Formulas to Remember

I. Ideal Gas Law

A hydrogen gas thermometer is found to have a volume of 100.0 cm3 when placed in an ice-water bath at 0C. When the same thermometer is immersed in boiling liquid chlorine, the volume of hydrogen at the same pressure is found to be 87.2 cm3. What is the temperature of the boiling point of chlorine? Solution For hydrogen, PV = nRT, where P is pressure, V is volume, n is number of moles, R is the gas constant, and T is temperature. Initially:P1 = P, V1 = 100 cm3, n1 = n, T1 = 0 + 273 = 273 K PV1 = nRT1 Finally: P2 = P, V2 = 87.2 cm3, n2 = n, T2 = ? PV2 = nRT2 Note that P, n, and R are the same. Therefore, the equations may be rewritten: P/nR = T1/V1 = T2/V2 and T2 = V2T1/V1 Plugging in the values we know: T2 = 87.2 cm3 x 273 K / 100.0 cm3 T2 = 238 K Answer: 238 K (which could also be written as -35C)

II. Grahams Law of Diffusion

where: Rate1 is the rate of effusion of the first gas (volume or number of moles per unit time). Rate2 is the rate of effusion for the second gas. M1 is the molar mass of gas 1 M2 is the molar mass of gas 2.
Graham's law is a gas law which relates the rate of diffusion or effusion of a gas to its molar mass. Diffusion is the process of slowly mixing two gases together. Effusion is the process that occurs when a gas is permitted to escape its container through a small opening. Graham's law states the rate at which a gas will effuse or diffuse is inversely proportional to the square root of the molar masses of the gas. This means light gasses effuse/diffuse quickly and heavier gases effuse/diffuse slowly. This example problem uses Graham's law to find how much faster one gas effuses than another. Problem: Gas X has a molar mass of 72 g/mol and Gas Y has a molar mass of 2 g/mol. How much faster or slower does Gas Y effuse from a small opening than Gas X at the same temperature? Solution: Graham's Law can be expressed as rX(MMX)
1/2

= rY(MMY)

1/2

where rX = rate of effusion/diffusion of Gas X MMX = molar mass of Gas X rY = rate of effusion/diffusion of Gas Y MMY = molar mass of Gas Y We want to know how much faster or slower Gas Y effuses compared to Gas X. To get this value, we need the ratio of the rates of Gas Y to Gas X. Solve the equation for rY/rX. rY/rX = (MMX)
1/2

/(MMY)

1/2

rY/rX = [(MMX)/(MMY)]

1/2

Use the given values for molar masses. rY/rX = [(72 g/mol)/(2)] rY/rX = [36] rY/rX = 6 Answer: Gas Y will effuse six times faster than the heavier Gas X.
1/2 1/2

III. Gibbs Equation

To know if a reaction is spontaneous or not G = spontaneous T = temp, S = Entropy, H = Enthalpy

Example: 1.An endothermic reaction occurs with decreasing entropy. The reaction is spontaneous or not? Endothermic: +H (always positive) heat is absorbed , Decreasing entropy: -S (always negative) It is IMPOSSIBLE for G to be negative NON SPONTANEOUS 2. An endothermic process with very low positive entropy For G to be negative, -TS term must be bigger, this is only spontaneous in high temperatures

IV. Thermodynamic Equations

H = q = U + pV (pv = work) q = enthalpy U = internal energy P = pressure V = volume Isobaric constant pressure, internal energy is dependent on temp change and work due to volume change. Ex: Boiling water on pot, if there is no lid, vapour will keep on applying work to the air around it Isochoric no change in volume, no work, even if pressure changes

EX: Pressure cooker: Because the energy cant go to be transformed into work, all energy is converted to pressure which increases the boiling point of water, making it easier to soften meat. Adiabatic no heat transfer U = W , W = pV Isothermal - U is zero, W= - q There is no perfect adiabatic and Isothermal process, for this would violate the 2nd law of thermodynamics. This principle is utilized in engines. Heat is a waste of energy here, it is ideal that all of the energy of the fuel is converted to work by expansion. Fuel with high octane rate has high degree of expansion and low heat when combusted.

V. Titration Curves Strong acid vs Strong Base (Strong acid titrated by strong base)

At the beginning, the solution has a low pH and climbs as the strong base is added. As the solution nears the point where all of the H+ are neutralized, the pH rises sharply and then levels out again as the solution becomes more basic as more OH- ions are added. The first curve shows a strong acid being titrated by a strong base. There is the initial slow rise in pH until the reaction nears the point where just enough base is added to neutralize all the initial acid. This point is called the equivalence point. For a strong acid/base reaction, this occurs at pH = 7. As the solution passes the equivalence point, the pH slows its increase where the solution approaches the pH of the titration solution.

Strong base vs Strong acid curve will produce a mirror image of the graph

Weak acid vs Strong Base

A weak acid only partially dissociates from its salt. The pH will rise normally at first, but as it reaches a zone where the solution seems to be buffered, the slope levels out. After this zone, the pH rises sharply through its equivalence point and levels out again like the strong acid/strong base reaction. There are two main points to notice about this curve. The first is the half-equivalence point. This point occurs halfway through a buffered region where the pH barely changes for a lot of base added. The half-equivalence point is when just enough base is added for half of the acid to be converted to the conjugate base. When this happens, the concentration of H+ ions equals the Ka value of the acid. Take this one step further, pH = pKa. The second point is the higher equivalence point. Once the acid has been neutralized, notice the point is above pH=7. When a weak acid is neutralized, the solution that remains is basic because of the acid's conjugate base remains in solution.

VI. Calorimetry mCT m = mass / no of moles (depending on units of C) C = specific heat (Energy per mass/moles and temp change)