UNIT -1 INTRODUCTION Importance of Irrigation Definition Irrigation is the controlled application of water to croplands.

s. Its primary objective is to create an optimal soil moisture regime for maximizing crop production and quality while at the same time minimizing the environmental degradation inherent in irrigation of agricultural lands Estimates of magnitude world-wide: 544 million acres (17% of land 1/3 of food production) Purpose Raise a crop where nothing would grow otherwise (e.g., desert areas) Grow a more profitable crop (e.g., alfalfa vs. wheat) Increase the yield and/or quality of a given crop (e.g., fruit) Increase the aesthetic value of a landscape (e.g., turf, ornamentals) Providing insurance against short duration droughts Reducing the hazard of frost (increase the temperature of the plant) Reducing the temperature during hot spells Washing or diluting salts in the soil Softening tillage pans and clods Delaying bud formation by evaporative cooling Promoting the function of some micro organisms

Reasons for yield/quality increase Reduced water stress Better germination and stands Higher plant populations More efficient use of fertilizer Improved varieties

Other Benefits of Irrigation Increase in Crop Yield Protection from femine

Cultivation of superior crops Elimination of mixed cropping: Economic development Hydro power generation Domestic and industrial water supply

Methods of Irrigation Under gravity irrigation, water is distributed by means of open canals and conducts with out pressure. Gravity irrigation methods are less expensive, but requires more skill and experience to achieve rescannable efficiency. This method also requires that the land to be irrigated should have a flatter slope, other wise the cost of land leveling and preparation at times be come very high. Gravity irrigation method. Includes furrow, boarder, basin, wildflooding and corrugation. 1. Furrow irrigation In this method of surface irrigation, water is applied to the field by furrow which are small canales having a continuous our nearly uniform slope in the direction of irrigation. Water flowing in the furrow into the soil spreads laterally to irrigate the area between furrows. The rate of lateral spread of water in the soil depends on soil type.i.e. For a given time, water will infiltrate more vertically and less laterally in relatively sandy soils than in clay soil. Where the land grade is less than 1% in the direction of furrow, striate graded furrows may be adapted. The grade can be as much as 2 to 3% depending on the soil type and the rainfall intensity, which affects erosion. When field sloped is too steep to align the furrows down the slope, control furrows which run along curved routed may be used. Spacing of furrows depends on the crop type and the type of machinery used for cultivation and planting. Length of furrows depends largely on permeability of the soil, the available labor and skill, and experiences of the irrigation.

Flow rates are related to the infiltration to the rate of the soil. Longitudinal slope of furrow depends up on the soil type, especially its errodiability and the velocity of flow. slope may be related to discharge as follows.

2. Boarder - strip Irrigation The farms are divided into number of strips of 5 to 20 meters wide and 100 to 400 meters long. Parallel earth bunds or levees are provided in order to guide the advancing sheet of water. Recommended safe limits of longitudinal slope also depends on the soil texture: Sandy loam to sandy soils 0.25 - 0.6% Medium loam soils 0.2 - 0.4% Clay to clay loam soils 0.05 - 0.2% 3. Basin irrigation Large stream of water is applied to almost level and smaller unit of fields which are surrounded by levees or bunds. The applied water is retained in the basin until it filtrates.

Soil type, stream size and irrigation depth are the important factors indeterming the basin area. Method of irrigation Border strip method Furrow method Basin method Type of Crop suited Wheat, Leafy vegetables, Fodders Cotton, Sugarcane, Potatoes Orchard trees

4. Wild flooding Water is applied all over the field especially, before plowing for soil that can't be plowed when dry. Under closed conduit- there are two types of irrigation 1. Sprinkler 2. Drip irrigation 1. Sprinkler irrigation: It is mostly used for young growth, to humid the atmosphere, for soil compaction( specially for sandy loam soils before planting, for land having up and down slope and used to wash out plant leaves especially in dusty area. Sprinkler irrigation offers a means of irrigating areas which are so irregular that they prevent use of any surface irrigation methods. By using a low supply rate, deep percolation or surface runoff and erosion can be minimized. Offsetting these advantages is the relatively high cost of the sprinkling equipment and the permanent installations necessary to supply water to the sprinkler lines. Very low delivery rates may also result in fairly high evaporation from the spray and the wetted vegetation. It is impossible to get completely uniform distribution of water around a sprinkler head and spacing of the heads must be planned to overlap spray areas so that distribution is essentially uniform Advantages

Economical to labour & uniform distribution.

2. Drip irrigation This is used especially where there is shortage of water and salt problem. The drip method of irrigation, also called trickle irrigation. The method is one of the most recent developments in irrigation. It involves slow and frequent application of water to the plant root zone and enables the application of water and fertilizer at optimum rates to the root system. It minimizes the loss of water by deep percolation below the root zone or by evaporation from the soil surface. Drip irrigation is not only economical in water use but also gives higher yields with poor quality water. Advantages

No loss. of water because all water drops at root zone. No water logging and rise of water table at result salinity problems caused by this irrigation type is almost nil. Uniform distribution of water. Good water management. Economical use of lobour. CONSUMPTIVE USE OF WATER

The amount of irrigation water that is needed depends not only on the amount of water already available from rain fail, but also on the total amount of water needed by the various crops. IRRIGATION WATER NEED = Crop water need available rain fall The first thing you need to consider when planning your garden is what growing zone you live in. This is based on both the temperature range of your climate and the amount of precipitation. Take a close look at the area in which you are going to plant your garden. If the ground tends to be very moist, choose plants that can tolerate constantly wet soil, and even standing water. If you live in an area that suffers from frequent droughts, however, select plants that can tolerate going long periods without water, especially in light

of the frequent watering restrictions imposed on such areas. If you are lucky enough to live in an area that has a balanced climate, you have a wider range of choices for your plants. Low Water Requirement Plants Plants that require low levels of water are often called drought tolerant. Drought-tolerant plants can thrive in hot, dry conditions with very little water. They include both perennials and annuals. Most drought-tolerant plants only have to be handwatered when they are planted and while they are establishing themselves. After that, they can be left to the natural cycle of the elements. Popular drought tolerant trees include the red cedar. live oak, crape myrtle, and the windmill and saw palmetto palm trees. All citrus trees are also drought tolerant. Many homeowners in areas prone to drought, such as parts of the southern United States, use shrubs and ground covering vines as part of their landscaping. These include Texas sage, orange jasmine and Chinese fountain grass. There are not many perennial drought-tolerant plants, but amaryllis is one that is very popular, along with the African iris. Popular drought-olerant annuals include marigold, cosmos and the Dahlberg daisy. Mid-Level Water Requirement Crops Most plants land in this range when it comes to water requirements. These plants do not need to be watered every day, but they need to be watered when the soil has been dry for over a week or two. Sometimes these plants are classified as plants lying in the "occasional water zone". These include popular plants such as geraniums, most roses, wisteria, clematis and other vine plants, sunflowers, spring flowering bulbs, and most flowering perennial shrubs. Note that flowering annuals planted in containers will need watering at least once or twice a week, while annuals planted in the ground will need watering less often. High Water Requirement Plants

Some plants require large amounts of water. These plants typically grow in marshy areas or bogs, or along the banks of rivers, streams and lakes. The soil for these plants should always be kept moist. Standing water is not a concern for these plants, so you don't have to worry about root rot. Perennials are especially good for wet areas because they don't have to be replanted year after year, which can be difficult in marshy areas. Popular perennials for wet soil include iris plants, cannas, bee balms, ferns, and bog salvia. Aquatic mint is a pleasant ground cover that likes wet soil. The red osier dogwood does very well in wet conditions. Most annual flowering plants also do well in constantly moist soil. Water Requirement of Different Crops Amount of water required by a crop in its whole production period is called water requiremrnt. The amont of water taken by crops vary considerably. What crops use more water and which ones less....... Water Requirement (mm) 900-2500 450-650 450-650 500-800 1500-2500 500-700 700-1300 450-700 400-600 600-800 500-700 350-550 500

Crop Rice Wheat Sorghum Maize Sugarcane Groundnut Cotton Soybean Tobacco Tomato Potato Onion Chillies

Sunflower Castor Bean Cabbage Pea Banana Citrus Pineapple Gingelly Ragi Grape

350-500 500 300-500 380-500 350-500 1200-2200 900-1200 700-1000 350-400 400-450 500-1200

Irrigation water requirement This case study shows how to calculate the total water requirement for a command area (irrigation blocks) under various crops, soil textures and conveyance loss conditions. In order to evaluate the required irrigation gift for the entire command area a simple water balance has to be set-up. The total water demand for each irrigation block and the crops in each block are calculated by summing the following components: infiltration (percolation loss) through the soil (I) seepage (conveyance loss) through the channel (S) maximum evapotranspiration of the crop (ETm) In this exercise, the irrigation water requirement is calculated for a 10-day period during the harvest stage. Evaluation of Percolation loss (I)

The command area is divided in irrigation blocks. First, these irrigation blocks are crossed with the soil texture map to determine the area of each soil texture class in each block. Percolation losses differ per soil texture class so a table with the following percolation data is created: Texture Clay Loam Sandy clay Clay loam Percolation loss (mm/day) 4 12 14 7

The percolation table is joined with the cross table to get the percolation for each soil texture class in each block. The amount of water loss for each soil texture class per block is calculated with a tabcalc statement. In order to get the total percolation loss per block the results of the previous operation are aggregated. Evaluation of Conveyance loss (S) Conveyance losses are calculated in about the same way as the percolation losses. First, the map with the irrigation blocks is crossed with the channel distribution map. The conveyance loss per meter channel length differs per channel type and is 0.2 m per day for clay channels and 0.01 m per day for concrete channels. A new table indicating water loss per channel type is created and joined to the cross table. The amount of water loss for each type of channel per block is calculated with a simple tabcalc formula. Finally the results are aggregated to evaluate the total conveyance loss per irrigation block. Evaluation of maximum evapotranspiration (ETm) Crop water requirements are normally expressed by the rate of evapotranspiration (ET). The evaporative demand can be expressed as the reference crop evapotranspiration (ETo) which predicts the effect of climate on the level of crop evapotranspiration. In this case study the ETo is 8 mm/day. Empirically-determined crop coefficients (kc) can be used to relate ETo to maximum crop evapotranspiration (ETm) when water supply fully

meets the water requirement of the crop. The value of kc varies with crop and development stage. The kc values for each crop and development stage are available in a table. For a given climate, crop and crop development stage, the maximum evapotranspiration (ETm) in mm/day of the period considered is: ETm = kc * ETo Maximum evapotranspiration refers to conditions when water is adequate for unrestricted growth and development under optimum agronomic and irrigation management. Maximum evapotranspiration is calculated in this case study by crossing the irrigation block map with the map that shows the different crop types in the command area, joining the cross table with the kc table and by applying the maximum evapotranspiration formula with a tabcalc statement. Water balance calculation (S+I+ETm) The required irrigation gift for the entire command area is equal to the sum of water losses due to infiltration through the soil (I), seepage through the channel (S) and maximum evapotranspiration (ETm) for each block. The total amount of water requirement in harvest period for each block is reclassified in irrigation classes using the following table: Upper boundary 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 Irrigation class 1 2 3 4 5 6

Finally, you will create a script to automate the calculation procedure. With the script, you can easily calculate the water requirements for other growing stages.

Factors Influencing Crop Water Requirements for Irrigation i. Influence of climate A certain crop grown in a sunny and hot climate needs more water per day than the same crop grown in a cloudy and cooler climate. There are, however, apart from sunshine and temperature, other climatic factors which influence the crop water need. These factors are humidity and wind speed. When it is dry, the crop water needs are higher than when it is humid. In windy climates, the crops will use more water than in calm climates. The highest crop water needs are thus found in areas which are hot, dry, windy and sunny. The lowest values are found when it is cool, humid and cloudy with little or no wind. From the above, it is clear that the crop grown in different climatic zones will have different water needs. For example, a certain maize variety grown in a cool climate will need less water per day than the same maize variety grown in a hotter climate. Effect of major Climatic Factors on Crop Water Needs Climatic factor Crop water need High Sunshine Temperature Humidity Wind speed Low

sunny (no clouds) cloudy (no sun) hot low (dry) windy cool high (humid) little wind

Table - AVERAGE DAILY WATER NEED OF STANDARD GRASS DURING IRRIGATION SEASON (mm) Climatic zone Mean daily temperature low (< 15C) medium (15-25C) high (> 25C)

Desert/arid Semi-arid

4-6 4-5

7-8 6-7

9-10 8-9

For the various field crops it is possible to determine how much water they need compared to the standard grass. A number of crops need less water than grass, a number of crops need more water than grass and other crops need more or less the same amount of water as grass. Understanding of this relationship is extremely important for the selection of crops to be grown in a water harvesting scheme (see Chapter 6, Crop Husbandry). Table - CROP WATER NEEDS IN PEAK PERIOD OF VARIOUS CROPS COMPARED TO THE STANDARD GRASS CROP -30% -10% Same as Standard Grass +10% Barley Beans Maize Cotton Lentils Millet +20% Nuts & fruit trees with cover crop

Citrus Squash Crucifers Olives Groundnuts Melons Onions Peppers Grass

Clean cultivated nuts & fruit Safflower trees Sorghum Soybeans Sunflower Wheat ii. Influence of crop type on crop water needs

As different crops require different amount of water for maturity, duties are also required. The duty would vary inversely as the water requirement of crop. The influence of the crop type on the crop water need is important in two ways. a. The crop type has an influence on the daily water needs of a fully grown crop; i.e. the peak daily water needs of a fully developed maize crop will need more water per day than a fully developed crop of onions. b. The crop type has an influence on the duration of the total growing season of the crop. There are short duration crops, e.g. peas, with a duration of the total growing season of 90-100 days and longer duration crops, e.g. melons, with a duration of the total growing season of 120-160 days. There are, of course, also perennial crops that are in the field for many years, such as fruit trees. While, for example, the daily water need of melons may be less than the daily water need of beans, the seasonal water need of melons will be higher than that of beans because the duration of the total growing season of melons is much longer. Data on the duration of the total growing season of the various crops grown in an area can best be obtained locally. These data may be obtained from, for example, the seed supplier, the Extension Service, the Irrigation Department or Ministry of Agriculture. Table gives some indicative values or approximate values for the duration of the total growing season for the various field crops. It should, however, be noted that the values are only rough approximations and it is much better to obtain the values locally. There are three broad classes of irrigation systems: Pressurized distribution Gravity flow distribution Drainage flow distribution.

1. Pressurized Distribution The pressurized systems include sprinkler, trickle, and the array of similar systems in which water is conveyed to and distributed over the farmland through pressurized pipe networks. There are many individual system configurations identified by unique features (centre-pivot sprinkler systems). 2. Gravity Flow Irrigation System Gravity flow systems convey and distribute water at the field level by a free surface, overland flow regime. These surface irrigation methods are also subdivided according to configuration and operational characteristics.

3. Control of drainage flow irrigation System Irrigation by control of the drainage system, subirrigation, is not common but is interesting conceptually. Relatively large volumes of applied irrigation water percolate through the root zone and become a drainage or groundwater flow. By controlling the flow at critical points, it is possible to raise the level of the groundwater to within reach of the crop roots. These individual irrigation systems have a variety of advantages and particular applications. Irrigation systems are often designed to maximize efficiencies and minimize labour and capital requirements. The most effective management practices are dependent on the type of irrigation system and its design. For example,

management can be influenced by the use of automation, the control of or the capture and reuse of runoff, field soil and topographical variations and the existence and location of flow measurement and water control structures. Questions that are common to all irrigation systems are when to irrigate, how much to apply, and can the efficiency be improved. A large number of considerations must be taken into account in the selection of an irrigation system. These will vary from location to location, crop to crop, year to year, and farmer to farmer. Compatibility of the irrigation systems: The irrigation system for a field or a farm must be compatible with the other existing farm operations, such as land preparation, cultivation, and harvest. Level of Mechanization Size of Fields Cultivation Pest Control Topographic Limitations. Restrictions on irrigation system selection due to topography include: groundwater levels the location and relative elevation of the water source, field boundaries, acreage in each field, the location of roads power and water lines and other obstructions, the shape and slope of the field

UNIT-2&4 IRRIGATION METHOD CANAL IRRIGATION Cheap labour and availability of cement reduces the cost of canal construction Huge quantities of water from Monsoon rainfall & melting of snow can be stored in reservoirs during summer season. Irregular supply of water in the rivers is then regulated by construction of dams & barrages. Canal system irrigates a vast area. Even the deserts have been made productive. TANK IRRIGATION
India, an irrigation tank or tank is an artificial reservoir of any size. (The word sagar refers to a large lake, usually man-made).[1] It can also have a natural or man-made spring included as part of a structure. Tanks are part of an ancient tradition of harvesting and preserving the local rainfall and water from streams and rivers for later use, primarily for agriculture and drinking water, but also for sacred bathing and ritual. Often a tank was constructed across a slope so to collect and store water by taking advantage of local mounds and depressions.[2] Tank use is especially critical in parts of South India without perennial rainfall where water supply replenishment is dependent on a cycle of dry seasons alternating with monsoon seasons.

Causes: Abundance of silt eroded from the Karakoram, Hindu Kush and Himalayan mountains. Deforestation - ruthless cutting of trees for fuel and timber. Rivers form narrow and deep valleys in the mountainous areas. Most of the eroded material is washed down into the plains and piles up in reservoirs of the dams. Effects:

Blockage of canals because silt accumulates. Weakens the foundation of dams. Reduced capacity of reservoir and less flow of water affects the generation of hydro-electric power. It also results in availability of less water for irrigation purposes.

Flow of floodwater is hampered which may cause heavy damage to the dam because of mounds of silt which block the flow of water. Large-scale afforestation especially on the foothills of Himalayas. Cemented embankment of canals. . Installation of silt trap before the water flows to the dams. Structural measures such as operating the reservoir at lower level during flood and allowing free flow during low flow season for sluicing sediments from the reservoir. Uses of CANAL Irrigation:

1. Soft soil and level land of the Indus Plain makes digging of canals easier than in the rugged lands of Balochistan. 2. By canal irrigation millions of gallons of water are utilized that would flow into the Arabian Sea. 3. Cheap labour and availability of cement reduces the cost of canal construction 4. Canal system irrigates a vast area. Even the deserts have been made productive. 5. Irregular supply of water in the rivers is then regulated by construction of dams & barrages. 6. Huge quantities of water from Monsoon rainfall & melting of snow can be stored in reservoirs during summer season. 7. Southward slope of the rivers makes construction of canals easier, because water flows southwards naturally.

Lining of Irrigation Canals

Most of the irrigation channels in Iraq are earthen channels. The major advantage of an earth channel is its low initial cost, these suffer from certain disadvantages, like the following:1- Maximum velocity limited to prevent erosion. 2- Seepage of water into the ground. 3- Possibility of vegetation growth in banks, leading to increased friction. 4-Possibility of bank failure, due to erosion. 5-More maintenance requirement.

Types of Canal Lining

Types of lining are generally classified according to the materials used for their construction. Concrete, rock masonry, brick masonry, bentonite-earth mixtures, natural clays of low permeability, and different

mixtures of rubble, plastic, and asphaltic materials are the commonly used materials for canal lining. The suitability of the lining material is decided by: A- Economy. B- Structural stability. C- Resistance to erosion. E- Durability. F- Hydraulic efficiency.

[A] Concrete Lining [B] Precast concrete lining [C] Shotcrete Lining [D] Bricks, Tiles and Stone lining [E] Asphaltic Lining [F] Earth Linings
1- Stabilized Earth Linings Sub-grade is stabilized using either clay for granular subgrade or by adding chemicals that compact the soil. 2- Loose Earth Blankets Fine grained soil is laid on the sub grade and evenly spread. However, this type of lining is subject to erosion, and requires a flatter side slopes of canal. 3- Compacted Earth Linings The graded soil containing about 15 percent clay is spread over the subgrade and compacted. 4- Buried Bentonite Membranes Bentonite is a special type of clay soil, found naturally, which swell considerably when wetted. 5- Soil-cement Linings: These linings are constructed using cement (15 to 20 per cent by volume) and sandy soil (not containing more than about 35 per cent of silt and clay particles). Cement and sandy soil can be mixed in place and compacted at the optimum moisture content. This method of construction is termed the dry-mixed soil-cement method.

3- Failure of Canal Lining

The main causes of failure of lining are the water pressure that developed behind the lining material due to high water table, saturation of the embankment by canal water, sudden lowering of water levels in the

channel, and saturation of the embankment sustained by continuous rainfall. When the water level in canal was raised and lowered the banks suffering from instability due to erosion and seepage through the banks may be occurs. In order to minimize the seepage, a secondary berms were constructed along the length of bank at various locations.
Diversion head works: Weirs and Barrages, Layout of diversion head works and components, failure of hydraulic structures on previous foundations, Blighs Creep theory, Lanes weighted theory and Khoslas theory, concept of low net, u/s and d/s cutoffs and protection measures, design of vertical drop weir. Canal Structures: Types of falls and their location, design principles and Trapezoidal notch fall, siphon well drop, straight glacis fall. Canal regulation works, alignment of off taking canal. Distributary head regulators and cross regulation and their design. Canal escapes, types of metering flumes, types of canal modules and proportionality, sensitivity, flexibility. Cross Drainage Works: Definition, classification, design principles of aqueducts, siphon aqueducts, canal siphons, super passages and inlet and outlets, selection of cross drainage works. Bridges and Culverts: Discharge, Waterway and sour depth computations, Depth of Bridge foundation, spans and vertical clearance, efflux computations, pipe culverts and box culverts. Water Power: Classification of Hydropower plants, definitions pf terms, load, head, power, efficiency, load factor, installed capacity, utilization factor, capacity factor, use of mass curve and flow duration curve. Components of power plant-intakes, fore/bay, penstocks, functions and types of sewage tanks, General arrangement of power house, sub-structure and super-structure. .

Design of Hydraulic Structures Design of Hydraulic Structures

COURSE Contents 1. Introduction

2. Gravity Dams Site selection, Forces, Stability analysis. 3. Diversion Works Weirs and Barrages 4. Canals Design and Canal Falls. 5. Cross Drainage Works 6. Head Regulators and Cross regulators IS Codes
IS Code 6512: Criteria for Design of Solid Gravity Dams IS Code 1893: Criteria for Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures IS Code 7784-Cross-Drainage Works: Part 1 General IS Code 7784- Cross-Drainage Works: Part 2 Aqueduct IS Code 7784- Cross-Drainage Works: Part 2 Syphon Aqueduct IS Code 7784- Cross-Drainage Works: Part 2 Canal Syphon IS Code 7784- Cross-Drainage Works: Part 2 Superpassage

IS Code 7784- Cross-Drainage Works: Part 2 Level Crossing

UNIT-3 DIVERSION AND IMPOUNDING STRUCTURES

Why study Hydraulic Structures?

INTRODUCTION
Development of water resources of a region Requires Conception Planning Design Construction Operation of various facilities to utilise and control water, and to maintain water quality. Utilize/Need water

Domestic & Industrial uses Irrigation Power generation Navigation Other purposes Water Resources Engineering Utilisation of water Control of water Water quality management Water is controlled and regulated Flood control Land drainage Sewerage Bridges Not cause damage to property, inconvenience to the public, or loss of life Water-quality management Required quality of water for different uses

Preserve Ecological balance Contamination of Groundwater/Surface water Water Resources development projects are planned to serve various purposes Main Purposes Domestic & Industrial uses, Irrigation Power generation, Navigation, Flood control Secondary Purposes Recreational, Fish and wild life, Drainage control, Watershed management, Sediment control, Salinity control, Pollution abatement Miscellaneous Purposes

Employment, Accelerate development etc Single-purpose andMulti-purpose Water Resources projects Two Main Steps First step How much water is available? Knowledge of Hydrology Precipitation average Abstraction Losses Runoff, Yield of basin Flood Peak runoff Reservoir sizing Mass curve Second step How to utilise and control water? Require various structure Hydraulic Structures Types of Hydraulic Structures Storage Diversion

Transportation Regulation Control Main source of water is Precipitation Precipitation is not uniform over space and time Monsoon, North East, Himalaya, W. Ghat Store water at surplus location during surplus period Storage structures Reservoirs Dam and Reservoir coexist Dam solid barrier across river Reservoir artificial lake u/s of dam Reservoir
Dam

Reservoir

Dam Spillway

RESERVOIRS RESERVOIRS
Types of Reservoirs Single-purpose
and Multi-purpose

Storage (or conservation) reservoirs Flood control reservoirs Multipurpose reservoir Distribution reservoirs Balancing reservoirs Flood Control runoff exceeding safe capacity of river is stored in the reservoir. Stored water is released in controlled manner Detention Reservoirs regulated by GATES Adv: More flexibility of operation and
better control of

outflow; Discharge from various reservoirs can be adjusted Disadv: More expensive; Possibility of human error

Retarding Reservoirs UNGATES Adv: Less expensive; Outflow is

automatic so possibility of human error Disadv: No flexibility of operation; Discharge from various reservoirs may coincide heavy flood

Multipurpose Reservoirs
Serve two or more purposes. In India, most of the reservoirs are designed as multipurpose reservoirs to store water for irrigation and hydropower, and also to effect flood control

Distribution Reservoirs

Small storage reservoirs to tide over the peak demand of water. The distribution reservoir is helpful in permitting the pumps to work at a uniform rate. It stores water during the period of lean demand and supplies the same during the period of high demand. As the storage is limited, it merely helps in distribution of water as per demand for a day or so and not for storing it for a long period. Distribution reservoirs are mainly used for municipal water supply but rarely used for the supply of water for irrigation.

RESERVOIRS RESERVOIRS
Multipurpose Reservoirs

Serve two or more purposes. In India, most of the reservoirs are designed as multipurpose reservoirs to store water for irrigation and hydropower, and also to effect flood control

Distribution Reservoirs
Small storage reservoirs to tide over the peak demand of water. The distribution reservoir is helpful in permitting the pumps to work at a uniform rate. It stores water during the period of lean demand and supplies the same during the period of high demand. As the storage is limited, it merely helps in distribution of water as per demand for a day or so and not for storing it for a long period. Distribution reservoirs are mainly used for

municipal water supply but rarely used for the supply of water for irrigation.

RESERVOIRS RESERVOIRS
Balancing Reservoirs
A balancing reservoir is a small reservoir constructed d/s of the main reservoir for holding water released from the main reservoir.

RESERVOIRS RESERVOIRS
Storage Capacity of Reservoirs
Storage capacity of a reservoir depends upon the topography of the site and the height of dam. Engineering surveys The storage capacity and the water spread area at different elevations can be determined from the contour map. In addition to finding out the capacity of a reservoir, the

contour map of the reservoir can also be used to determine the land and property which would be submerged when the reservoir is filled upto various elevations. To estimate the compensation to be paid to the owners of the submerged property and land. The time schedule, according to which the areas should be evacuated, as the reservoir is gradually filled, can also be drawn..
UNIT-5 IRRIGATION WATER MANAGEMENT

Both the elevation-area curve and the elevation- storage curve on the same paper. Abscissa - areas and volumes - opposite di ti Area-Elevation Curve from contour map An

elevation-area curve is then drawn between the surface area as abscissa and the elevation as ordinate. Elevation-Capacity Curve: is determined from elevation-area curve using diff formulae.

Storage Capacity calculation formulae

1. Trapezoidal formula 2. Cone formula 3. Prismoidal formula 4. Storage Volume from cross-sectional areas

Basic Terms and Definitions

1. Full reservoir level (FRL): is the highest water level to which

the water surface will rise during normal operating conditions. Also called the full tank level (FTL) or the normal pool level (NPL). 2. Maximum water level (MWL): is the maximum level to which the water surface will rise when the design flood passes over the spillway. Also called the maximum pool level (MPL) or maximum flood level (MFL). 3. Minimum pool level: is the lowest level up to which the water is withdrawn from the reservoir under ordinary conditions. It corresponds to the elevation of the lowest outlet (or sluiceway) of the dam. However, in the case of a reservoir for hydroelectric power; the minimum pool level is fixed after

considering the minimum working head required for the efficient working of turbines.

Basic Terms and Definitions

4. Useful storage: volume of water stored between the full reservoir level and the minimum pool level. Also known as the live storage. 5. Surcharge storage: is the volume of water stored above the full reservoir level upto the maximum water level. The surcharge storage is an uncontrolled storage which exists only when the river is in flood and the flood water is passing over the spillway. This storage is available only for the absorption of flood and it cannot be used for other purposes.

6. Dead storage: volume of water held below the minimum pool level. The dead storage is not useful, as it cannot be used for any purpose under ordinary operating conditions. 7. Bank storage: If the banks of the reservoir are porous, some water is temporarily stored by them when the reservoir is full. 8. Valley storage: The volume of water held by the natural river channel in its valley upto the top of its banks before the construction of a reservoir is called the valley storage. May be important in flood control reservoirs. 9. Yield from a reservoir: Yield is the volume of water which can be withdrawn from a reservoir in a specified period of

time. The yield is determined from the storage capacity of the reservoir and the mass inflow curve. 10 Safe yield (Firm yield): is the maximum quantity of water which can be supplied from a reservoir in a specified period of time during a critical dry year. Lowest recorded natural flow of the river for a number of years is taken as the critical dry period for determining the safe yield 11. Secondary yield: is the quantity of water which is available during the period of high flow in the rivers when the yield is more than the safe yield. It is supplied on as and when basis at the lower rates. The hydropower developed from

secondary yield is sold to industries at cheaper rates. 12. Average yield: is the arithmetic average of the firm yield and the secondary yield over a long period of time. 13. Design yield: is the yield adopted in the design of a reservoir. Fixed after considering the urgency of the water needs and the amount of risk involved. The design yield should be such that the demands of the consumers are reasonably met with, and at the same time, the storage required is not unduly large.