UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES, DHARWAD

COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING, RAICHUR.

PROGRAMME OF RESEARCH

1. Name of the student : MANJULA .B.

2. ID. No. &Year of Admission : PGS07ENGG4666

Year of Admission 2007-08.

3. Degree Programme and Subject : M.Tech. (Ag.Engg.), in Agricultural

Processing and Food Engineering

4. College : College of Agricultural Engineering,

Raichur.

5. Title of the Thesis : “Investigations on Drying of Byadagi

Chilli (Capsicum annuum L.)Using
Solar Tunnel Dryer”

6. Objectives of Investigation

1. To determine the physico-chemical characteristics of Cv.Byadagi chilli.

2. To study the drying characteristics of Cv. Byadagi chilli in solar tunnel dryer.
3. To determine the quality characteristics of dried Cv. Byadagi chilli.
7. Brief Review of Work

Introduction

The native home of chilli (Capsicum annuum Linn.) is considered to be

Mexico with secondary origin of Guatemala. It is also called hot pepper,
cayennepepper, sweet pepper, etc. Chilli belongs to the genus capsicum under
solanaceae family and is a globrous, woody sub-shrub or shrub. The word Capsicum
has originated from Greek word “kapso” means “bite” with reference to the dominant
pungency stimulated by the spice (Anonymous, 2008). Chilli was not known to India
about 400 years ago. In 1970’s a Portuguese sailor collected capsicum of South
America and brought into Goa, India. Indians found the taste of chilli to their
satisfaction and asked for more quantity. On request, a ship with a large quantity of
Capsicum chilli from America reached Madras port in 1680’s and from there it has
spread all over the country. The genus Capsicum is divided into three sections viz.,
 2

Turbo C.Capsicum and Pseudoacnistus and Capsicum. Section Capsicum includes 22

wild species and fine domesticated species. Among the domesticated species
C.annum is widely cultivated. The other cultivated species are C.frutescens,
C.Chinese, C.Pubecens, and C.baccatum.
The crop is valued for its colouring matter, oleoresins, pungency which is
imparted by an alkaloid, capsaicin and the red pigments viz., Capsanthan, Capsorubin
and Capsanthin. Chillies are widely used as spice, condiment, culinary supplement,
medicine, vegetable and as ornamental plants too. Chillies are also a source of protein,
carbohydrates, minerals, ascorbic acid, oleoresin and red pigment.
Capsicum is one of the major cash crops in India, grown both for the domestic
market and export purpose. India is the largest producer of chillies in the world
covering an area of 8.83 lakh hectares with an average productivity of 1266 kg.ha -1
(Peter, 2006). Indian chilli is exported to over 90 countries and is the second largest
exporter in the world. It is exported in different forms such as whole chillies, dried,
fresh chillies, chilli powder and chilli oleoresin to South Asian countries, the USA and
Canada. India is export 2,00,000 tonnes of red chilli during 2007-08.
Chilli crop is raised both for green and ripe dry fruits. World acreage either for
green or ripe dry fruits is not available separately. Major chilli growing countries are
India, China, Indonesia, Korea, Pakistan, Turkey and SriLanka in Asia; Egypt, Ghana,
Nigeria, Kenya, Sudan, Uganda and Tunisia in Africa; Mexico,United States of
America in North, Central America; Bulgaria, Hungary,Italy, Romania, Spain,
Yugoslavia in Europe and Argentina and Peru in South America.(Pruthi,1998).
USA is the largest importer of chilli from India followed by SriLanka,
Singapore and Malaysia. Chilli with higher colour value and less pungency are
preferred in Europe and the West. Chinese chilli is known for cleanliness, very low
‘Aflatoxin’ levels and good cultural practices. Indian chillies contain about 16% (d.b.)
moisture, while 10-11% (d.b.) is the acceptable limit in the export market (Singhal,
1999). ‘Aflatoxin’ is also present in Indian chillies. Therefore, Europeans prefer to
import the Chinese chilli subject to availability at a reasonable price. They turn to
India mostly at times when there is a crop failure in China. Pesticide residue is also
causing one of the important points for rejection of the produce. The main marketing
season for chilli in India is between February and May.
 3

In India chilli is grown in many states viz., Andhra Pradesh contributes 49%
of production, Karnataka contributes 15% of production, Orissa contributes 8% of
production, Maharashtra contributes 6% of production, West Bengal contributes 5%
of production, Rajasthan contributes 4% of production and Tamilnadu contributes 3%
of production (Anonymous, 2006).
In India chilli is grown in the months of May-June and January-February.
Chilli besides imparting pungency and red colour to the dishes, is a rich source of
vitamins A, C and E and assists in digestion. Recently Russian scientists have
identified vitamin P in green chillies which is considered to be important in providing
protection from secondary irradiation injury. The pungency in chillies is due to an
alkaloid capsaicin which has high medicinal value. It prevents the heart diseases by
dilating blood vessels. Chilli forms an indispensable culinary spice in several parts of
the world. It is also used in beverages and in the preparation of medicines. Chilli is an
important ingredient in day-to-day curries, pickles and chutneys. Oleoresins, sauce
and essence are prepared from chillies.
There are considerable variations in colour, shape and size of chillies from
different regions of the world. Besides difference in soil, climate and cultivation
conditions, natural hybridization and selection play an important role in the
characteristics of Capsicum. Cultivars differing in size, shape, colour, pungency and
aroma established themselves in different regions.
Chilli (Capsicum annuum .L) is a highly perishable crop after it is harvested in
a ripe condition at moisture content of 310 %( d.b.) as against its safe moisture level
of 8%(d.b.) (Chandy, 1992). Therefore, the produce is to be dried in a manner that it
retains its physical characteristics with red colour and lustre. Delay in drying results in
growth of microflora and subsequent loss of quality leading to total spoilage (Singh et
al., 1982). Laul et al. (1970) have investigated ways of improving sun drying method
for Indian chillies.
Freshly harvested ripened chillies (Cv Byadagi kaddi) were collected from the
field of a progressive farmer of Raichur district, Karnataka. After each harvest fresh
byadgi kaddi chillies were procured and transported to the laboratory within 5 hours
of harvesting. The produce was graded to obtain uniform length, diameter, better
retention of colour. Dipsol was prepared by dissolving 250 g of (potassium carbonate,
calcium carbonate, potassium sulphate, and potassium nitrate), and10g of gum acacia
in 10 litres of water and mixing with 0.1g of butylated hydroxyl anisole (BHA)
 4

dissolved in 100g of refined ground nut oil. The mixture was stirred for 5 min, to
obtain a homogeneous solution for the treatment (CFTRI, 1979). The initial moisture
content of both the samples (treated and untreated) were determined by following
standard hot air oven method at 105± 0.5°C for24 hours. The treated and untreated
chilli fruits were weighed and placed in the trays of Solar Tunnel Dryer (STD) and
under the Open Yard Sun Drying (OYSD).
Drying is one of the important unit operations in the primary processing of
agricultural produce. Sun drying has been age old practice for this purpose. There are
many disadvantages, such as loss in the quality due to adhering dirt and dust, bird
menace and also bio-deterioration due to prolonged open-drying. Solar drying of chilli
is the most feasible drying method.
For processing and to increase the shelf life of chillies, their moisture content has
to be reduced by drying to its equilibrium moisture content. Traditionally, chilli is
dried in major production areas of the world (Shrivastava et al., 1990) and solar
dryers have been reported for higher improved drying efficiency (Tiris et al., 1995)
but the major problem encountered with the sun drying technique is that the chilli
remains at longer periods at intermediate moisture levels results in browning of the
product besides the product being amenable to dirt, dust and microbial infection.
Mostly chilli is used in the dried powdered form. The two chief chemical constituents
of chilli are capsaicin (pungency) and capsonoids (colouring matter) which are mainly
responsible for export of chilli and gaining importance in processed food and spice
industries. The values of various quality attributes for all varieties at all the drying
temperatures are compared with standard values (Gurpreet Singh, 1997) of capsaicin
content and colouring matter. Prickling of chillies did not show any effect on the
capsaicin content of dried chillies. The quality of chillies is of much importance and is
based on bright red colour, good pungency level, good flavour and firm stalks
(Gurpreet Singh, 1997).
The chilli varieties are widely classified based on its size, shape, colour,
appearance and pungency. Common varieties extensively grown in Karnataka are
Byadgi (Kaddi and Dabbi), Sankeshwar, Chincholi, Mysore, etc. The Byadgi kaddi is
being extensively cultivated in the transition belt of Dharwad, Shimoga and
Chitradurga districts. The chilli plant grows to a height of 1 m with a spread of 1 m,
leaves are thin and light green in colour. It is a high branching type. Fruits attain deep
red colour on maturity and develop wrinkles on the surface. Fruits are 12 to 15 cm
 5

long and thin but with less pungency. The variety selected for the study was Byadgi
kaddi.
Of late, aflatoxin contamination caused by Aspergillus flavous Link Fres. and
Aspergillus niger Van Tiegh. has become a serious problem in chilli, since it affects
the quality of the produce thereby affecting the export trade in the international
market. This is particularly true after the World Trade Organization (WTO) came into
force in 1990’s,. The importing countries impose Sanitary and Phytosanitary
Specifications (SPS) and Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) before
allowing the commodities to their countries as per the WTO agreement
(Anonymous,2003).
The review of work is presented according to the objectives of the study.
7.1. Physico-chemical characteristics
Shivhare et al.,(1987), reported that the physico-chemical properties namely
the bulk density, true density and bed porosity of sound green chillies were 0.37 g/ml,
0.84 g/ml and 56.0% respectively, where as for red chillies the corresponding values
were 0.13 g/ml, 0.58-0.62 g/ml and 77.6-79.0% respectively.
Hossain et al., (2000), carried out experiments on adsorption and desorption
equilibrium moisture contents for freshly harvested and dried chilli in relative
humidity ranges of 11-97% at the temperatures of 20, 30, 40 and 50 °C. The effect of
temperature on adsorption and desorption isotherms was found significant. Hysteresis
was observed for entire range of relative humidity and hysteresis loops decreased with
the increase of temperature. Seven equilibrium moisture content models were fitted
using the experimental data at the temperatures of 20, 30, 40 and 50 °C. The modified
Smith equation was the best fitted model for the experimental data in relative
humidity range of 11 to 97% for the adsorption and desorption isotherms for red
chilli.
Joy et al., (2001), conducted studies on drying of red chillies using a Solar
Tunnel Dryer. Improvement in overall quality parameters, cleanliness and texture
were noticed in tunnel-dried chilli samples compared to conventionally dried samples.
Considerable reduction in drying time was noticed for solar tunnel drying compared
to traditional drying.
Attri et al.. (2002), studied the physical characters such as pod length, colour
of eight chilli cultivars, followed by storage at ambient (28-30°C) and refrigeration
(6-8°C) temperatures under relative humidities of 90-95% and 75% respectively. After
 6

recording the physical characters, the fruits were packed in low-density polyethylene
(LDPE) having 5% holes, kept in plastic baskets and stored at ambient and
refrigerated temperatures. In another experiment, the fruits after washing and drying
were treated with 20 ppm Benlate (benomyl) for 2 minutes. The physical characters of
the different cultivars varied significantly because of difference in their genetic make-
up. During post harvest storage of chilli, physiological loss in weight of 70.03% was
recorded in variety LVA 206 after 8 days, whereas minimum loss (15-95%) was
observed in variety LCA 334. after 60 days in polyethylene at refrigerated
temperatures.
Gupta et al., (2002), reported that the physical appearance of the dried chillies
was found to be the best when the blanched samples were soaked in gum acacia
solution (0.2% m/v) for 15 minutes at room temperature, and dried in a tray dryer at
selected temperatures (55, 60, 65 and 70°C). Results indicated that the drying took
place in the falling rate period.
Borkar et al., (2004), conducted a survey to determine the optimum pressure
required and moisture content of chilli for better packaging with minimum losses,
mode of transportation to drying floor, type of drying, type of yard used for drying,
labour requirement for packaging, packaging material capacity, mode of transport,
capacity of transport, packaging and transport losses. The optimum pressure
requirement, moisture content and maximum quantity of chillies that could be
accommodated without any breakages were 0.6 kg/cm2, 21.4% and 358 kg/m3,
respectively.
Heredia leon et al., (2004), evaluated the effect of low temperature blanching
and drying processes on the ultra structural and physical properties of Anaheim chilli
pepper and the optimum conditions to provide a final product with maximum firmness
were determined. Lots of Anaheim pepper were blanched in water for 4 minutes at 48,
55, 65, 75 and 82°C and maintained at 96 degrees C and dehydrated at 53, 60, 70, 80
and 87°C. After the treatment, the samples were rehydrated in water at 30°C.
Rehydration ratio, texture and structural changes were determined. Texture and
rehydration ratio were affected by blanching temperature and the interaction of
blanching temperature and withhold time (p<-0.05). Drying temperature did not show
any significant effect. The best results i.e., those which gave the maximum firmness,
were obtained by blanching at 64°C.
 7

Oberoi et al., (2005), carried out a comparative study to evaluate two methods
of drying with respect to temperature and time combination, quality parameters
including the physico-chemical and microbial attributes. It took 25 hours to bring
down the moisture content of chillies from 361 to 10.1% (d.b.) in the Batch-Type-
Dryer (BTD) as against 10 days by the Traditional Sun-Drying for bringing down the
moisture content to 9.90% (d.b.). The colour retention was significantly better in the
chillies dried using Batch-Type Dryer (BTD) as compared to Conventional Sun-
Drying (CSD). There was no difference in the oleoresin content but capsaicin content
was lower in chillies dried under hot sun. There was nearly a 2 log (cfu/g) reduction
in bacterial count in dryer-dried chillies compared to sun-dried ones but no difference
in the lactobacilli colonies could be observed. A marked reduction in yeast and fungal
colonies in dryer-dried samples compared to sun-dried samples could be seen. The
results indicated that chilli dried in a BTD is better with regard to physico-chemical
characteristics and relatively safe with respect to microbial quality.
Sanjeev Mehta et al.,(2006), concluded that the adsorption equilibrium
moisture content for red chilli were determined experimentally in relative humidity
range of 11-97% at the temperatures of 20, 30, 40, and 50°C. Six equilibrium
moisture content models were fitted using the experimental data. The modified Oswin
model was the best fitted equation for relative humidity range of 11-97% for the
adsorption data of red chilli.
Hossain et al., (2007), reported that a mixed mode type forced convection
Solar Tunnel Dryer was used to dry hot red and green chillies. Moisture content of red
chilli was reduced from 2.85 to 0.05 kg. kg-1 (d.b.) in 20 hours in solar tunnel dryer
whereas it took 32 hours to reduce the moisture content from 2.85 to 0.09 and 0.40 kg.
-1
kg (d.b.) in improved and conventional sun drying methods respectively. In case of
green chilli, about 0.06 kg. kg-1 (d.b.) moisture content was obtained from an initial
moisture content of 7.6 kg. kg-1 (d.b.) in 22 hours in solar tunnel dryer and 35 hours to
reach the moisture content to 0.10 and 0.70kg.kg-1(d.b.) in improved and conventional
sun drying methods, respectively.
7.2. Drying characteristics of Byadagi chilli
Kalra et al., (1980), reported that two models of solar dehydrators were
constructed with mixed functions of direct and indirect dryers. In model-I, the trays
were placed in a separate chamber and in model-II, the trays were adjusted inside the
collector. The model-I and model-II attained 10-20°C and 20-25°C, respectively,
 8

higher temperature than the open atmosphere. Samples of mango slices, mango
leather, green peas, okra and three potato products were satisfactorily dehydrated. On
an average, model-II reduced the moisture to 6% (d.b.) in 7 hours and model-I, 1 to
7% (d.b.) in 8 hours compared to about 9 hours needed in open atmosphere for getting
8% (d.b.) moisture. The solar dehydrator dried products were considered qualitatively
superior to the open sun dried products. The solar dehydrators were simple to
fabricate and are well suited to rural conditions and small scale food processing
industries.
Kaensup et al.,(2002), presented data on drying chilli (Capsicum annuum) in a
microwave-vacuum-rotary drum dryer. This novel technique was designed to combine
the advantages of vacuum drying and evenly dispersed microwave energy in a rotary
drum. The drying kinetics and the specific energy consumption at particular product
moisture content were measured experimentally. Moreover, the effect of pressure
inside the chamber and the rotational speed of the drum were also determined.
Hossain et al., (2002), conducted the thin layer drying experiments under
overflow-under flow and through flow conditions of green chilli with air temperature
ranging from 40 to 65°C, relative humidity ranging from 10 to 60 % and air velocity
ranging from 0.10 to 1.0 m/s. The single exponential equation and the Page equation
were used to determine the thin-layer drying characteristics of green chilli.
Papa kumari et al., (2003), treated the chilli with calcium carbonate, potassium
sulphate, potassium carbonate and potassium nitrate and studied for pod length, time
taken to come to safe moisture content of 8-10% (d.b.) and percentage of damaged
(whitened) pods. Pod colour on drying was bright red in tray drying, red in solar
drying and light in open yard sun-drying methods. Time required for drying to a safe
moisture content of about 9% (d.b.) was significantly influenced by drying methods.
Kaleemullah et al., (2006), studied the drying characteristics of red chilli in
different layers of deep-bed dryer (DBD) at 55°C. It took 20, 21 and 23 hours to dry
chilli in bottom, middle and top layers (5 cm thick each) of DBD, respectively from
its initial moisture content of around 310 % (d.b.) to final moisture content of around
10.5% (d.b.). The average capsaicin content and red colour value (a*) of dried chilli
increased from 0.47 to 0.57% and 18.7 to 23.3 respectively as the drying front of
chilli moved from bottom to top layer of DBD. They concluded that the Kaleemullah
and Page models could be used to predict the moisture ratio of chilli at different layers
of DBD.
 9

Hossain et al., (2007), single layer drying experiments were conducted under
controlled conditions of temperature, relative humidity (RH) and air velocity to find
out the effects of drying conditions and blanching on the drying rate and colour of red
chilli. Drying rate increased with an increase of drying air temperature and a decrease
of RH. Air temperatures above 65°C affected the colour of red chilli at an air velocity
equal to or just above 0.50 m/s. The Newton and the Page models were fitted to the
experimental data for the single-layer drying of red chilli.
Tasirin et al., (2007), reported about the drying kinetics of bird’s eye chilli in
fluidized bed dryer in reducing the moisture content of chilli to 16% (d.b.) as
comparable to the dried chilli in the market. Drying experiments were conducted at
bed depths of 2 cm and 4 cm with air velocities of 0.85m/s, 0.97 m/s and 1.09 m/s,
and operating temperatures of 50°C, 60°C and 70°C. The drying rate obtained was
divided into several periods viz., the initial transient period, first falling rate period
and second falling rate period.
7.3. Quality Characteristics
Govindarajan et al., (1977), reported that the quantitative estimation of
capsaicin, the pungency factor of capsicum were determined by the Scoville heat
units. They described a standardized procedure for determining pungency of
Capsicum in Scoville heat units, taking into account experimental and other
psychological errors, nature and limits of panel variations. A definition of panel
sensitivity was proposed to provide parameters to compare results by panels of
different sensitivity. With the proposed procedure very highly significant linear
regression was obtained between the Scoville heat units and the capsaicin content of
the samples.
Narayanan et al., (1980), concluded that the low pungency and high colour of
the Indian chilli (Capsicum annuum) oleoresin precluded its use in pharmaceuticals
and was also the main reason for its very low export. Studies have shown that
adsorption chromatography could be used for fractionating pungency and colour
constituents. Bulk of the pungency and colour were concentrated in the pericarp and
even here there was variation in concentration of each in different zones. Results have
shown promise for a method for preparation of high pungency, low colour fraction
required by the pharmaceutical industry. As by-products, a colour fraction free from
pungency and chilli seed oil were obtained.
 10

Gbolade et al., (1997), reported that the capsaicin content of fresh and dried
chillies (Capsicum frutescens cultivars Ata Were and Sombo, and Capsicum annuum
cultivars Rodo and Tatase), obtained from a local market in Nigeria, were determined.
The best solvents for extracting capsaicin were ethanol and acetone. It was concluded
that Nigerian chillies could be used to produce oleoresin Capsaicin for use in
pharmaceutical applications.
Chen et al., (1999), investigated the important quality attributes of red pepper
like red colour, particle size and moisture content on CIE L*a*b* colour parameters
of red pepper powder (cultivar: Korean Buguang). Moisture content within 10-15 %(
w.b.) had no significant influence on all colour parameters of the powder of the
selected cultivar. Particle size at 18 and 30 meshes, commonly used in Korea had a
significant effect on lightness but no effect on hue angle and chroma of red pepper
powder of this cultivar. The interaction of particle size and moisture content were
significant on all colour parameters. More research was needed on other cultivars and
on the mixture of certain cultivars.
Shanta (1999), reported that the efficacy of different methods of extraction,
purification and estimation of aflatoxin B1 in chillies with different levels of aflatoxin
B1 before and after equilibration of the added toxin was investigated. Levels of
Aflatoxin added were 10, 20, 30, 50, 70 and 100 µ g. kg-1. When the samples were
extracted before equilibration, irrespective of the method used, the percent recoveries
ranged from 65 to 108. The toxin recovered was low (0-10%), if the contamination
level was below 40 µ g.kg-1 in the equilibrated samples. Improved recoveries were
obtained, when the added aflatoxin levels were 50, 70 and 100 µ g.kg-1. Hexane or
petroleum ether solubles seemed to bind lower levels of aflatoxin B1.
Vrabcheva (2000), reported that aflatoxins were not of particular concern.
These highly carcinogenic compounds were produced by Aspergillus flavus and
Aspergillus parasiticus, and were most frequently found in red peppers (paprika,
chilli, and capsicum), nutmeg, mustard and ginger. Significant levels of contamination
with Aspergillus flavus were common in red peppers, which were not usually
subjected to processing except drying and grinding. Aflatoxins have been detected in
most tested samples of root ginger imported into the USA from India. High
concentrations of aflatoxins were frequently detected in nutmeg, particularly
aflatoxins B1 and B2; Aspergillus glaucus was the main fungal contaminant. Studies in
India have revealed that 44% of mustard samples were contaminated with aflatoxins,
 11

mostly aflatoxin B1 and 25% of all isolates of Aspergillus flavus found in mustard
were toxinogenic. Other mycotoxins that have been detected in seasonings included
ochratoxin A (in chilli, paprika, coriander, ginger, curry and garlic marinade);
Zearalenone (in dill, coriander, chilli, curry and garlic marinade) and trichothecin (in
coriander, chilli, curry, ginger and garlic).
Bera et al.,(2001), reported on the changes in caratenoid pigments as well as
ascorbic acid content of dry chilli powder during various conditions of storage. Losses
of carotenes to the extent of 13.47 to 36.62 % were observed in the treated chilli
powder after 150 days of storage at 40°C/70% RH and 30°C/90%RH, respectively.
Eleyinmi et al., (2002), stated that some nutritionally important minerals,
ascorbic acid and rehydration index of 3 Capsicum species, namely Sweet pepper
[Capsicum annuum (Capsicum annuum) var. grossum], Tobacco pepper [Capsicum
annuum var. acumination (Capsicum annuum var. annuum)] and Chilli pepper
(Capsicum frutescens var. baccatum) were determined in the laboratory, by subjecting
the samples to blanching and soaking in 30% sodium chloride solution, 1% potassium
metabisulphite solution using standard methods. The mineral composition (ppm) of
samples varied significantly for different treatment groups, with highest losses being
recorded for water-blanched samples. Samples soaked in Sodium chloride and
potassium metabisulphite gave better mineral retention values than blanched samples.
The different pre-treatment operations employed had no significant effect on ascorbic
acid content of the peppers. Highest values for rehydration index were obtained for
samples soaked and blanched in potassium metabisulphite.
Arora et al., (2005), reported that the mechanical drying of ‘Punjab Lal’,
‘Punjab Surkh’, ‘Punjab Guchhedar’, ‘CH-1 hybrid’ chilli varieties was done at 45,
50, 55, 60 and 65°C. One lot of chillies was pricked manually and the other was kept
unpricked; both the lots were given chemical treatment. After drying to a moisture
content of 8% (d.b.), the chillies were tested for capsaicin content, colouring matter
and germination rate. The variety ‘Punjab Lal’ in pricked form was found to have the
best quality when dried at 55°C.
Bircan, (2005), procured more than seventy-five samples of paprika, chilli,
black peppers and cumin of equal amounts from market and used to test and compare
the amount of aflatoxin contamination. Two different analytical methods were
examined for their efficacy by adding a known amount of aflatoxin to the blank
samples of paprika. Twenty-seven paprika, all the chilli powder and four ground black
 12

pepper samples were contaminated with aflatoxin B1 in the range of 0.5 -116.4, 1.6-
80.4 and 0.3-1.2 µ g.kg-1 respectively. Twenty-three (30%) paprika and chilli powder
samples were above the regulatory limits used in the European Union. No aflatoxin
contamination was detected in the cumin samples at a detection limit of 0.2 µ g.kg-1.
Widodo et al., (2005), reported that the experiments using a continuous and
non destructive weighing system successfully identified drying-rate patterns of chilli
pepper during the dehydration processes. The quality factors of moisture content
uniformity, pungency, colour, rehydration capacity, and water activity, were analysed
to identify the correlation between drying-rate patterns and product quality. The
dehydration process with highest drying rate resulted in the best quality of product.
These facts accorded with an axiom that moisture mobility inside the pod and
moisture evaporation from surface of chilli pepper pods during dehydration process
had a relationship to the quality of product. Therefore, weight changes of chilli pepper
during dehydration would be possible for quality evaluation.
Ajithkumar et al., (2006), reported that an experiment of 16 isolates of
Aspergillus flavus were collected from the infected samples, purified and analysed for
aflatoxin B1 (AF B1) content by an indirect competitive ELISA test. The aflatoxin
fungal isolates AFL-10 and AFL-14 produced 6.6 and 10.2 µ g.kg-1 AFB1,
respectively. Overall, 88% of isolates Aspergillus flavus obtained from chilli from the
districts proved to be toxigenic for AFB1.
8. Detailed Programme of Research
Freshly harvested ripened Byadagi chilli fruits (Capsicum annuum) were
obtained from Matamari village, Raichur district of Karnataka, during the month of
February and March. At each sampling, required amount of Byadagi chillies were
purchased and samples were collected in clean polyethylene bags and transported to
the research centre within 5 hours of harvesting. Samples were washed with running
tap water twice and allowed to drain excess water for half an hour. It was then heaped
in a room for 24 hours. Length and diameter of fresh samples of Byadagi chillies were
measured. Initial weight and moisture content of fresh Byadagi chillies were also
determined.

The details of the methodology followed during the investigation are furnished below.
8.1. Determination of Physico-chemical properties
 13

The physico-chemical properties of Byadagi chilli fruits such as size, shape,

volume, density, specific gravity, surface area and moisture content and total ash will
be determined. The determination of physico-chemical characteristics of Byadagi
chilli will be conducted before and after the drying of samples in both the solar tunnel
dryer and in the open yard sun drying.
8.1.1. Physical properties
8.1.1.1. Size
Size is the measure of physical dimensions of the object. The size of the
Byadagi chilli is measured at by mutually perpendicular axes. The measurements
along major and minor axes are taken using vernier calliper for describing the size of
the Byadagi chilli (Sahay et al,.2002).
8.1.1.2. Shape
The identification of the shape of the fruit is by tracing the longitudinal and
lateral cross sections of the fruit and then comparing with the shapes listed on
standard charts. Using standard charts the shape of the product is defined either by the
number on the chart or by descriptive terms prepared for fruits and vegetables
(Mohsenin, 1965).
8.1.1.3. Volume and Specific gravity
8.1.1.3.1. Volume
The volume is calculated by the platform scale method. In this method the
Byadagi chilli is first weighed on the physical balance and forced into the water by
means of a sinker rod. The second reading of the scale with the chilli submerged
minus the weight of the container and weight of the water displaced is used in the
following expression to calculate the volume (Sahay et al., 2002).
Weight of the displaced water ( kg )
Volume (m3) =
(
Density of water kg.m −3 )
… (1)
 14

8.1.1.3.2. Specific Gravity

Specific gravity of water is 1.0 and weight density is 998.4 kg.m-3. By
knowing the weight of the chilli in air and the volume, weight density of the chilli is
obtained by the ratio of weight to volume. At the same time, specific gravity is
calculated from the following expression (Sahay et al., 2002).

Weight in air ( g ) × specific gravity of water

Specific gravity =
Wieght of displaced water ( g )

… (2)

8.1.1.4. Surface Area

The Byadagi chillies are carefully cut using a knife. The cut skin layers are
then placed on a graph sheet and the outlines are traced by using a sharp lead pencil.
The summation of number of squares within the outline on the graph sheet gives the
surface area of the Byadagi chilli (Mohsenin, 1965).
.8.1.2. Chemical Properties
8.1.2.1. Moisture Content
The moisture content of fresh and treated Byadagi chilli is determined by
standard hot air oven method (AOAC, 1984). The chilli samples are placed in hot air
oven at 105 ± 0.5°C for 24 hours and the weight of the bone dry material is noted. The
moisture content is determined by the following expression:

Mass of water , ( g )
Moisture content (%d.b.) = × 100
Mass of dried sample, ( g )
… (3)

Mass of water , ( g )
Moisture content (%w.b.) = × 100
Mass of undried sample, ( g )
… (4)
8.1.2.2. Total Ash
The total ash of fresh and treated samples is determined by using muffle
furnace (AOAC, 1975 and ASTA, 1997). Chilli samples are cut and weighed, and the
samples are kept in the crucibles and are placed in a red hot furnace at a temperature
 15

of about 600°C. When the furnace attains a brick red colour the furnace is switched
off and the samples are left for cooling within the furnace. The total ash is determined
by the following expression

Total ash (%)

=
(Wt. of dried sample + Wt. of crucible) − (Wt. of empty crucible) × 100
(Wt. of wet sample + Wt. of crucible) − (Wt. of empty crucible)
… (5)
8.2. Determination of Drying Characteristics
8.2.1. Pre-treatment of chilli
Chillies are divided into 2 lots. One lot is kept for open yard sun drying and
another lot is for giving a chemical treatment. The chillies are dipped in ‘dipsol’
solution using tap water for 5 minutes. The water is drained and chillies are dried. The
treated and untreated chillies are dried using a Solar Tunnel Dryer and compared with
traditional Open Yard Sun Drying. The samples of Byadgi chillies are weighed using
an electronic balance. Each sample is treated with ‘Dipsol’ emulsion for 5 minutes
and the procedure to prepare the emulsion is explained under the improved CFTRI
method of drying chilli (CFTRI, 1979).
Preparation of Dipsol
Dipsol is prepared in 10 litres of running tap water using the chemicals at the
concentration of 250 gm of (Potassium Carbonate, Calcium Carbonate, Potassium
Sulphate and Potassium Nitrate emulsions), 10 gm of Gum Acacia, 0.1 gm of Butylate
Hydroxy Anisol (BHA) and 100 gm of refined ground nut oil. The mixture is stirred
thoroughly for 5 minutes to obtain a homogeneous solution for the treatment. The
chilli samples are treated with dipsol and then the treated samples are dried by open
yard sun drying (OYSD) and solar tunnel drying (STD).
In OYSD, the average maximum temperature and the minimum temperature
are determined during the drying. In STD the average temperature is recorded.
Samples are analysed for pod length, shape, colour, drying time taken to dry to a safe
moisture content. The weight of dried samples are taken at an interval of one-hour.
The moisture content (d.b.%) v/s drying time (hr), temperature (°C) v/s drying time
(hr), drying rate (kg/hr) v/s drying time (hr) curves are plotted on a graph paper.
 16

8.2.2. Solar Tunnel Dryer

The solar tunnel dryer is installed at the Department of Agricultural Processing
and Food Engineering, College of Agricultural Engineering, Raichur. It consists of
basically a drying tunnel, small axial flow fan, metal duct and chimney. The dryer is
covered with a transparent UV stabilized polyethylene plastic foil of 0.2 mm
thickness with a transmittivity of 92% for visible radiation. The top surfaces of the
collector and drying chamber are designed in curved shape in order to increase the
area of radiation. They are made to open and close easily for the functions of
spreading the drying commodity at the beginning of the day and cleaning the
polyethylene cover. Inside the tunnel dryer, metal duct is provided in order to reduce
the heat loss. The inclination of top surface of the dryer is 30°.
It is positioned in North-South direction so that, radiation from the sun is not
disturbed by the chimney. The drying tunnel has a length of 9 m, breadth of 3 m and
height of about 6 m. The polyethylene cover serves as a solar heat absorber. The
capacity of the tunnel ranges from 1 to 2 tonnes of wet fruits depending upon the size
of the fruits and thickness of the spreading layer. The cost of the Solar Tunnel Dryer is
Rs.1.8 lakhs (including trays).
8.2.3. Drying Rate
The physiological loss in weight of chillies during drying period is recorded at
an interval of an one hour and the drying rate is calculated by using the following
equation (Sahay et al., 2002).
W 1−W 2
Drying Rate = M 1−(100 + M 1 ) × … (6)
W1
Where, M1 = Initial moisture content, (%, d.b.).
W1 = Initial wt. of dried sample, (g).
W2 = Final wt. of dried sample, (g).
The mathematical models selected for the experimental data are Page and
Newton models and are expressed in equations below.
Page model :MR = exp (-K θ n )
…(7)
Newton model : MR = exp (-K θ )n
…(8)
 17

 M −M e 
Where, MR= Moisture ratio,  
 M 0− M e 
Me = Equilibrium moisture content, (% d.b.)
M = Moisture content at the time θ , (% d.b.)
M0 = Initial moisture content, (% d.b.)
K = Drying constant,
θ = Drying time, (min)
n = Constant,
Before conducting an experiment, the experimental set up is allowed to run till
steady drying temperature is attained. Chilli is dried from an initial moisture content
of 330% (d.b.) to a final moisture content of 11% (d.b.) for safe storage.

8.3. Quality Characteristics

The quality characteristics of dried chilli such as colour, titratable acidity,
ascorbic acid and colouring matter are determined by the method given by Rosebrook
et al., (1968). A sample of 200 gm of dried chilli powder passed through a 40 mesh
screen is taken and is tightly fitted in a standard optical cell having 6-cm diameter for
the measurement.
8.3.1. Colour
The colour of dried chilli is measured by using Colorimetric method
(Sadashivam et al., 1992).
8.3.2. Titratable acidity
The titratable acidity is determined by following the standard procedure. The
pulp of the chilli samples is crushed and juice is extracted. 10 ml of distilled water is
mixed with juice and titrated against sodium hydroxide solution of 0.1 N using
phenolphthalein indicator in volumetric analysis set up until the dull white colour is
converted into light pink (Shrivastava et al., 1994).
The percentage of titratable acidity is calculated by using the following equation
Titre value × 0.1 × 0.062
Percentage of titratable acidity = × 100
Volume of sample
… (9)

8.3.3. Ascorbic Acid

 18

5 ml of the working standard solution is taken into a 100 ml conical flask, add
10 ml of 4% oxalic acid and titrate against the dye (V1 ml). End point is the
appearance of pink colour which persists for a few minutes. The amount of the dye
consumed is equivalent to the amount of ascorbic acid. Extract the sample (0.5-5 g
depending on the sample) in 4% oxalic acid and make up to a known volume (100ml)
and centrifuge. Pipette out 5 ml of this supernatant and 10 ml of 4% oxalic acid and
titrate against the dye (V2 ml) (Sadashivam et al., 1992).

0.5 mg × V 2 ml × 100 ml
The amount Ascorbic acid mg / 100 g sample = × 100
V 1 ml × 5 ml × Weight of the sample
… (10)
8.3.4. Analysis of Aflatoxins
The analysis of Aflatoxin for dried chilli is measured by using ELISA / HPLC
technique (Sadashivam et al., 1992).
The design of Experiment
Quality Characteristics
Design : RBD (Randomized Block Design)
Crop : Cv. Byadagi Kaddi
Replications : Three
Sample size : 200 g

Drying characteristics of Cv. Byadagi Chilli

Design : RBD (Randomized Block Design)
Crop : Cv. Byadagi Kaddi
Replications : Three
Sample Size : 500 g

Conditions
1) Open Yard Sun Drying
2) Solar Tunnel Drying

Treatments
 19

1) Control Sample – Sun Drying

2) Control Sample – Solar Tunnel Drying
3) Potassium carbonate (62.5g) + Gum Acacia (1g) + Butylate Hydroxy Anisol
(0.001g) + refined ground nut oil (10g).
4) Potassium sulphate (62.5g) + Gum Acacia (1g) + Butylate Hydroxy Anisol
(0.001g) + refined ground nut oil (10g).
5) Potassium nitrate (62.5g) + Gum Acacia (1g) + Butylate Hydroxy Anisol (0.001g)
+ refined ground nut oil (10g).
6) Calcium carbonate (62.5g) + Gum Acacia (1g) + Butylate Hydroxy Anisol (0.001g)
+ refined ground nut oil (10g).
9. Special features of investigation
 The chilli dried in solar tunnel dryer will fetch good market price due to value
addition.
 Capsicum is one of the major cash crops in India, grown both for the domestic
market and export purpose.
 Aflatoxin is present in Indian chillies, so as to reduce the toxic component in
the chillies. The safe moisture content of the chilli is to be reduced to 10 %
(d.b.).
 The dried chilli produced by Solar Tunnel Dryer is expected to retain colour
and quality characteristics
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 26

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11. Date of First Colloquium : 19-06-2008

12. Collaboration with other Departments / Institutions / Fellow Scientists :
Department of Plant Pathology, College of Agriculture, Raichur and Department of
Farm machinery and Equipments, College of Agricultural Engineering, Raichur.