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managerial decision making is greatly influenced by the quality of information. Discuss the role and application of research in business.

Experimental research design refers to the framework or structure of an experimen t and, as such, there are several experiment design. Classify the types of expe rimental design. scenraio was given and asked as a researcher how you will to Pretest and Posttes t? Mail questionnairs are not expensive always? Discuss You are a researcher and wanted to do the literature review, Briefly discuss the steps invloved in the literature reivew? What is meant by particpant and no-participant observation, give one example? Importance of Instrumentation Effect in Experimental Research Historical-Comparative research focuses on some factors, list down those factors ? Historical-Comparative research focuses on: Tracing the development of social forms (patterns) overtime as well as its broa d its broad historical processes, and Comparing those forms and its developmental processes across cultures (countrie s/nations). A manager finds that off-the-job classroom training has a great impact on the pr oductivity of the employees in her department. However, she also observes that e mployees over 60 years of age do not seem to derive much benefit and do not impr ove with such training i. Identify the independent, dependent and moderating variables in the given sce nario. (3) Answer: Inependent Variable: Off-the-job classroom training Dependent Variable: Employees performance What are different advantages and disadvantages of using secondary data? Access to inaccessible subjects: One of the basic advantages of content analysi s is that it allows research on subjects to which the researcher does not have physical access. The se could be people of old civilizations, say their marriage patterns. These could also be the docume nts form the archives, speeches of the past leaders (Quaid-e-Azam) who are not alive, the suicide notes , old films, dramas, poems, etc. 2. Non-reactivity: Document study shares with certain types of observations (e .g., indirect observation or non participant observation through one-way mirror) the advantage of little o r no reactivity, particularly when the document was written for some other purpose. This is unobt rusive. Even the creator of that document, and for that matter the characters in the document, is not in contact with the researcher, who may not be alive. 3. Can do longitudinal analysis: Like observation and unlike experiments and s urvey, document study is especially well suited to study over a long period of time. Many times the objective of the research could be to determine a trend. One could pick up different periods in p ast and try to make comparisons and figure out the changes (in the status of women) that may have oc curred over time.

Take two martial periods in Pakistan, study the news papers and look at the repo rted crime in the press. 4. Use Sampling: The researcher can use random sampling. One could decide on the population, develop sampling frame and draw sample random sample by following the appropriat e procedure. For example how women are portrayed in weekly English news magazines. One could pic k up weekly English news magazines, make a listing of articles that have appeared in the mag azines (sampling frame), and draw a simple random sample. 5. Can use large sample size: Larger the sample closer the results to the popu lation. In experimentation as well as in survey research there could be limitations due to the availability of the subjects or of the resources but in document analysis the researcher could incre ase the sample and can have more confidence in generalization. Let us assume that a researcher is study ing the matrimonial advertisements in the newspapers over a long period of time, there should be no problem in drawing a sample as large as several thousand or more. 6. Spontaneity: The spontaneous actions or feelings can be recorded when they occurred rather than at a time specified by the researcher. If the respondent was keeping a diary, he or she may have been recording spontaneous feelings about a subject whenever he or she was inspired t o do so. The contents of such personal recording could be analyzed later on. 7. Confessions: A person may be more likely to confess in a document, particula rly one to be read only after his or her death, than in an interview or mailed questionnaire study. Thu s a study of documents such as diaries, posthumously published autobiographies, and suicide notes may b e the only way to obtain such information. 8. Relatively low cost: Although the cost of documentary analysis can vary wide ly depending on the type of document analyzed, how widely documents are dispersed, and how far one m ust travel to gain access to them, documentary analysis can be inexpensive compared to large-scale surveys. Many a times documents are gathered together in a centralized location such as library w here the researcher can study them for only the cost of travel to the repository. 9. High quality: Although documents vary tremendously in quality, many docume nts, such as news paper columns, are written by skilled commentators and may be more valuable tha n, for example, poorly written responses to mailed questionnaires. Disadvantages 1. Bias: Many documents used in research were not originally intended for rese arch purposes. The various goals and purposes for which documents are written can bias them in vari ous ways. For example, personal documents such as confessional articles or autobiographies ar

e often written by famous people or people who had some unusual experience such as having been a wi tness to a specific event. While often providing a unique and valuable research data, these documen ts usually are written for the purpose of making money. Thus they tend to exaggerate and even fabricat e to make good story. They also tend to include those events that make the author look good and exclud e those that cast him or her in a negative light. 2. Selective survival: Since documents are usually written on paper, they do n ot withstand the elements well unless care is taken to preserve them. Thus while documents written by fam ous people are likely to be preserved, day-to-day documents such as letters and diaries written by com mon people tend either to be destroyed or to be placed in storage and thus become inaccessible. It is relatively rare for common documents that are not about some events of immediate interest to the researcher (e.g., suicide) and not about famous occurrence or by some famous person to be gathered together in a pu blic repository that is accessible to researchers. 3. Incompleteness: Many documents provide incomplete account to the researcher who has had no prior experience with or knowledge of the events or behavior discussed. A probl em with many personal documents such as letters and diaries is that they were not written for research purposes but were designed to be private or even secret. Both these kinds of documents often assu me specific knowledge that researcher unfamiliar with certain events will not possess. Diaries are pr obably the worst in this respect, since they are usually written to be read only by the author and can c onsist more of soul searching and confession than of description. Letters tend to be little more com plete, since they are addressed to a second person. Since many letters assume a great amount of prior information on the part of the reader. 4. Lack of availability of documents: In addition to thee bias, incompleteness , and selective survival of documents, there are many areas of study for which no documents are available. In many cases information simply was never recorded. In other cases it was recorded, but the documents remain secret or classified, or have been destroyed. 5. Sampling bias: One of the problems of bias occurs because persons of lower educational or income levels are less likely to be represented in the sampling frames. The problem of sampling bias by educational level is more acute for document study than for survey research. It is a safe generalization that a poorly educated people are much less likely than well educated people to write documents. 6. Limited to verbal behavior: By definition, documents provide information on ly about respondents

verbal behavior, and provide no direct information on the respondents nonverbal b ehavior, either that of the documents author or other characters in the document. 7. Lack of standardized format: Documents differ quite widely in regard to the ir standardization of format. Some documents such as newspapers appear frequently in a standard for mat. Large dailies always contain such standard components as editorial page, business page, sports page, and weather report. Standardization facilitates comparison across time for the same newspape rs and comparison across different newspapers at one point in time. However, many other documents , particularly personal documents have no standard format. Comparison is difficult or impossi ble, since valuable information contained in the document at one point in time may be entirely lacki ng in an earlier or later documents. 8. Coding difficulties: For a number of reasons, including differences in pur pose for which the documents were written, differences in content or subject matter, lack of standa rdization, and differences in length and format, coding is one of the most difficult tasks faci ng the content analyst. Documents are generally written arrangements, rather than numbers are quite diff icult to quantify. Thus analysis of documents is similar to analysis of open-ended survey questions. 9. Data must be adjusted for comparability over time: Although one of the adva ntages of document study is that comparisons may be made over a long period of time, since external events cause changes so drastic that even if a common unit of measure is used for the entire period, the value of this unit may have changed so much over time that comparisons are misleading unless correction s are made. Look at the change in measuring distance, temperature, currency, and even literacy in Pa kistan. The accounts executive has established a new accounting system that utilizes max imum computer technology. Before making further changes, he would like to get a feel for how the accounting clerks react to the new system by acting as if he ha s no doubts about their acceptability of the new system. He may then casually ta lk to the first five accounting personnel that walk into his office, trying to g auge their reactions. i. Describe the type of sampling the director should use in the given scenario, probability or non probability? (1) Answer: Director should use probability sampling as probability sampling is the techniqu e in which some known elements of population participated in order to provide us eful descriptions. ii. What type of sampling technique is being used and why? Explain. (2) Answer: Director should use probability sampling as probability sampling is the techniqu e in which some known elements of population participated in order to provide us eful descriptions. iii.Give two characteristics of the type of sampling technique that you selected in part (ii).

Answer: Two characteristics of probability sampling: 1Random sampling lets a researcher statistically calculate the relationsh ip between the sample and the population that is the size of sampling error 2All possible samples have a known and specified probability of being dra wn. Suggest the appropriate data collection tool that can be used by the research or ganization. Give the solid rationale for your answer. Secondary data are usually historical, already assembled, and do not require acc ess to respondents or subjects. Many types of information about the social and b ehavioral world have been collected and are available to the researcher. Some in formation is in the form of statistical documents (books, reports) that contain numerical information. Other information is in the form of published compilation s available in a library or on computerized records. Secondary data may be collected by large bureaucratic organization like the Bure au of Statistics or other government or private agencies. These data may have be en collected for policy decisions or as part of public service. Being a researcher, how would you criticize the use of Secondary Data in researc h? Ch#37 Bias: Many documents used in research were not originally intended for research purposes. The various goals and purposes for which documents are written can bi as them in various ways. Selective survival: Since documents are usually written on paper, they do not wi thstand the elements well unless care is taken to preserve them. Incompleteness: Many documents provide incomplete account to the researcher who has had no prior experience with or knowledge of the events or behavior discusse d. Lack of availability of documents: In addition to thee bias, incompleteness, and selective survival of documents, there are many areas of study for which no doc uments are available. In many cases information simply was never recorded. Limited to verbal behavior: By definition, documents provide information only ab out respondents verbal behavior, and provide no direct information on the respond ents nonverbal behavior, either that of the documents author or other characters i n the document. Sampling bias: One of the problems of bias occurs because persons of lower educa tional or income levels are less likely to be represented in the sampling frames Lack of standardized format: many other documents, particularly personal documen ts have no standard format. Data must be adjusted for comparability over time: the change in measuring dista nce, temperature, currency, and even literacy in Pakistan.

"Random sampling owes its importance to the fact that we can assess the results obtained from it in terms of probabilities otherwise the reliability of the esti mates remains a matter of individual opinion." Elucidate this Statement.

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