CHAPTER: 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 TYPES OF ELECTRICAL PROCESS HEATING

Prior to describing induction heating, some types of electric process heating are explained below to help you understand normally used heat sources.

The types of electric heating are as follows:

Resistance Heating Conduction Heating Infrared Radiation Heating Induction Heating Dielectric Hysteresis Heating Electric Arc Heating Plasma Heating Electron Beam Heating Laser Heating

Resistance heating is the most common type of electric process heating. It uses the relationship between the voltage and current of resistance in Joules Law.

Conduction heating exploits the heat energy generated when an object is placed between two electric poles, which is another application of Joules Law. In this case, however, a different relationship exists between voltage and current, especially when the circuit current is high, because the object itself contains both resistance and inductance features.

The main topic of this document is induction heating, which is a combination of electromagnetic induction, the skin effect, and the principle of heat transfer. In short, induction heating refers to the generation of heat energy by the current and eddy current created on the surface of a conductive object (according to Faradays Law and the skin effect)
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when it is placed in the magnetic field, formed around a coil, where the AC current flows through (Amperes Law). Detailed descriptions of induction heating are presented in the following sections of the document.

1.2 BASIC OF INDUCTION HEATING

Induction heating is comprised of three basic factors: electromagnetic induction, the skin effect, and heat transfer. The fundamental theory of INDUCTION HEATING, however, is similar to that of a transformer. Electromagnetic induction and the skin effect are described in this section.

Figure1-1 Basic of induction heating

1.3 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

As shown in Figure 1-1, when the AC current enters a coil, a magnetic field is formed around the coil according to Amperes Law. Hdl = Ni = F = HA

(Formula 1-1)

An object put into the magnetic field causes a change in the velocity of the magnetic movement. The density of the magnetic field wanes as the object gets closer to the center from the surface. According to Faradays Law, the current generated on the surface of a conductive object has an inverse relationship with the current on the inducting circuit as described in Formula 1-2. The current on the surface of the object generates an eddy current.

E=

=N

(formula 1-2)

As a result, the electric energy caused by the induced current and eddy current is converted to heat energy as shown in Formula 1-3. P = E2/R = i2R

(formula 1-3)

Here, resistance is determined by the resistivity () and permeability () of the conductive object. Current is determined by the intensity of the magnetic field. Heat energy is in an inverse relationship with skin depth which is described in Section 1-4.

If an object has conductive properties like iron, additional heat energy is generated due to magnetic hysteresis. The amount of heat energy created by hysteresis is in proportion to the size of the hysteresis. In this document, this additional energy is ignored because it is far smaller (less than 10%) than the energy generated by induction current.
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1-4 SKIN EFFECT

The higher the frequency of the current administered to the coil, the more intensive is the induced current flowing around the surface of the load. The density of the induced current diminishes when flowing closer to the center as shown in Formula 1-4 and 1-5 below. This is called the skin effect or kelvin effect. From this effect, one can easily infer that the heat energy converted from electric energy is concentrated on the skin depth (surface of the object).

Ix = i0

(Formula 1- 4)

where,

ix = distance from the skin (surface) of the object, current density at x. Io = current density on skin depth (x=0) Do = a constant determined by the frequency (current penetration depth or skin

depth)

d0 =

(Formula 1- 5)

where, = resistivity. = permeability of the object. = Frequency of the current flowing through the object.

Formula 1-5 states that the skin thickness is determined by the resistivity, permeability, and frequency of the object. Figure 1-2 below is the distribution chart of current density in relation to skin thickness.

Figure 1-2 Distribution Chart of Current Density and Skin Thickness

1.5 INTRODUCTION OF PROJECT:

Induction heating is process of heating an electrically conducting object usually a metal by electromagnetic induction, where eddy currents are generated within the metal and resistance leads to joule heating of the metal. An inductor heater consists of an electromagnet, through which a high-frequency alternating current is passed. Heat may also be generated by magnetic hysteresis losses in materials that have significant relative permeability. The frequency of AC used depends on the object size, material type, coupling (between the work coil and the object to be heated) and the penetration depth.

The basic setup is an AC power supply that provides electricity with low voltage but very high current and high frequency. . The workpiece to heat is placed inside an air coil driven by the power supply, usually in combination with a resonant tank capacitor to increase the reactive power. The alternating magnetic field induces eddy currents in the work piece.

Magnetic materials improve the induction heat process because of hysteresis. . Materials with high permeability (100500) are easier to heat with induction heating. Hysteresis heating occurs below the cruie temperature, where materials lose their magnetic properties. High permeability below the Curie temperature in the work piece is useful. Temperature difference, mass, and specific heat influence the work piece heating.
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Figure 1-3 Flow of high frequency electricity

The energy transfer of induction heating is affected by the distance between the coil and the work piece . The induction coil is usually made of copper tubing and fluid cooled. Diameter, shape, and number of turns influence the efficiency and field pattern.

1.6 WHAT IS INDUCTION HEATING USED FOR?

Induction heating can be used for any application where we want to heat an electrically conductive material in a clean, efficient and controlled manner. One of the most common applications is for sealing the anti-tamper seals that are stuck to the top of medicine and drinks bottles. A foil seal coated with "hot-melt glue" is inserted into the plastic cap and screwed onto the top of each bottle during manufacture. These foil seals are then rapidly heated as the bottles pass under an induction heater on the production line. The heat generated melts the glue and seals the foil onto the top of the bottle. When the cap is removed, the foil remains providing an airtight seal and preventing any tampering or contamination of the bottle's contents until the customer pierces the foil.

Another common application is "getter firing" to remove contamination from evacuated tubes such as TV picture tubes, vacuum tubes, and various gas discharge lamps. A

ring of conductive material called a "getter" is placed inside the evacuated glass vessel. Since induction heating is a non-contact process it can be used to heat the getter that is already sealed inside a vessel. An induction work coil is located close to the getter on the outside of the vacuum tube and the AC source is turned on. Within seconds of starting the induction heater, the getter is heated white hot, and chemicals in its coating react with any gasses in the vacuum. The result is that the getter absorbs any last remaining traces of gas inside the vacuum tube and increases the purity of the vacuum.

Yet another common application for induction heating is a process called Zone purification used in the semiconductor manufacturing industry. This is a process in which silicon is purified by means of a moving zone of molten material. An Internet Search is sure to turn up more details on this process that I know little about.

Other applications include melting, welding and brazing or metals. Induction cooking hobs and rice cookers. Metal hardening of ammunition, gear teeth, saw blades and drive shafts, etc are also common applications because the induction process heats the surface of the metal very rapidly. Therefore it can be used for surface hardening, and hardening of localised areas of metallic parts by "outrunning" the thermal conduction of heat deeper into the part or to surrounding areas. The non contact nature of induction heating also means that it can be used to heat materials in analytical applications without risk of contaminating the specimen.

Similiarly, metal medical instruments may be sterilised by heating them to high temperatures whilst they are still sealed inside a known sterile environment, in order to kill germs.

1.7 BASIC REQUIREMENT FOR INDUCTION HEATING:

A source of High Frequency electrical power. A work coil to generate the alternating magnetic field. An electrically conductive workpiece to be heated.
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FIGURE 1-4 Basic Block Diagram Of Induction Heating.

CHAPTER 2 RECTIFIER
2-1 INTRODUCTION
Although in our daily life we use A.C. current devices. But rectifier is a Electronic device which converts A.C. power into D.C. power. The study of the junction diode characteristics reveals that the junction diode offers a low resistance path, when forward biased, and a high resistance path, when reverse biased. This feature of the junction diode enables it to be used as a rectifier. The alternating signals provides opposite kind of biased voltage at the junction after each half-cycle. If the junction is forward biased in the first half-cycle, its gets reverse biased in the second half. It results in the flow of forward current in one direction only and thus the signal gets rectified. In other words, we can say, when an alternating e.m.f. signal is applied across a junction diode, it will conduct only during those alternate half cycles, which biased it in forward direction. In most power electronic applications, the power input is in the form of a 50 or 60hz sine wave ac voltage provided by the electric utility, that is first converted to a dc voltage. Increasingly, the trend is to use the inexpensive rectifiers with diodes to convert the input ac into dc in an uncontrolled manner, using rectifier with diodes, as illustrated by the block diagram of fig.2-1. In such diodes rectifiers,the power flow can only be form the utility ac side to the dc side. A majority of the power electronics applications such as switching dc power supplies, ac motor drives, dc servo drives, and so on, use such uncontrolled rectifier. In most of the applications, the rectifier are supplied directly from the utility source without a 60-hz transformer. The avoidance of this costly and bulky 60-hz transformer is important in most morden power electronic systems.

Id + D1 Is Vs C D3

Vo

D4

D2 -

Figure 2-1 Circuit diagram of rectifier

The dc output voltage of a rectifier should be as ripple free as possible. Therefore, a large capacitor is connected as a filter on the dc side. this capacitor gets charged to a value close to the peak of the ac input voltage. As a consequence, the current through the rectifier is very large near the peak of the 60hz of ac input voltage and it does not flow continuously; that is, it becomes zero for finite durations during each half cycle of the line frequency. These rectifiers draw highly disorted current from the utility. Now and even the future harmonics standards and guidelines will limit the amount of the current distortion allowed in the utility, and the simple diode rectifiers may not be allowed. Circuits to achieve a nearly sinusoidal current rectification at a unity power factor for many application.

2-2 TYPES OF RECTIFIER:

Half bridge Full bridge
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2-3 APPLICATION OF RECTIFIER:

The primary application of rectifiers is to derive DC power from an AC supply. Virtually all electronic devices require DC, so rectifiers are used inside the power supplies of virtually all electronic equipment.

Converting DC power from one voltage to another is much more complicated. One method of DC-to-DC conversion first converts power to AC (using a device called an inverter), then use a transformer to change the voltage, and finally rectifies power back to DC. A frequency of typically several tens of kilohertz is used, as this requires much smaller inductance than at lower frequencies and obviates the use of heavy, bulky, and expensive iron-cored units.

Rectifiers are also used for detection of amplitude modulated radio signals. The signal may be amplified before detection. If not, a very low voltage drop diode or a diode biased with a fixed voltage must be used. When using a rectifier for demodulation the capacitor and load resistance must be carefully matched: too low a capacitance will result in the high frequency carrier passing to the output, and too high will result in the capacitor just charging and staying charged.

Rectifiers are used to supply polarised voltage for welding. In such circuits control of the output current is required; this is sometimes achieved by replacing some of the diodes in a bridge rectifier with thyristors, effectively diodes whose voltage output can be regulated by switching on and off withphase fired controllers.

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CHAPTER: 3 INVERTER
3-1 INTRODUCTION OF INVERTER
A device that converts dc power into ac power into ac power at desired output voltage and frequency is called an inverter. Some industrial applications of inverters are for induction heating, adjustable-speed ac drives, stand by air-craft power supplies, UPS(uninterruptible power supplies) for computers, hvdc transmission lines etc. phase-controlled converters, when operated in the inverter mode, are called line-commutated inverters. But line-commutated inverter require at the output terminals an existing ac supply which is used for their commutation. This means that line-commutated inverters cant function as isolated ac voltage sources or as variable frequency generators with dc power at input. Therefore, voltage level, frequency and waveform on the ac side of line-commutated inverters cannot be changed. On the other hand, force commutated inverters provide an independent ac output voltage of adjustable voltage and adjustable frequency and have there much wider application.

3-2 TYPE OF INVERTERS

Inverters can be broadly classified into two types; Voltage source inverter Current source inverter

A voltage-fed inverter(VFI) or voltage source inverter(VSI) is one in which the dc source has small or negligible impedance. Voltage Source Inverters is one in which the DC source has small or negligible impedance. In other words VSI has stiff DC voltage source at its input terminals. A current source inverter is fed with adjustable current from a DC source of high impedance, i.e; from a stiff DC current source. In a CSI fed with stiff current source, output current waves are not affected by the load.

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From view point of connections of semiconductor devices, inverters are classified as under: Bridge Inverters Series Inverters Parallel Inverters

3-3 SWITCHING DEVICES:

We can use three types of switches in inverter as listed bellow:

BJT(Bipolar Junction Transistor) POWER MOSFET(Metal-oxide-semiconductor field effect transistor) IGBT(Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor)

3-3-1 BJT:

A bipolar transistor is a three-layer, two junction npn or pnp semiconductor device. With one p-region sandwiching by two n-regions npn transistor is obtained. With two pregions sandwiching one n-region pnp transistor is obtained. The term bipolar denotes that the current flow in the device is due to the movement of both holes and electrons. A BJT has three terminals named collector(C), emitter (E),and base(B). Power transistors of npn type are easy to manufacture and are cheaper also. Therefore, use of power npn transistor is very wide in high voltage and high current application.

3-3-2 POWER MOSFET:

A power MOSFET has three terminals called drain(D), source(S) and gate(G) in place of the corresponding three terminals collector, emitter and base for BJT. A BJT is a current controlled device where as a power MOSFET is a voltage-controlled device. As its operation depends upon the flow of majority carriers only, MOSFET is a unipolar device. The control signal, or base current in BJT is much larger than the control signal(or gate current) required
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in a MOSFET. This is because of the fact that gate circuit impedence in MOSFET is extremely high, of the order of 109 ohm. This large impedence permits the MOSFET gate to be driven directlt from microelectronic circuits. BJT suffers from second breakdown voltage whereas MOSFET is free fron this problem. Power MOSFETs are now finding increasing applications in low-power high frequency converters.

3-3-3 IGBT:

IGBT has been developed by combining into it the best qualities of both BJT and PMOSFET. Thus an IGBT posseses high input impedence like a power MOSFET and has low on-state power loss as in a BJT. Further IGBT is free from second breakdown problem present in BJT. All these metal oxide insulated gate transistor (MOSIGT),

conductively/modulated field effect transistor(COMFET) or gain/modulated FET(GEMFET). It was also initially called insulated gate transistor IGT.

FEATURES OF IGBT:
Large current devices High voltage devices High speed switching device Self turn off device Voltage driving device

ADVANTAGES :
Optimize consistency Maximize productivity Improved product quality Extended fixture life Reduce energy consumption
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3-4 COMPARISION OF BJT, MOSFET & IGBT :

BJT

MOSFET

IGBT

MAIN DEVICE

LARGE CURRENT HIGH VOLTAGE

SMALL CURRENT LOW VOLTAGE

LARGE CURRENT HIGH VOLTAGE

SWITCHING SPEED DRIVING TYPE

INTERMEDIATE SPEED CURRENT DRIVE

ULTRA HIGH SPEED

HIGH SPEED

VOLTAGE DRIVE

VOLTAGE DRIVE

TABLE 3-1 Comparision of BJT ,MOSFET and IGBT

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3-5 BASIC CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF INVERTER:

Figure 3-1 Series-parallel resonant inverter

3-6 PULSE MODULATION SCHEMES: 3-6-1 PULSE-AMPLITUDE MODULATION:

In PAM the successive sample values of the analog signal s(t) are used to effect the amplitudes of a corresponding sequence of pulses of constant duration occurring at the sampling rate. No quantization of the samples normally occurs (Fig. 3-2a, b). In principle the pulses may occupy the entire time between samples, but in most practical systems the pulse duration, known as the duty cycle, is limited to a fraction of the sampling interval. Such a restriction creates the possibility of interleaving during one sample interval one or more pulses derived from other PAM systems in a process known as time-division multiplexing (TDM).

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Figure 3-2(a)Analog signal, s(t). (b) Pulse-amplitude modulation. (c) Pulse-width modulation. (d) Pulse position modulation

3-6-2 PULSE-WIDTH MODULATION:

In PWM the pulses representing successive sample values of s(t) have constant amplitudes but vary in time duration in direct proportion to the sample value. The pulse duration can be changed relative to fixed leading or trailing time edges or a fixed pulse center. To allow for time-division multiplexing, the maximum pulse duration may be limited to a fraction of the time between samples (Fig. 3-2c).

3-6-3 PULSE-POSITION MODULATION:

PPM encodes the sample values of s(t) by varying the position of a pulse of constant duration relative to its nominal time of occurrence. As in PAM and PWM, the duration of the

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pulses is typically a fraction of the sampling interval. In addition, the maximum time excursion of the pulses may be limited (Fig. 3-2d).

3-6-4

PULSE-CODE MODULATION:

Many modern communication systems are designed to transmit and receive only pulses of two distinct amplitudes. In these so-called binary digital systems, the analog-todigital conversion process is extended by the additional step of coding, in which the amplitude of each pulse representing a quantized sample of s(t) is converted into a unique sequence of one or more pulses with just two possible amplitudes. The complete conversion process is known as pulse-code modulation. Figure 2-3a shows the example of three successive quantized samples of an analog signal s(t), in which sampling occurs every T seconds and the pulse representing the sample is limited to T/2 seconds. Assuming that the number of quantization levels is limited to 8, each level can be represented by a unique sequence of three two-valued pulses.

Figure3-3(a) Three successive quantized samples of an analog signal. (b) With pulses of amplitude V or 0. (c) With pulses of amplitude V or V

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PCM enjoys many important advantages over other forms of pulse modulation due to the fact that information is represented by a two-state variable. First, the design parameters of a PCM transmission system depend critically on the bandwidth of the original signal s(t) and the degree of fidelity required at the point of reconstruction, but are otherwise largely independent of the information content of s(t). This fact creates the possibility of deploying generic transmission systems suitable for many types of information. Second, the detection of the state of a two-state variable in a noisy environment is inherently simpler than the precise measurement of the amplitude, duration, or position of a pulse in which these quantities are not constrained. Third, the binary pulses propagating along a medium can be intercepted and decoded at a point where the accumulated distortion and attenuation are sufficiently low to assure high detection accuracy. New pulses can then be generated and transmitted to the next such decoding point. This so-called process of repeatering significantly reduces the propagation of distortion and leads to a quality of transmission that is largely independent of distance.

3-7 WHY PULSE WIDTH MODULATION?

Pulse-width modulation (PWM) of a signal or power source involves the modulation of its duty cycle, to either convey information over a communications channel or control the amount of power sent to a load.

3-8 ADVANTAGES OF PWM:

Using pulse width modulation has several advantages over analog control.

I. The entire control circuit can be digital, eliminating the need for digital-to-analog Converters.

II. Using digital control lines will reduce the susceptibility of your circuit to interference.

III. Finally, motors may be able to operate at lower speeds if you control them with PWM. When you use an analog current to control a motor, it will not produce significant torque at low speeds.
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IV. The output voltage control can be obtained without any additional components.

V. With this method, lower order harmonics can be eliminated or minimized Along with its output voltage control.

VI. As higher order harmonics can be filtered easily the higher order harmonics can be minimized.

3-9 APPLICATIONS OF INVERTER:

DC POWER SOURCE UTILIZATION:

Inverter designed to provide 115 VAC from the 12 VDC source provided in an automobile. The unit provides up to 1.2 Amps of alternating current, or just enough to power two sixty watt light bulbs.

An inverter converts the DC electricity from sources such as batteries, solar panels, or fuel cells to AC electricity. The electricity can be at any required voltage; in particular it can operate AC equipment designed for mains operation, or rectified to produce DC at any desired voltage.

Grid tie inverters can feed energy back into the distribution network because they produce alternating current with the same wave shape and frequency as supplied by the distribution system. They can also switch off automatically in the event of a blackout.

Micro-inverters convert direct current from individual solar panels into alternating current for the electric grid.

UNINTERRUPTIBLE POWER SUPPLIES:

An uninterruptible power supply is a device which supplies the stored electrical power to the load in case of raw power cut-off or blackout. One type of UPS uses batteries to store power and an inverter to supply AC power from the batteries when main power is not
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available. When main power is restored, a rectifier is used to supply DC power to recharge the batteries.

It is widely used at domestic and commercial level in countries facing Power outages.

INDUCTION HEATING:

Inverters convert low frequency main AC power to a higher frequency for use in induction heating. To do this, AC power is first rectified to provide DC power. The inverter then changes the DC power to high frequency AC power.

HVDC POWER TRANSMISSION:

With HVDC power transmission, AC power is rectified and high voltage DC power is transmitted to another location. At the receiving location, an inverter in a static inverter plant converts the power back to AC.

VARIABLE-FREQUENCY DRIVES:

A variable-frequency drive controls the operating speed of an AC motor by controlling the frequency and voltage of the power supplied to the motor. An inverter provides the controlled power. In most cases, the variable-frequency drive includes a rectifier so that DC power for the inverter can be provided from main AC power. Since an inverter is the key component, variable frequency drives are sometimes called inverter drives or just inverters.

ELECTRIC VEHICLE DRIVES:

Adjustable speed motor control inverters are currently used to power the traction motor in some electric locomotives and diesel-electric locomotives as well as some battery electric vehicles and hybrid electric highway vehicles such as the Toyota Prius. Various improvements in inverter technology are being developed specifically for electric vehicle

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applications.[2] In vehicles with regenerative braking, the inverter also takes power from the motor (now acting as a generator) and stores it in the batteries.

THE GENERAL CASE:

A transformer allows AC power to be converted to any desired voltage, but at the same frequency. Inverters, plus rectifiers for DC, can be designed to convert from any voltage, AC or DC, to any other voltage, also AC or DC, at any desired frequency. The output power can never exceed the input power, but efficiencies can be high, with a small proportion of the power dissipated as waste heat.

CHAPTER 4 RESONANT TANK CIRCUIT:

4-1 SERIES RESONANT TANK CIRCUIT:
The work coil is made to resonate at the intended operating frequency by means of a capacitor placed in series with it. This causes the current through the work coil to be sinusoidal. The series resonance also magnifies the voltage across the work coil, far higher than the output voltage of the inverter alone. The inverter sees a sinusoidal load current but it must carry the full current that flows in the work coil. For this reason the work coil often consists of many turns of wire with only a few amps or tens of amps flowing. Significant heating power is achieved by allowing resonant voltage rise across the work coil in the seriesresonant arrangement whilst keeping the current through the coil (and the inverter) to a sensible level.

This arrangement is commonly used in things like rice cookers where the power level is low, and the inverter is located next to the object to be heated. The main drawbacks of the series resonant arrangement are that the inverter must carry the same current that flows in the work coil. In addition to this the voltage rise due to series resonance can become very pronounced if there is not a significantly sized workpiece present in the work coil to damp the circuit. This is not a problem in applications like rice cookers where the workpiece is always
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the same cooking vessel, and its properties are well known at the time of designing the system.

The tank capacitor is typically rated for a high voltage because of the resonant voltage rise experienced in the series tuned resonant circuit. It must also carry the full current carried by the work coil, although this is typically not a problem in low power applications.

4-2 PARALLEL RESONANT TANK CIRCUIT:

The work coil is made to resonate at the intended operating frequency by means of a capacitor placed in parallel with it.

This causes the current through the work coil to be sinusoidal. The parallel resonance also magnifies the current throughthe work coil, far higher than the output current capability of the inverter alone. The inverter sees a sinusoidal load current.

However, in this case it only has to carry the part of the load current that actually does real work. The inverter does not have to carry the full circulating current in the work coil. This is very significant since power factors in induction heating applications are typically low. This property of the parallel resonant circuit can make a tenfold reduction in the current that must be supported by the inverter and the wires connecting it to the work coil. Conduction losses are typically proportional to current squared, so a tenfold reduction in load current represents a significant saving in conduction losses in the inverter and associated wiring. This means that the work coil can be placed at a location remote from the inverter without incurring massive losses in the feed wires.

Work coils using this technique often consist of only a few turns of a thick copper conductor but with large currents of many hundreds or thousands of amps flowing. (This is necessary to get the required Ampere turns to do the induction heating.) Water cooling is common for all but the smallest of systems. This is needed to remove excess heat generated by the passage of the large high frequency current through the work coil and its associated tank capacitor.

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Figure 4-1 Parallel resonant

In the parallel resonant tank circuit the work coil can be thought of as an inductive load with a "power factor correction" capacitor connected across it. The PFC capacitor provides reactive current flow equal and opposite to the large inductive current drawn by the work coil. The key thing to remember is that this huge current is localised to the work coil and itscapacitor, and merely represents reactive power sloshing back-and-forth between the two. Therefore the only real current flow from the inverter is the relatively small amount required to overcome losses in the "PFC" capacitor and the work coil.

There is always some loss in this tank circuit due to dielectric loss in the capacitor and skin effect causing resistive losses in the capacitor and work coil. Therefore a small current is always drawn from the inverter even with no workpiece present.When a lossy workpiece is inserted into the work coil, this damps the parallel resonant circuit by introducing a further loss into the system. Therefore the current drawn by the parallel resonant tank circuit increases when a work piece is entered into the coil.

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CHAPTER 5 IMPEDANCE MATCHING

This refers to the electronics that sits between the source of high frequency power and the work coil we are using for heating. In order to heat a solid piece of metal via induction heating we need to cause a TREMENDOUS current to flow in the surface of the metal. However this can be contrasted with the inverter that generates the high frequency power. The inverter generally works better (and the design is somewhat easier) if it operatesat fairly high voltage but a low current. (Typically problems are encountered in power electronics when we try to switch large currents on and off in very short times.) Increasing the voltage and decreasing the current allows common switch mode MOSFETs (or fast IGBTs) to be used.

The comparatively low currents make the inverter less sensitive to layout issues and stray inductance. It is the job of the matching network and the work coil itself to transform the high-voltage/low-current from the inverter to the low-voltage/high-current required to heat the workpiece efficiently.

We can think of the tank circuit incorporating the work coil (Lw) and its capacitor (Cw) as a parallel resonant circuit. This has a resistance (R) due to the lossy workpiece coupled into the Work coil due to the magnetic coupling between the two conductors.

FIGURE 5-1 Impedence matching

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In practice the resistance of the work coil, the resistance of the tank capacitor, and the reflected resistance of the workpiece all introduce a loss into the tank circuit and damp the resonance. Therefore it is useful to combine all of these losses into a single "loss resistance." In the case of a parallel resonant circuit this loss resistance appears directly across the tank circuit in our model. This resistance represents the only component that can consume real power, and therefore we can think of this loss resistance as the load that we are trying to drive power into in an efficient manner.

When driven at resonance the current drawn by the tank capacitor and the work coil are equal in magnitude and opposite in phase and therefore cancel each other out as far as the source of power is concerned. This means that the only load seen by the power source at the resonant frequency is the loss resistance across the tank circuit.

The job of the matching network is simply to transform this relatively large loss resistance across the tank circuit down to a lower value that better suits the inverter attempting to drive it. There are many different ways to achieve this impedance transformation including tapping the work coil, using a ferrite transformer, a capacitive divider in place of the tank capacitor, or a matching circuit such as an L-match network.

In the case of an L-match network it can transform the relatively high load resistance of the tank circuit down to something around 10 ohms which better suits the inverter. This figure is typical to allow the inverter to run from several hundred volts whilst keeping currents down to a medium level so that standard switch-mode MOSFETs can be used to perform the switching operation.

The L-match network consists of components Lm and Cm shown opposite. The Lmatch network has several highly desirable properties in this application. The inductor at the input to the L-match network presents a progressively rising inductive reactance to all frequencies higher than the resonant frequency of the tank circuit. This is very important when the work coil is to be fed from a voltage-source inverter that generates a squarewave voltage output.

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The squarewave voltage generated by most half-bridge and full-bridge circuits is rich in high frequency harmonics as well as the wanted fundamental frequency. Direct connection of such a voltage source to a parallel resonant circuit would cause excessive currents to flow at all harmonics of the drive frequency! This is because the tank capacitor in the parallel resonant circuit would present a progressively lower capacitive reactance to increasing frequencies. This is potentially very damaging to a voltage-source inverter. It results in large current spikes at the switching transitions as the inverter tries to rapidly charge and discharge the tank capacitor on rising and falling edges of the squarewave. The inclusion of the Lmatch network between the inverter and the tank circuit negates this problem. Now the output of the inverter sees the inductive reactance of Lm in the matching network first, and all harmonics of the drive waveform see gradually rising inductive impedance. This means that maximum current flows at the intended frequency only and little harmonic current flows, making the inverter load current into a smooth waveform.

Finally, with correct tuning the L-match network is able to provide a slight inductive load to the inverter. This slightly lagging inverter load current can facilitate Zero-VoltageSwitching (ZVS) of the MOSFETs in the inverter bridge. This significantly reduces turn-on switching losses due to device output capacitance in MOSFETs operated at high voltages. The overall result is less heating in the semiconductors and increased lifetime.

In summary, the inclusion of an L-match network between the inverter and the parallel resonant tank circuit achieves two things.

1. Impedance matching so that the required amount of power can be supplied from the inverter to the workpiece.

2. Presentation of a rising inductive reactance to high frequency harmonics to keep the inverter safe and happy.

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FIGURE 5-2 Impedence matching scheme

Looking at the previous schematic above we can see that the capacitor in the matching network (Cm) and the tank capacitor (Cw) are both in parallel. In practice both of these functions are usually accomplished by a single purpose built power capacitor. Most of its capacitance can be thought of as being in parallel resonance with the work coil, with a small amount providing the impedance matching action with the matching inductor (Lm.) Combing these two capacitances into one leads us to arrive at the LCLR model for the work coil arrangement, which is commonly used in industry for induction heating.

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CHAPTER 6 WORKCOIL:
6.1 INTRODUCTION
This arrangement incorporates the work coil into a parallel resonant circuit and uses the L-match network between the tank circuit and the inverter. The matching network is used to make the tank circuit appear as a more suitable load to the inverter, and its derivation is discussed in the section above.

The work coil has a number of desirable properties:

1. A huge current flows in the work coil, but the inverter only has to supply a low current. The large circulating current is confined to the work coil and its parallel capacitor, which are usually located very close to each other.

2. Only comparatively low current flows along the transmission line from the inverter to the tank circuit, so this can use lighter duty cable.

3. Any stray inductance of the transmission line simply becomes part of the matching network inductance (Lm.) Therefore the heat station can be located away from the inverter.

4. The inverter sees a sinusoidal load current so it can benefit from ZCS or ZVS to reduce its switching losses and therefore run cooler.

5. The series matching inductor can be altered to cater for different loads placed inside the work coil.

6. The tank circuit can be fed via several matching inductors from many inverters to reach power levels above those achievable with a single inverter. The matching inductors provide

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inherent sharing of the load current between the inverters and also make the system tolerant to some mismatching in the switching instants of the paralleled inverters.

Another advantage of the LCLR work coil arrangement is that it does not require a highfrequency transformer to provide the impedance matching function. Ferrite transformers capable of handling several kilowatts are large, heavy and quite expensive.

In addition to this, the transformer must be cooled to remove excess heat generated by the high currents flowing in its conductors. The incorporation of the L-match network into the LCLR work coil arrangement removes the necessity of a transformer to match the inverter to the work coil, saving cost and simplifying the design.

However, the designer should appreciate that a 1:1 isolating transformer may still be required between the inverter and the input to the work coil arrangement if electrical isolation is necessary from the mains supply. This depends whether isolation is important, and whether the main PSU in the induction heater already provides sufficient electrical isolation to meet these safety requirements.

6.2 CALAULATION OF WORKCOIL

The number of turns of work coil is mainly based on the length of work piece and the pitch of coil windings. Thus,

N =

Where, N = number of turns of work coil Lw = length of work piece to be hardened, m

And the inner diameter of work coil is

Din = Dw + 2CP

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The outer diameter of work coil is

Dout = Din + 2dc Where, dw = diameter of work coil, m dc = diameter of conductor, m

The total length of conductor for work coil is

Ic = 2Ilead + Where, lc = length of conductor, m Ilead = length of work coil lead, m Rm = inner radius of work coil, m

The minimum thickness of conductor must be at least two times of depth of current penetration in conductor itself. Therefore, the minimum thickness of conductor is Tc = 2c Where, tc = minimum thickness of conductor, m c = depth of current penetration in conductor, m

The depth of current penetration in conductor is

Where, Oc = permeability of conductor, H/m Oo = permeability of free space, H/m c = electric conductivity of conductor, mho/m f = applied frequency, Hz
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CHAPTER 7 ADVANTAGES AND APPLICATIONS

7-1 ADVANTAGES: Optimized Consistency: Once the system is properly calibrated and set up, there is no guess work or variation; the heating pattern is repeatable and consistent. With modern solid state systems, precise temperature control provides uniform results; power can be instantly turned on or shut off. With closed loop temperature control, advanced induction heating systems have the capability to measure the temperature of each individual part. Specific ramp up, hold and ramp down rates can be established & data can be recorded for each part that is run. Maximized Productivity: Production rates can be maximized because induction works so quickly; heat is developed directly and instantly (>2000 F. in < 1 second) inside the part. Startup is virtually instantaneous; no warm up or cool down cycle is required. The induction heating process can be completed on the manufacturing floor, next to the cold or hot forming machine, instead of sending batches of parts to a remote furnace area or subcontractor. For example, a brazing or soldering process which previously required a time-consuming, off-line batch heating approach can now be replaced with a continuous, one-piece flow manufacturing system. Improved Product Quality: With induction, the part to be heated never comes into direct contact with a flame or other heating element; the heat is induced within the part itself by alternating electrical current. As a result, product warpage, distortion and reject rates are minimized. For maximum product quality, the part can be isolated in an enclosed chamber with a vacuum, inert or reducing atmosphere to eliminate the effects of oxidation. Extended Fixture Life: Induction heating rapidly delivers site-specific heat to very small areas of your part, without heating any surrounding parts. This extends the life of the fixturing and mechanical setup. Environmentally Sound: Induction heating systems do not burn traditional fossil fuels; induction is a clean, nonpolluting process which will help protect the environment. An induction system improves working conditions for your employees by eliminating smoke, waste heat, noxious emissions and loud noise. Heating is safe and efficient with no open flame to endanger the operator or

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obscure the process. Non-conductive materials are not affected and can be located in close proximity to the heating zone without damage. Energy Saving: Induction heating is much more efficient than traditional radiant or conduction heating because there is no loss of heat. The magnetic field transfers energy directly into the pan, and you can touch the induction burners with a bare hand even while they're turned on. Conduction heating, by contrast, uses electric elements or gas burners, which lose heat to the surrounding air and are consequently not as efficient. Temperature Accuracy: One of the biggest problems with traditional electric or gas stoves is the difficulty of controlling the temperature of the burner. Certain cooking techniques and recipes require precise temperatures, such as melting chocolate or making a custard. Induction burners allow for accurate temperatures, since you can control the electromagnetic field precisely.

7-2 APPLICATION: Metal melting

melt gold, silver, steel, aluminum, copper, brass and other metals. melt your materials at rates to meet your production requirements. Material testing

How do engineers choose materials with the right set of mechanical properties for a
given product or application? Actual considitions for materials in many industries
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involve high temperatures, and the properties of many materials change with increasing temperature. Consider the aluminium alloy from which an airplane wing is made, or the steel used to manufacture automobile axles.

Bonding

Bonding is the process of jointing a metal or a conductive material to a rubber or plastic material without a third bonding agent. This includes applications where gaskets are bonded to metal casings, thermoplastic composite bonding, and rubber washer assemblies. Pipe bending

Induction heating is the preferred heating method for bending of large thicker walled pipes due to the narrow band focused heating offered by the induction process with the resulting higher quality bends with lower ovality and wall thinning than other bending methods.

Soldering

Soldering produces liquid and gas-tight joints quickly and at low cost. Most soldering applications are carried out in air, with the flux acting as a barrier to surface oxidation and

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interation with the atmosphere. It is a convenient and economical way to produce joints when more complex joining machines are not available or cost-effective.

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