to pursue her. She was initially hesitant, claiming that it would be awkward and tacky. 43 She eventually relented after a few more attempts and the pair married in 1992. Baracks work as a community organizer sparked an interest in politics. After a stint as junior Senator, he was ready to inspire the nation. Michelle was initially hesitant about her husbands decision to run for the presidency saying, I worried about my girls and what a campaign might do to their lives. I wanted the best possible life for them, and a presidential campaign was not part of the equation. Like Cindy McCain, Michelle Obamas clothing and appearance changed over the course of the campaign. At the start of the campaign, her clothing reflected a middle class, ordinary lifestyle. When speaking on behalf of her husband at a campaign event in July 2007, Obama paired a white spaghetti strap top with a full, black linen skirt. She wore a black tee shirt, black cropped pants and black flats to a rally in Manchester, New Hampshire a few weeks later. She accessorized the simple ensemble with a tan snakeskin belt around her waist. For the First Ladys Conference on Women in October 2007, Obama stood out in a short sleeve hounds tooth dress with black pumps. She was the only Presidential candidates spouse to not wear a skirt or pant suit. In December 2007, she wore a black and gray patterned blazer over a black turtleneck dress with a studded belt to another rally for her husband in New Hampshire. From June 2007 to January 2008, Obamas clothing was mostly black, white or gray. However, on Super Tuesday in February 2008, she wowed supporters with a red dress and jacket paired with pearls and simple earrings. She appeared confident and happy alongside her husband. After Super Tuesday, Obama began wearing more dresses and exotic colors. Obama donned one of her

43

Michelle Obama. Biography.com 2009. A&E Television. 17 Apr. 2009. < http://www.biography.com/featuredbiography/michelle-obama/index.jsp>.

25 most memorable dresses in June 2008 for an appearance on The View. She revealed that she had purchased the one hundred and forty eight dollar Donna Ricco design at White House/Black Market and it sold out across the country in less than a week. 44 On the night of her husbands acceptance of the Democratic nomination, she showcased her effortless style in a sleeveless purple sheath with a black belt. Maria Pinto, a Chicago based designer and Obamas personal favorite, designed the dress. 45 Obama listed Narcisco Rodriguez, Isabel Toledo and J. Crew as some of her other top choices. When delivering her heartfelt speech at the Democratic National Convention in August 2008, she was even more radiant in a teal, long sleeve dress with an open neckline by Maria Pinto. The color beautifully complemented her skin tone and she added her signature black heels to complete the look. Pantone, a company best known for its development and marketing communications in color, created Colorscopes, a listing of colors and their meanings. It states that teal reflects one who is neat and self assured. 46 Critics were skeptical of the black and red Narcisco Rodriguez dress she wore on election night. Some questioned why she would add a cardigan to that type of dress and others debated whether or not the dress overly accentuated her curves. 47 Obama began the campaign with a short flip hair style. She would occasionally add a headband when she did not wear a bang. As her hair grew, she added layers for a fuller look. By election night, her hair had grown into a bob that reached her shoulders. Obamas minimal

44

Celizic, Mike. Michelle Obama makes $148 dress a smash. MSNBC 2009. MSNBC Interactive. 22 Apr. 2009. <http://rss.msnbc.msn.com/id/25280708/> . 45 Callahan, Maureen. Fashion First: Cindy, Michelle break dowdy First Lady Mold. New York Post. 5 June 2008. 17 Apr. 2009. <http://www.nypost.com/seven/06052008/entertainment/fashion/fashion_first_114025.htm>. 46 Solomon, Michael R. and Nancy J. Rabolt. Consumer behavior in fashion. Upper Saddle River: Pearson, 2004. 47 Snead, Elizabeth. Who designed Michelle Obamas dress for election night? [Weblog entry.] The Dish Rag. Los Angeles Times. 5 Nov. 2008. (http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/thedishrag/2008/11/who-designed-mi.html). 17 Apr. 2009.

26 accessories included watches, pearls and black belts. Because of her nearly six foot stature, Obama mostly wore very low heels and flats possibly to avoid towering over her husband. Vanity Fair noticed her simple, yet chic style and placed her at the top of their 2008 International Best Dressed List. Michelle describes herself as a working class girl that comes from a family accustomed to hard work. 48 When she was a guest on Comedy Centrals The Colbert Report, she rejected claims that she and her husband were elitists. 49 In speeches given during her husbands campaign rallies, she explained that her father was a city worker who took care of his family and put both of his children through Princeton University. She wanted people to know that if she could come from the Southside of Chicago and potentially become First Lady, then anything was possible. 50 When asked what the role of First Lady meant to her, Obama stated that it was a big responsibility and that she wanted to serve as a role model and provide good messages to people that look up to her. 51 Fashion insiders define Obamas style as conservative, elegant and jock-preppy. Raul Melgoza, creative director at Luca Luca, shared that he would love to dress Obama and admired her classic sensibility to dressing. 52 Tim Gunn, the style critic from Project Runway praised her for showing her figure and epitomizing American style. This easy, American style of dress has earned her comparisons to former First Lady, Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis. Vanity Fair nicknamed her commander in sheath for her affinity to wearing sheath dresses, a common

Michelle Obama: Americas First Lady, More Than Camelot. Bart T. Senior. 2009 Michelle Obama rejects elitist characterization. MSNBC. 16 Apr. 2008. Associated Press. 17 April. 2009. < http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/24161802/wid/18298287> 50 Michelle Obama: Americas First Lady, More Than Camelot. Bart T. Senior. 2009 51 Burt-Murray, Angela. A mothers love. Essence. May 2009: 105-107. 52 Nichols, Michelle. Potential U.S. first ladies draw fashion buzz. The Star Online 7 Sept. 2008. 17 Apr. 2009. < http://thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?file=/2008/9/8/worldupdates/2008-0907T201901Z_01_NOOTR_RTRMDNC_0_-353602-2&sec=Worldupdates>.
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27 staple in Onassis wardrobe. 53 Rebecca Taylor, a New York based designer supported the comparison saying, Michelle is really fresh and she could sort of go where Jackie O. went given the right sort of tools and grooming. Obamas mixture of high end and low end fashion helped her to appear more accessible than Cindy McCain. Her style of dress made her seem approachable to working moms, ordinary women and different generations and races. 54 When she wore dresses and accessories that were affordable for most Americans, she showed that she cared more about the beauty of the clothing rather than the price tag. She was concerned about what looked good on her body rather than the status of the brand. 55 Michelle Obamas fashion sense was noted because it combined traditional pieces with modernity. It was obvious that she liked to look nice, though making sure she followed all the fashion rules was not her top priority. If she appeared too concerned with fashion, she might not have appealed to as many people or seemed as genuine when she shared her working class upbringing. She was labeled as bold for wearing off-the-rack items from J. Crew and barely known incoming designers. Another dimension of Michelles wardrobe was her preference for comfort. She added cardigans and flat shoes to sheath dresses, which some say was not very First Lady. Her shift from the norm communicated that she was wearing the clothes and not the other way around. 56

Juan. Michelle Obama named commander in sheath on Vanity Fairs Best Dressed List. [Weblog entry.] Highbrid Nation. 4 Aug. 2008. (http://highbridnation.com/2008/08/04/michelle-obama-named-commander-insheath-on-vanity-fairs-best-dressed-list/). 16 Apr. 2009. 54 Nichols, Michelle. Potential U.S. first ladies draw fashion buzz. The Star Online 7 Sept. 2008. 17 Apr. 2009. < http://thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?file=/2008/9/8/worldupdates/2008-0907T201901Z_01_NOOTR_RTRMDNC_0_-353602-2&sec=Worldupdates>. 55 Trebay, Guy. U.S. Fashions One-Woman Bailout? New York Times. 8 Jan. 2009. ProQuest. American U Library, Washington. 14 Apr. 2009. <www.proquest.com>. 56 Trebay, Guy. U.S. Fashions One-Woman Bailout? New York Times. 8 Jan. 2009. ProQuest. American U Library, Washington. 14 Apr. 2009. <www.proquest.com>.

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28 Her choice to occasionally wear less expensive garments was refreshing given the nations economic woes. If Michelle was seen in the three hundred thousand dollar ensemble worn by Cindy McCain to the Republican Convention, her image would not have matched her husbands promise of an economic turnaround. People would have gotten the impression that the Obama family was more concerned with spending money on clothes than figuring out how to help American families in need. Moreover, Obamas fashion choices made her come across as a strong and sensible woman. She was aware that she always needed to look nice but pleasing and promoting high end designers was not her first priority. In short, Obamas dress promoted individuality, independence and authenticity. Her clothing choices conveyed a genuine image, which explains why people rushed to boutiques to achieve the same looks. Simply put, American women admired her view of fashion and wanted to be and look just like her.

29 Sarah Palin During the summer of 2008, Sarah Palin took the world of politics by storm. Americans had never seen such an interesting and attention-grabbing Vice Presidential candidate. People teased her rimless glasses and dated aphorisms, but eagerly waited for her next move. Her debate with fellow Vice Presidential candidate Joe Biden was the most watched debate of its kind, attracting seventy million viewers. 57 Some questioned whether or not Palins unintentional humorous gestures were the reason for the breaking record. Tina Feys impersonation of Palin was perhaps the most memorable mockery of the vice presidential candidates accent, awkward winking and overall folksy persona. Sarah Louise Heath was born February 11, 1964 in Sandpoint, Idaho to Charles and Sally Heath. When she was three months old, the family moved to Skagway, Alaska before settling in Wasilla. Sarah had a very active childhood, participating in sports and beauty pageants. Before graduating from the University of Idaho with a bachelors degree in journalism, she attended Hawaii Pacific University, North Idaho College, Matanuska-Susitna College and the University of Hawaii at Hilo. 58 She then moved back to Alaska and worked in Anchorage as a television sports reporter. 59 In 1988 she married her high school sweetheart, Todd Palin, and the couple eventually had five children. While her husband dabbled in sports and his familys commercial fishing business, Palin became interested in politics. In 1992, she won a seat on the Wasilla City Council and was elected mayor of Wasilla in 1996. On December 4, 2006, Palin made history when she became the first woman and youngest governor of Alaska.
Joshi, Mohit. Palin-Biden debate most watched vice presidential debate ever. [Weblog entry.] TopNews. Oct. 2008. (http://www.topnews.in/palinbiden-debate-most-watched-vice-presidential-debate-ever-273317). 23 Apr. 2009. 58 Go, Alison. Sarah Palins extensive college career. [Weblog entry.] The Paper Trail. U.S. News and World Report. 5 Sept. 2008. (http://www.usnews.com/blogs/paper-trail/2008/9/5/sarah-palins-extensive-collegecareer.html). 28 Apr. 2009. 59 Sarah Palin Biography.com 2008. A&E Television Networks. 23 Apr. 2009. <http://www.biography.com/featured-biography/sarah-palin/bio2.jsp.>.
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30 When Senator John McCain received the Republican nomination for the President of the United States, people were anxious to see who he would select as his running mate. Mouths all across the country dropped when he chose the governor of Alaska, who happened to be a woman. Not since George H. W. Bush announced Dan Quayle as his running mate during the 1988 presidential election had a vice presidential candidate garnered such attention. 60 Palins lack of experience made many wonder why she was McCains choice. When asked about the war in Iraq, she replied that she had heard about it on the news, which was startling because of the fact that she could possibly become president. Her tendency to avoid directly answering questions caused even more of McCains supporters to worry. As a vice-presidential candidate, Palins appearance had to complement her running mate. She needed a look that would force people to see her as serious, not boring. At the behest of image consultants, the Republican National Committee spent one hundred and fifty thousand dollars on clothing and accessories to polish Palins look. 61 They claimed that since the outfits were worn while campaigning, it was a reasonable addition to the partys budget. For her debut alongside McCain, Palin chose a fitted black skirt suit and red patent leather peep-toe pumps. She wore an American flag pin on the lapel of her blazer. Like Cindy McCain, she loved pins and brooches and was often seen with an oversized flag brooch at campaign events. 62 For one of her appearances at the Republican National Convention, she wore a beige jacket with a slim, black skirt. When debating Biden in October 2008, she opted for another black skirt suit. Palin was most frequently seen in skirt suits in black, beige or peach

Choice of Sarah Palin raises questions about McCains judgment. Vancouver Sun. 4 Sept. 2008. 23 Apr. 2009. <http://www2.canada.com/vancouversun/news/editorial/story.html?id=09b15ac9-2e50-49b6-86b3-d0a9731fbf91>. 61 Barker, Olivia. How to look like 150, 000 bucks. USA Today. 23 Oct. 2008. Academic Search Premier EBSCOhost. American U Library, Washington. 22 Apr. 2009. <http://web.ebscohost.com>. 62 Givhan, Robin. Sarah Palins unassertive fashion statement. Washington Post. 28 Sept. 2008. 23 Apr. 2009. < http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/story/2008/09/26/ST2008092603303.html>.

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31 shades. She deviated from her typical attire in fall 2008 when she wore a pink turtleneck under a bright, floral jacket while campaigning. Pantones Colorscopes describe beige and taupe as warm, practical and neutral. Not surprisingly, black is characterized as conventional, conservative and serious. 63 Palin had no choice but to look practical compared to McCains wife and the current First Lady, Laura Bush who both preferred bright colors and high end designers. Palins clothing did not receive as much attention and scrutiny as her hair, make up and accessories. Her chestnut brown hair with blonde highlights was often pinned up with bangs that nearly covered her eyebrows. She would often wear half of it up and half down in a style that seemed fit for a school teacher. She stood out for wearing glasses in an age of Lasik eye surgery and contact lenses. When she first joined the campaign, she wore self-described schoolmarm frames that looked extremely archaic. By October 2008, she abandoned her dark frames for a three hundred and seventy five dollar titanium rimless pair by Kazuo Kawasaki. 64 Her infamous high heels were from Naughty Monkey, a footwear line designed for stylish, hip women. Socialite and heiress Paris Hilton was frequently seen wearing Naughty Monkey shoe wear. Her make-up was normally understated except for her heavy dark lip liner, which stood out against her peach lipstick. Throughout the campaign, she wore a French whitetipped manicure on her square shaped nails. According to nail experts, square shaped nails are harder to break and signify a woman who favors practicality over trend. 65 When Palin announced that she was a hockey-mom and that the only difference between a hockey mom and a pit bull was lipstick, she wanted people to know that though she
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Solomon, Michael R. and Nancy J. Rabolt. Consumer behavior in fashion. Upper Saddle River: Pearson, 2004. 143. 64 Brissette Mata, Brenda. The politics of fashion: Campaign trail puts spotlight on what women wear; whose fashion sense do you identify with? Flint Journal. 6 Oct. 2008. 17 Apr. 2009. <http://www.mlive.com/living/flint/index.ssf/2008/10/the_politics_of_fashion_campai.html>. 65 Snead, Elizabeth. Sarah Palin: Politics of fashion. Los Angeles Times. 2009. 21 Apr. 2009. <http://www.latimes.com/entertainment/news/lat-rewind-palin-fashion5-2008sep05-pg,0,6827368.photogallery>.

32 was a mother of five, she could still be tough and hard working. Her membership in the National Rifle Association and confession that her favorite past times included hunting, eating moose hamburgers and riding snowmobiles helped solidify her hockey mom image. 66 She wanted women everywhere to know that she was just like any other mother. As a staunch Republican, she was against gay-marriage and abortion. It was important to her that people knew that despite her rough amusements, she was still very traditional and conservative. Her appearance had to reflect how she thought of herself and how she wanted others to think of her. All in all, her clothing and minimal accessories were unpretentious and unremarkable. They were not intended to put her at the top of anyones Best Dressed List. The beige and soft coral jackets were meant to complement someone else, not command attention or presage authority. The natural and simple color palette of her campaign wardrobe was definitely strategic. If elected, her role would be to assist John McCain and take over his responsibilities if necessary. She needed to show that she would be able to do that. While campaigning and speaking at events, Palin was often seen with her sleeves rolled up and hair pushed behind her ears. These small gestures signified that she was serious and ready to work. In a time of economic uncertainty and war, she did not want to mislead others into thinking that she was more into fashion and glamour than foreign policy. As a self-proclaimed hockey mom, she came across as ordinary and accessible. She looked like the typical mother of five who pins her hair up when she forgets to get her hair cut. The glasses made her look serious, though the rimless frame was outdated and was not designed by Chanel or Dolce &Gabbana. They were meant to be unobtrusive. Most people choose glasses that frame their face and highlight their features; she did the exact opposite. The genuine hockey
66

Sarah Palin Biography.com 2008. A&E Television Networks. 23 Apr. 2009. < http://www.biography.com/featured-biography/sarah-palin/bio2.jsp.>.

33 mom persona was proven effective because women wanted to look like her. Amazon.com reported a fifty percent increase in sales of Naughty Monkey shoes, the maker of her infamous red peep-toe pumps. 67 Since the majority of soccer and hockey moms could not afford her nearly four hundred dollar Kawasaki frames, BleuDame.com sold a very similar pair for fifty dollars. A representative for the website described the amount of transactions and requests as pure mayhem. 68 A wig salon in Miami Beach saw huge sales of their Bargain Sarah Palin Wig, which retailed for forty six dollars. One cannot determine whether women honestly wanted to look like her or were purchasing these items for their Halloween costumes. Either way, Palins style was influential. Palins clothing lacked the sophistication of Michelle Obamas dresses, the regality of Cindy McCains couture and assertiveness of Hillary Clintons pantsuits. 69 Her apparel was common; black skirts and beige blouses could be purchased anywhere from Sears to Neiman Marcus. Besides being common, her slim skirts and peep toes heels were feminine and sexy. It was imperative that she looked stern but not masculine. Pantsuits might have suggested that she was on the same level as her running mate. The femininity shown through the skirt suits gave voters the impression that she was demure but could take over for McCain if she had to. Despite her fashion sense or lack thereof, Palins appearance ultimately was fitting and appropriate.

Brissette Mata, Brenda. The politics of fashion: Campaign trail puts spotlight on what women wear; whose fashion sense do you identify with? Flint Journal. 6 Oct. 2008. 17 Apr. 2009. <http://www.mlive.com/living/flint/index.ssf/2008/10/the_politics_of_fashion_campai.html>. 68 Palpably Palin. Brandweek. 3 Nov. 2008. EBSCOhost. American U Library, Washington. 23 Apr. 2009. <http://web.ebscohost.com>. 69 Givhan, Robin. Sarah Palins unassertive fashion statement. Washington Post. 28 Sept. 2008. 23 Apr. 2009. < http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/story/2008/09/26/ST2008092603303.html>.

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34 Hillary Clinton When Hillary Clinton announced that she would be running for President of the United States, many Americans were overwhelmed with excitement. As her campaign gained momentum and number of supporters grew, it seemed plausible that Clinton could make history and become the nations first female president. Hillary Diane Rodham was born October 26, 1947 in Chicago, Illinois, the first child of Dorothy and Hugh Rodham. Hillary was raised in Park Ridge, Illinois and was active in sports and her church as a child. 70 In high school, she was a member of the National Honor Society and served as a student leader. Upon graduating from high school, she entered Wellesley College, where she took interest in student government and was elected senior class president. 71 Three months later, she enrolled in Yale Law School and soon met fellow student, Bill Clinton. The pair began dating and the two were inseparable, working together on political campaigns and campus events. 72 She graduated with honors in 1973 and became a member of the presidential impeachment inquiry staff during the Watergate scandal. She then began working alongside her boyfriend, Bill Clinton, at the University of Arkansas Law School. The couple married in fall 1975 in Fayetteville, Arkansas. Bill worked as Attorney General before becoming governor of Arkansas in 1978. After several successful terms as governor, Bill launched his presidential campaign and was elected President of the United States in 1993. As First Lady, Hillary worked to increase health insurance coverage and help

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Biography of Hillary Clinton. First Ladies. 2009. The White House. 23 Apr. 2009. <http://www.whitehouse.gov/about/first_ladies/hillaryclinton/>. 71 Hillary Clinton Biography.com 2009. A&E Television Networks. 23 Apr. 2009. <http://www.biography.com/search/article.do?id=9251306>. 72 Biography of Hillary Clinton. First Ladies. 2009. The White House. 23 Apr. 2009. <http://www.whitehouse.gov/about/first_ladies/hillaryclinton/>.

35 impoverished children and families. Because of her passion for healthcare, her husband appointed her chairperson of the Task Force on National Health Care Reform. At the end of her husbands second term as president, Hillary decided that she once again wanted to enter government. In 2001 she made history as the first wife of a president to seek and win national office and the first woman to be elected to the United States Senate from New York. 73 After two terms, she set her sights on the presidency. Hillary announced her presidential bid in January 2007. People now began to see a different side of Hillary Clinton. For eight years, Hillary Clinton was the First Lady of the United States. Her wardrobe was traditional and matronly; filled with high neck dresses and long hemmed skirts. Because of her former role, she needed to make a distinction in her appearance. It was important for people to view her as a potential president. Clinton wore pantsuits to every rally and event during her 2008 Presidential campaign. She had pantsuits in every color from bright pink to navy blue. She would often mix and match her suits, pairing a bright blazer with dark pants. The hosts of the Fox& Friends morning show joked that she had a pantsuit schedule and designated color for each day of the week. 74 Susanna Chung Forest, a Beverly Hills based designer, created many of Clintons signature pantsuits. Forests clientele mainly consists of socialites and prominent female business executives. 75 Clinton wore black, white or striped buttoned blouses underneath her jackets. The solid colored pantsuits were devoid of decoration with simple buttons and zippers. She accessorized her pantsuits with pearl or gold earrings and necklaces. During a July 2007 appearance on C-

Hillary Clinton Biography.com 2009. A&E Television Networks. 23 Apr. 2009. <http://www.biography.com/search/article.do?id=9251306>. 74 Edwards, David and Muriel Kane. Fox & Friends reports on Clintons pantsuits. The Raw Story. 25 Feb. 2008. 23 Apr. 2009. <http://rawstory.com/news/2008/Fox__Friends_reports_on_Hillarys_0225.html>. 75 Daswani, Kavita. The pantsuits that got Hillary Clintons vote. Los Angeles Times. 21 Sept. 2008. 27 Apr. 2009. < http://articles.latimes.com/2008/sep/21/image/ig-pantsuits21>.

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36 SPAN, she wore a v-shaped neckline that slightly revealed her cleavage. Though unintentional, the revealing of the top of her chest was surprising as people had never seen her wear that type of neckline. Her clothing was typically stately and she was known for altering clothing she felt was too revealing. 76 During the campaign, Clinton sported a short, simple hair cut with layers. Bloggers and political advisors suggested that the style was a requisite for aspiring female lawyers and politicians. 77 Speaker of the House Nancy Pelosi wore a very similar hair style. Clinton was well aware of the attention her hair received. When a supporter complimented her hair cut during a fundraising event in New Hampshire, Clinton responded, There is so much fascination with my hair that I told Bill when he was president that if he wanted to get some international incident off the front page I would change it. 78 Less than a month into her campaign, Clinton made it clear that she would directly appeal to female voters. 79 This was necessary because many of the reforms she pushed for, such as healthcare and education were concerns for women. She posted, Im in and Im in to win on her campaign website, signaling that she was prepared for the tough campaign that was ahead of her. 80 Though she wanted to project a strong and capable image, she was faced with a dilemma. Because there has never been a female president, she needed to show that she was just as smart as any man. Clinton needed to prove that she could be tough when it came to handling foreign policy issues and war. It was imperative that she get men to vote for her too in order to win the presidency. For this reason, she could not appear too feminine. Anna Wintour, editor of Vogue
Givhan, Robin. Hillary Clintons tentative dip into new neckline territory. Washington Post. 20 July 2007. 23 Apr. 2009. < http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/07/19/AR2007071902668.html>. 77 Marhee, Joseph. The Hillary Clinton haircut [Weblog entry.] The Obviously Reputable Post. 27 Mar. 2008. (http://josephmarhee.wordpress.com/2008/03/27/the-hillary-clinton-haircut/). 23 Apr. 2009. 78 Pindell, James. Hillary and her hair. [Weblog entry] Primary Source. The Boston Globe. 30 Mar. 2007. (http://www.boston.com/news/local/politics/primarysource/2007/03/hillary_and_her.html). 22 Apr. 2007. 79 Feldman, Linda. Hillary Clinton targets womens vote. The Christian Science Monitor. 1 Feb. 2007. 23 Apr. 2009. <http://www.csmonitor.com/2007/0201/p01S04-uspo.html. >. 80 Balz, Dan. Hillary Clinton opens presidential bid. Washington Post. 21 Jan. 2007. 23 April 2009. <http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/01/20/AR2007012000426.html>.
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37 magazine, criticized Clinton for backing out of a photo shoot at the last minute for fear that she would look too feminine. 81 However, if she completely embraced a masculine look she would risk alienating her female supporters. If her appearance was not at all feminine, women would have a harder time relating to her. Her greatest challenge was erasing the First Lady image and replacing it with an image of a female president. Clintons attachment to pantsuits and refusal to wear skirts or dresses during her campaign was not only defiant, but liberal. The pantsuits gave the impression that she was announcing her gender and defying societys dress codes. Her goal was to show that she did not have to wear a skirt to be viewed as a woman. She made it clear that fashion was not the most important item in her agenda. In the February 2008 issue of US Weekly, she criticized her own outfits in a four page spread titled My worst outfits ever! She gave a quote or short commentary for over ten of her previous ensembles. The editor of the magazine said that she pitched the idea to Clintons camp and received an immediate yes. 82 Anyone who would agree to publicly discuss his or her previous fashion mistakes obviously does not care that much about fashion. Clintons attachment to pantsuits made it evident that she was noncommittal and ambivalent toward style. She wanted to show that she cared more about the issues at stake and that she was the best candidate to fix them. Though Clinton used the pantsuits to reflect her seriousness, the colors that she chose seemed more appropriate for a picnic or church service. A canary yellow blazer will most certainly make a woman stand out among a group of men, though not in a good way. After a Democratic nominee debate with John Edwards and Barack Obama in July 2007, Edwards joked

81

Moe. Vogues Anna Wintour calls Hillary Clinton a mannish coward. [Weblog entry.] Jezebel. 18 Jan. 2008. (http://jezebel.com/346503/vogues-anna-wintour-calls-hillary-clinton-a-mannish-coward). 24 Apr. 2008. 82 Aspan, Maria. Hillary Clinton as the fashion police: My polka-dot dress should be arrested. New York Times. 11 Feb. 2008. 23 Apr. 2009. <http://www.nytimes.com/2008/02/11/business.media/11min.html>.

38 about Clintons coral jacket saying, Im not sure about that coat. 83 The two continued back and forth as Clinton laughed off the joke. Edwards remarks were later criticized for being sexist. Unlike Cindy McCain and Michelle Obama, Clinton was hoping to be elected to the presidency. Her intellect and appearance were both under scrutiny. Though Sarah Palin was running for office, her clothing choices and appearance were analyzed differently because she was meant to complement John McCain. It was possible that she could become president though not planned. Clinton faced the hardest challenge because she had numerous images to project with her appearance. She had to seem like a viable candidate, feminine to appeal to her female supporters and somewhat masculine to be taken seriously and blend in with the other candidates. Simply put, she had to noticeably change her image.

83

Marcus, Ruth. Pretty Formidable in Pink. Washington Post. 25 July 2007. 23 Apr. 2009. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/07/24/AR2007072401853.html>.

39 Analysis The First Lady of the United States is almost as highly influential as her husband. Everything from the height of her shoe heel to the color of her hair is noted and discussed. Women often imitate the appearance of the First Lady to mirror her image and seem equally stately and poised. Before women flooded White House/Black Market boutiques to purchase Michelle Obamas dress, Mamie Eisenhower influenced women to wear bangs and Barbara Bush made gray hair chic. 84 A potential First Lady must have qualities in her appearance that women will actually want to copy. Obama and McCain both succeeded in making other women want to look like them, though to different extents. The emphasis on their clothing and appearance was expected given their potential roles. Though presidential candidates share stories of their childhood and early life, they often do not reveal much about their family life besides the obvious. They do not discuss the day to day details of their personal lives. The way that the First Lady carries herself or appears can offer voters insight on what the president and his family are like. If she is well put together and always appropriately dressed for the occasion, it hints that her husband has similar qualities. Conversely, if her dress is sloppy, careless or consistently badly chosen, people will attach these characteristics to her husband. The coverage of what Cindy McCain and Michelle Obama were wearing gave voters an impression of what their families were like and how their husbands would fare as president. Sarah Palin and Hillary Clinton faced a different challenge when dealing with fashion because they were running for office. They were both representing themselves but needed to
84

Trebay, Guy. U.S. Fashions One-Woman Bailout? New York Times. 8 Jan. 2009. ProQuest. American U Library, Washington. 14 Apr. 2009. <www.proquest.com>.

40 appear consistent with their party and stance. Both had to find the balance between sexiness and femininity. If Palin and Clinton were too fashion conscious, it would suggest that they were not serious enough for their potential positions. On the other hand, if their appearance lacked modernity overall, they would have been viewed as boring or out of touch. Someone with an outdated appearance might not be up to date with other aspects of their life. Moreover an outdated appearance can suggest that ones reasoning and logic is also obsolete. It was imperative that the dress of Clinton and Palin reflect that they were somewhat contemporary. During the 2008 Presidential election, Americans sought a candidate that could help them move forward, not look as if they were stuck in the past. The fashion industry is suited for and dominated by women. Though there are a bevy of male designers and menswear collections; historically, fashion has been tied to women. A woman has many more clothing options than a man does. She can wear a skirt, pants, or a dress in a professional setting and still look appropriate. A man is limited to a suit and tie. Because women have many more options and accessories to choose from, there is more for people to judge and scrutinize. Fashion critics are limited in what they can say about a mans attire. For this reason, more attention was placed on the four prominent women of the 2008 Presidential campaign as there was more to criticize and assess. From a communications standpoint, fashion is a persuasive form of nonverbal communication. Ones dress must reflect his or her wished-for persona. A woman that wants people to think of her as intelligent and bright, would not wear clothing that is too revealing or too tight as society does not associate intellect with raunchiness. Therefore, fashion is similar to a costume in that it allows people to alter their appearance, thereby altering others perception of them. The clothing and adornment worn by these women shaped how Americans thought of

41 them. The fashion choices worn by these four women were not solely based on their preference. Each strategically used fashion to present an identity. All of them attempted to dress in a way that suited their potential roles. McCains fashion sense was reminiscent of former Republican First Lady Nancy Reagan. Obamas mixture of high and low end designs presented a sensibility that matched perfectly with her husbands promise of economic stability. Palins skirts and high heels were best for a female vice presidential candidate. They showed that she was aware that she needed to complement her running mate and not compete with him for power. It had to be clear that he would actually be in charge. Her glasses gave the impression that though she was a woman; she was intelligent enough to take over as president if she needed to. Clintons pantsuits helped erase her former First Lady image and look as tough and qualified as her male opponents. Because society relies more on appearance than substance to make decisions and judgments, the best way to assume a position of great influence or power is to look like one belongs there.

42 Conclusion Ones dress plays a significant role in how others will identify and characterize him or her. A persons clothing and accessories can indicate gender and social status. Self image is also reflected in ones appearance, as people who think highly of themselves dress differently than people who do not. Fashion heavily impacted how Americans perceived the four prominent women of the 2008 Presidential campaign. The appearance of Cindy McCain, Michelle Obama, Sarah Palin and Hillary Clinton helped citizens make judgments of them or the spouses. This paper addressed the role of fashion in the campaign and how it was strategically used. Though each of these women approached fashion from a different angle, they all sought to display self-assurance in the way that they dressed. This study proved that in the world of politics, image is everything.

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