Stress

Stress is the ratio of applied force F and cross section A, defined as "force per area".
Direct Stress or Normal Stress

Stress normal to the plane is usually denoted "normal stress" and can be expressed as = Fn / A where = normal stress ((Pa) N/m2, psi) Fn = normal component force (N, lbf (alt. kips)) A = area (m2, in2)

(1)

a kip is a non-SI unit of force - it equals 1,000 pounds-force 1 kip = 4448.2216 Newtons (N) = 4.4482216 kilonewtons (kN)

Example - Tensile Force acting on a Rod

A force of 10 kN is acting on a circular rod with diameter 10 mm. The stress in the rod can be calculated as = 10 103 (N) / ( (10 10-3 (m) / 2)2) = 127388535 (N/m2) = 127 (MPa)
Shear Stress

Stress parallel to the plane is usually denoted "shear stress" and can be expressed as = Fp / A where = shear stress ((Pa) N/m2, psi) Fp = parallel component force (N, lbf) A = area (m2, in2) (2)

Strain

Strain is defined as "deformation of a solid due to stress" and can be expressed as = dl / lo = / E where dl = change of length (m, in) lo = initial length (m, in) = unitless measure of engineering strain E = Young's modulus (Modulus of Elasticity) (Pa, psi)
Example - Stress and Change of Length

(3)

The rod in the example above is 2 m long and made of steel with Modulus of Elasticity 200 GPa. The change of length can be calculated by transforming (3) as dl = lo / E = 127 106 (Pa) 2 (m) / 200 109 (Pa) = 0.00127 (m) = 1.27 (mm)

Young's Modulus - Modulus of Elasticity (or Tensile Modulus) - Hooke's Law

Most metals have deformations that are proportional with the imposed loads over a range of loads. Stress is proportional to load and strain is proportional to deformation expressed by the Hooke's law like E = stress / strain = (Fn / A) / (dl / lo) where E = Young's modulus (N/m2) (lb/in2, psi) Modulus of Elasticity or Young's Modulus are commonly used for metals and metal alloys and expressed in terms 106 lbf/in2, N/m2 or Pa. Tensile modulus are often used for plastics and expressed in terms 105 lbf/in2 or GPa. (4)

Shear Modulus
S = stress / strain = (Fp / A) / (s / d) (5)

where S = shear modulus (N/m2) (lb/in2, psi) Fp = force parallel to the faces which they act A = area (m2, in2) s = displacement of the faces (m, in) d = distance between the faces displaced (m, in)

Elastic Moduli
Young's Modulus Material 1010 N/m2 Aluminum Brass Copper Glass Iron Lead Steel 7.0 9.1 11 5.5 9.1 1.6 20 106 lb/in2 10 13 16 7.8 13 2.3 29 1010 N/m2 2.4 3.6 4.2 2.3 7.0 0.56 8.4 106 lb/in2 3.4 5.1 6.0 3.3 10 0.8 12 1010 N/m2 7.0 6.1 14 3.7 10 0.77 16 106 lb/in2 10 8.5 20 5.2 14 1.1 23 Shear Modulus Bulk Modulus

Young Modulus:
It is convenient to express the elasticity of a material with the ratio stress to strain, a parameter also termed the tensile elastic modulus or Young's modulus of the material. This is usually given the symbol - E. Modulus of Elasticity for some common metals at various temperatures according ASME B31.1-1995 are indicated below:

1 psi (lb/in2) = 1 psi (lb/in2) = 144 psf (lbf/ft2) = 6,894.8 Pa (N/m2) = 6.895x10-3 N/mm2 T(oC) = 5/9[T(oF) - 32]

Young's Modulus of Elasticity - E - (106 psi) Temperature (oC) -129 -73 21 200 Metal Temperature (oF) -200 -100 70 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 325 Cast iron Gray cast iron

93 149 204 260 316 371 427 482 538 593 649

13.4 13.2 12.9 12.6 12.2 11.7 11.0 10.2

Steel Carbon steel C <= 31.4 30.8 30.2 29.5 28.8 28.3 27.7 27.3 26.7 25.5 24.2 22.4 20.4 18.0 0.3% Carbon steel C => 31.2 30.6 30.0 29.3 28.6 28.1 27.5 27.1 26.5 25.3 24.0 22.2 20.2 17.9 15.4 0.3% Carbonmoly 31.1 30.5 29.9 29.2 28.5 28.0 27.4 27.0 26.4 25.3 23.9 22.2 20.1 17.8 15.3 steels Nickel steels Ni 29.6 29.1 28.5 27.8 27.1 26.7 26.1 25.7 25.2 24.6 23.0 2% - 9% Cr-Mo steels Cr 31.6 31.0 30.4 29.7 29.0 28.5 27.9 27.5 26.9 26.3 25.5 24.8 23.9 23.0 21.8 1/2% 2%

Young's Modulus of Elasticity - E - (106 psi) Temperature (oC) -129 -73 21 200 Metal Temperature (oF) -200 -100 70 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 325 Cr-Mo steels Cr 32.6 32.0 31.4 30.6 29.8 29.4 28.8 28.3 27.7 27.1 26.3 25.6 24.6 23.7 22.5 2 1/4% 3% Cr-Mo steels Cr 32.9 32.3 31.7 30.9 30.1 29.7 29.0 28.6 28.0 27.3 26.1 24.7 22.7 20.4 18.2 5% - 9% Chromiu m steels 31.2 30.7 30.1 29.2 28.5 27.9 27.3 26.7 26.1 25.6 24.7 23.2 21.5 19.1 16.6 Cr 12%, 17%, 27% Austenitic steels (TP304, 30.3 29.7 29.1 28.3 27.6 27.0 26.5 25.8 25.3 24.8 24.1 23.5 22.8 22.1 21.2 310, 316, 321, 347) Copper and copper alloys Comp. and leaded-Sn 14.8 14.6 14.4 14.0 13.7 13.4 13.2 12.9 12.5 12.0 bronze (C83600, C92200)

93 149 204 260 316 371 427 482 538 593 649

Young's Modulus of Elasticity - E - (106 psi) Temperature (oC) -129 -73 21 200 Metal Temperature (oF) -200 -100 70 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 325 Naval brass Si & Al bronze (C46400, 15.9 15.6 15.4 15.0 14.6 14.4 14.1 13.8 13.4 12.8 C65500, C95200, C95400) Copper 16.9 16.6 16.5 16.0 15.6 15.4 15.0 14.7 14.2 13.7 (C11000) Copper red brass Al-bronze (C10200, C12000, 18.0 17.7 17.5 17.0 16.6 16.3 16.0 15.6 15.1 14.5 C12200, C12500, C14200, C23000, C61400) Nickel and Nickel Alloys Monel 400 27.8 27.3 26.8 26.0 25.4 25.0 24.7 24.3 24.1 23.7 23.1 22.6 22.1 21.7 21.2 (N04400) Titanium

93 149 204 260 316 371 427 482 538 593 649

Young's Modulus of Elasticity - E - (106 psi) Temperature (oC) -129 -73 21 200 Metal Temperature (oF) -200 -100 70 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 325 Unalloyed titanium grades 1, 2, 3 and 7

93 149 204 260 316 371 427 482 538 593 649

15.5 15.0 14.6 14.0 13.3 12.6 11.9 11.2

Aluminum and aluminum alloys Grades 443, 1060, 1100, 11.1 10.8 10.5 10.0 9.6 9.2 8.7 3003, 3004, 6063

1 psi (lb/in2) = 6,894.8 N/m2 (Pa) T(oC) = 5/9[T(oF) - 32]

Strength:
To describe elastic properties of linear objects like wires, rods, or columns which are stretched or compressed, a convenient parameter is the ratio of the stress to the strain, a parameter called the "Young's modulus" or "Modulus of Elasticity" of the material. Young's modulus can be used to predict the elongation or compression of an object as long as the stress is less than the yield strength of the material.

Material

Young's Modulus (Modulus of Elasticity) -E(109 N/m2, GPa) 2.3 3.2 10.0 69 120 11.3 70 - 112 42 4.6 287

(106 psi)

Ultimate Tensile Strength - Su (106 N/m2, MPa) 40 70 110

Yield Strength - Sy (106 N/m2, MPa)

ABS plastics Acrylic Aluminum Aluminium Bronze Antimony Aramid Beryllium (Be) Bismuth

95

Bone

170 (compression)

Material

Young's Modulus (Modulus of Elasticity) -E(109 N/m2, GPa)

(106 psi)

Ultimate Tensile Strength - Su (106 N/m2, MPa)

Yield Strength - Sy (106 N/m2, MPa)

Boron Brass Brass, Naval Bronze Cadmium Carbon Fiber Reinforced Plastic Cast Iron 4.5% C, ASTM A-48 Chromium Cobalt Concrete, High Strength (compression) Copper Diamond (C) 17 36 30 40 (compression) 220 4.6 150 170 102 - 125 100 96 - 120 250

3100

30

117 1220

70

Douglas fir Wood

13

50 (compression)

Fiberboard, Medium Density

Material

Young's Modulus (Modulus of Elasticity) -E(109 N/m2, GPa) 58

(106 psi)

Ultimate Tensile Strength - Su (106 N/m2, MPa)

Yield Strength - Sy (106 N/m2, MPa)

Flax fiber

Glass

50 - 90

50 (compression)

Glass reinforced polyester matrix Graphene Grey Cast Iron Gold Hemp fiber Iridium Iron Lead Magnesium metal (Mg) Manganese Marble Mercury 75 28.5 2.0 6.4 23 10.8

17

1000 130

35

45

15

Material

Young's Modulus (Modulus of Elasticity) -E(109 N/m2, GPa) 329

(106 psi)

Ultimate Tensile Strength - Su (106 N/m2, MPa)

Yield Strength - Sy (106 N/m2, MPa)

Molybdenum (Mo) Nickel Niobium (Columbium) Nylon Oak Wood (along grain) Osmium (Os) Phosphor Bronze Pine Wood (along grain) Platinum Plutonium Polycarbonate Polyethylene HDPE (high density) Polytehylene, LDPE (low density) Polyethylene Terephthalate, PET

40 31 15

2-4 11 80 550 116 9 21.3 14 2.6

75

45

40

70

0.8

15

0.238

2 - 2.7

55

Material

Young's Modulus (Modulus of Elasticity) -E(109 N/m2, GPa) 2.5 1.5 - 2 3 - 3.5

(106 psi)

Ultimate Tensile Strength - Su (106 N/m2, MPa) 85 40 40

Yield Strength - Sy (106 N/m2, MPa)

Polyimide Polypropylene Polystyrene Potassium Rhodium Rubber Selenium Silicon Silicon Carbide Silver Sodium Stainless Steel, AISI 302 Steel, Structural ASTM-A36 Steel, High Strength Alloy ASTM A-514 Tantalum 27 10.5 8.4 16 42

0.01 - 0.1

130 - 185 450 3440

180 200

860 400

502 250

760

690

Material

Young's Modulus (Modulus of Elasticity) -E(109 N/m2, GPa) 0.5 8.5 16 105 - 120 400 - 410 450 - 650 24 19 190 - 210 12

(106 psi)

Ultimate Tensile Strength - Su (106 N/m2, MPa)

Yield Strength - Sy (106 N/m2, MPa)

Teflon. PTFE Thorium Titanium Titanium Alloy Tungsten (W) Tungsten Carbide (WC) Uranium Vanadium Wrought Iron Zinc

900

730

1 N/m2 = 1x10-6 N/mm2 = 1 Pa = 1.4504x10-4 psi 1 psi (lb/in2) = 144 psf (lbf/ft2) = 6,894.8 Pa (N/m2) = 6.895x10-3 N/mm2

Note! Use the pressure unit converter on this page to switch the values to other units.

Strain
Strain can be expressed as strain = dL / L where (1)

strain = (m/m) (in/in) dL = elongation or compression (offset) of the object (m) (in) L = length of the object (m) (in)

Stress
Stress can be expressed as stress = F / A where stress = (N/m2) (lb/in2, psi) F = force (N) (lb) A = area of object (m2) (in2) (2)

Young's Modulus (Tensile Modulus)

Young's modulus or Tensile modulus can be expressed as E = stress / strain = (F / A) / (dL / L) where E = Young's modulus (N/m2) (lb/in2, psi) (3)

Elasticity
Elasticity is a property of an object or material which will restore it to its original shape after distortion. A spring is an example of an elastic object - when stretched, it exerts a restoring force which tends to bring it back to its original length. This restoring force is in general proportional to the stretch described by Hooke's Law.

Hooke's Law
One of the properties of elasticity is that it takes about twice as much force to stretch a spring twice as far. That linear dependence of displacement upon stretching force is called Hooke's law which can be expressed as Fs = -k dL where (4)

Fs = force in the spring (N) k = spring constant (N/m) dL = elongation of the spring (m)

Yield strength
Yield strength, or the yield point, is defined in engineering as the amount of stress that a material can undergo before moving from elastic deformation into plastic deformation.

Ultimate Tensile Strength

The Ultimate Tensile Strength - UTS - of a material is the limit stress at which the material actually breaks, with sudden release of the stored elastic energy.