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Single-celled organisms exchange gases directly across their cell

membrane. However, the slow diffusion rate of oxygen relative to
carbon dioxide limits the size of single-celled organisms. Simple
animals that lack specialized exchange surfaces have flattened,
tubular, or thin shaped body plans, which are the most efficient for
gas exchange. However, these simple animals are rather small in size.

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Large animals cannot maintain gas exchange by diffusion across their

outer surface. They developed a variety of respiratory surfaces that all
increase the surface area for exchange, thus allowing for larger bodies.
A respiratory surface is covered with thin, moist epithelial cells that
allow oxygen and carbon dioxide to exchange. Those gases can only
cross cell membranes when they are dissolved in water or an aqueous
solution, thus respiratory surfaces must be moist.

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1.

Movement of an oxygen-containing medium so it contacts a moist

membrane overlying blood vessels.

2.

Diffusion of oxygen from the medium into the blood.

3.

Transport of oxygen to the tissues and cells of the body.

4.

Diffusion of oxygen from the blood into cells.

5.

Carbon dioxide follows a reverse path.

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(a) The Pathway

Air enters the nostrils
passes through the nasopharynx,
the oral pharynx
through the glottis
into the trachea
into the right and left bronchi, which branches and rebranches into
bronchioles, each of which terminates in a cluster of alveloi

Only in the alveoli does actual gas exchange takes place. There are some 300
million alveoli in two adult lungs. These provide a surface area of some 160 m2
(almost equal to the singles area of a tennis court and 80 times the area of
our skin!).

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(b) Breathing
In mammals, the diaphragm divides the body cavity into theabdominal cavity, which contains the viscera (e.g., stomach and
intestines) and the
thoracic cavity, which contains the heart and lungs.

(c) Central Control of Breathing

The rate of cellular respiration (oxygen consumption and carbon
dioxide production) varies with level of activity. Vigorous exercise can
increase by 20-25 times the demand of the tissues for oxygen. This is
met by increasing the rate and depth of breathing.

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(d) Local Control of Breathing

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The smooth muscle in the walls of the bronchioles is very sensitive to

the concentration of carbon dioxide. A rising level of CO2 causes the
bronchioles to dilate. This lowers the resistance in the airways and thus
increases the flow of air in and out.

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