TEMPORARY AND PERMANENT DEWATERING OF EARTH EMBANKMENT DAMS TO FACILITATE REHABILITATION Greg M. Landry, P.E.1 Cari R. Beenenga, P.E.

2 ABSTRACT Earth embankment dam stability is greatly affected by pore water pressures within the dam and related through- and under-seepage. Elevated pore pressures, with or without a high water table in the dam, increases the likelihood of failure by slope instability. Uncontrolled movement of water, through- or under-seepage, increases the likelihood of soil erosion, piping and loss of foundation or embankment mass. Additionally, excavations into an earth embankment dam for rehabilitation purposes must first consider the insitu conditions in the dam. Many situations occur during a rehabilitation effort that require lowering the phreatic surface within an earth embankment dam to provide safe, continued operation of the dam during rehabilitation. Permanently lowering the water table in a dam through either actively or passively pumped wells and collection trenches can improve the factor of safety against slope failure and also prevent soil migration by collecting and discharging water through properly graded trench and well filters. Unfortunately, installation of a permanent dewatering system or groundwater collection system often requires excavating into the dam itself. This can be problematic, particularly for dams already in need of rehabilitation, since removing mass from the dam during excavation can change the dams global stability. This paper will explore issues relating to designing and constructing permanent and temporary dewatering systems for earth embankment dams to mitigate these effects.The first half of the paper will discuss design of permanent dewatering systems, including subsurface investigation, groundwater and failure mode analysis, system design, maintenance, contractual language, and regulatory oversight and requirements. The second half of the paper will discuss issues related to design and implementation of temporary dewatering systems on dams, including flow rate estimation, the need for redundant designs, and opportunities for value engineering. INTRODUCTION Earth embankment dams must be designed to satisfy several safety concerns, the four primary ones being (1) stable slopes, (2) seepage control, (3) overtopping protection, and (4) control of excessive foundation stresses. Items 2 and 4, control of seepage and the stresses generated, i.e. pore water pressures, relate directly to the topic of this paper and the ability of the designed structure to safely maintain stable slopes. Additionally, these
1

Moretrench American Corporation, 100 Stickle Avenue, Rockaway, New Jersey 07866.glandry@mtac.com 2 Gannett Fleming Inc., PO Box 67100, Harrisburg, PA 17106.cbeenenga@GFNET.com

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safety concerns must be evaluated for all anticipated loading conditions. Each individual loading condition will create an individual structural response, especially with regard to internal pore pressures. What are pore pressures and why are they significant? All earthen strata contain void, i.e. pore, space. This void space is filled with water and /or air. When the earthen stratum is loaded, the load is carried by both the soil particles and the pore space. The load carried by the pore space is defined as the pore water pressure. Drainage, and the related reduction in strata pore pressures, is controlled by the soils porosity or hydraulic conductivity. Granular soils will drain rapidly, while fine-grained silts and clays drain extremely slowly. When pore pressures are elevated, soil strength is reduced. Structure stability is greatly reduced when pore pressures are high due to the relationship between shear stress and pore pressure, as shown by Coulombs Equation: S = c' + ( - u) tan ' Where, using consistent units S is shear strength in pounds per square feet, c' is cohesion in pounds per square feet, is normal stress in pounds per square feet, u is pore water pressure in pounds per square feet, and ' is angle of internal friction in degrees Based on the above relationship, the friction portion of the soils shear strength is reduced by the pore water pressure, resulting in an overall reduction in shear strength. Soil with reduced shear strength will be less able to support the embankment slopes. Reducing the pore pressures will yield higher shear strengths and increase embankment slope stability. In addition to soil shear strength concerns, pore pressure control is also needed where excessive pressure exists in the foundation soils and / or rock. This is likely in locations where a pervious stratum is located beneath an impervious stratum. Pore pressures in this situation result in uplift pressures which cause destabilization of the embankment. Piping and heave of the foundation and earth embankment soils must be evaluated to prevent failure of the structure. Control of the pore pressures and artesian conditions will reduce seepage, piping and heave and increase embankment stability. As infrastructure ages, rehabilitation of existing earth embankment dams is occurring with greater frequency. Lowering the reservoir supported by the earth embankment is often prohibited due to concerns over environmental damage and / or economic hardship associated with temporary loss of the resource. Stability of the embankment during construction activities must be investigated and addressed during rehabilitation design. More often than not, the rehabilitation scheme requires excavation into the existing embankment. The excavation provides a short (1)

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circuit to the steady state seepage within the embankment. If the seepage is left uncontrolled, embankment failure is likely. Therefore, to maintain embankment stability during rehabilitation, lowering of the phreatic surface within the embankment, i.e. dewatering, must be provided. The required dewatering serves two purposes: (1) seepage control and erosion prevention, and (2) increased soil shear strength and structure stability. Dewatering efforts and control of pore pressures must be completed to the satisfaction of the federal and state regulatory agencies, usually a Department or Bureau within the state government, and federal agencies (i.e. the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, FERC). Owners, such as the Army Corp of Engineers and natural resources regulatory agencies, have their own design criteria and process. Therefore the design and construction of permanent and temporary dewatering systems for earth embankment dams must take into consideration the state and federal regulations and codes, owner requirements and sound engineering judgment. PERMANENT DESIGN SOLUTIONS Long term control of pore pressures must provide adequate relief of these pore pressures so that they do not lead to destabilization of the earth embankment structure. This is typically handled through the installation of relief wells which penetrate the strata of concern. Relief wells are designed either as passive or active systems, with collection trenches and associated piping to safely convey the flow. Passive systems are designed to permit flow at any time, as needed by the site conditions. Active systems are designed with pumps and control systems to maintain a particular head differential defined by the design. Access to the well head for maintenance and monitoring should be provided. A manhole system is shown in the passive relief well example, Figure 1. The gravel bed surrounding the header pipe is not required in most applications. It is included in the figure since the header pipe in the particular application was installed within the footprint of the structures drainage system. Design methods for permanent relief wells are adequately addressed in the following literature: Dewatering and Groundwater Control (United Facilities Criteria, 2004) and Design, Construction & Maintenance of Relief Wells (USACE. 1992). Generally, permanent facility design considerations include: 1. 2. 3. 4. Quantity of flow Well spacing Hole diameter and screen openings Filter Pack

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Figure 1. Passive Relief Well

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Input data for these design considerations include: 1. 2. 3. 4. Flow source: gravity, artesian or a combination Boundary conditions: source geometry, strata variability, well penetration Soil and rock engineering characteristics: hydraulic conductivity, gradation Water quality: chemical and biological contamination, i.e. corrosive or bacteria laden, etc.

Therefore, a thorough site subsurface investigation program with laboratory testing is required. Laboratory testing must include gradation evaluation of site soils for adequate filter design. Design of the permanent relief wells will only be as successful as the ability of the models and calculations to adequately reflect the actual site conditions. Casagrande piezometers should also be installed in strategic locations throughout the site to provide long term pore pressure measurements. Transducers and data loggers installed in the piezometers should be considered so that response of pore pressures to changes in reservoir pool elevation can be recorded for evaluation during design. In addition to laboratory testing of collected soil, rock and water samples, field testing should be completed during the subsurface investigation to assess in situ hydraulic conductivity. This is generally completed through falling head testing of soils and pressure testing of bedrock. The subsurface investigation and field testing may also encounter artesian conditions. Measurement and containment of the artesian head must be completed during the field work. The field crew should be prepared for artesian condition with packers, bentonite and grout to quickly backfill the hole if required for safety. Seepage analysis is required. Many computer programs are commercially available which provide modeling capabilities. However, the output is only as reliable as the quality and accuracy of the input. Field instrumentation data as recommended above is extremely useful to validate model outputs. Flow nets constructed by hand are also a reliable technique to estimate through- and under-seepage quantities. Regardless of technique, the permanent dewatering system should be designed for a capacity greater than the calculated seepage quantity. A minimum factor of 10 is suggested to reflect the inherent variability in soil permeability and minimal increase material cost. Compatibility of the relief well components must be evaluated during design to prevent migration of fines with the dewatering effort. The filter pack must be compatible with the site soils with which it will be placed in contact. Well screen slots or perforations must be compatible with the filter pack. The goal of the design effort is to prevent soil particles from entering the filter pack; the well screen must be sized large enough to provide pore pressure relief, but sufficiently small enough to prevent soil particle infiltration.

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Water removed by the system, whether passively or actively via pumping, must be monitored for sediment load. Quantity of flow should also be monitored. Directing flow through a weir prior to discharge is recommended. Instrumentation of the weir should be considered to provide continuous records of flow and system performance. Changes to sediment load or flow rate/quantity should be immediately evaluated by the design engineer. These changes may reflect poor performance of the system due to degradation, structure seepage flow path changes, or other situations which require action to continue safe operation of the earth embankment dam. Long-term monitoring of the phreatic surface within the earth embankment dam is required to ensure the system as installed provides the required control of water to reduce pore pressures. If Casagrande piezometers have not been installed during the design phase, they should be installed as part of the relief well construction contract. Even in locations where Casagrande piezometers exist, additional monitoring locations should be considered so that adequate data is collected during dam operation to verify pore pressures are within safe limits. Successful performance of any dewatering system requires that it be properly installed. Construction documents for the installation of permanent dewatering facilities must require a dewatering specialist with experience in the type and depth of system required. Proof of successful completion of projects of similar size and duration, both by the contractor and the driller, should be submitted with the bid documents. Drilling a plumb hole, as well as installation of the filter material without bridging, are extremely important to the successful long-term operation of the relief well system. Only an experienced individual can provide the best likelihood of a successful installation. Development and testing of the system should be completed upon installation. Development of the well allows easy flow of water through the filter pack immediately adjacent the screen. Pump tests verify well capacity and provide a benchmark against which future flow rates are compared. Field operations should be observed and monitored by the design engineer, or qualified delegate, who has a complete understanding of the intent of the design and requirements of the installed permanent dewatering system. This individual should record all observations and report deficiencies to the owner or owners representative for reconciliation with the contractor. A maintenance program must also be provided with the design. The maintenance program should be site-specific, based on actual water quality test results. However, all relief wells experience a loss in efficiency over time and require periodic surging and cleaning. It is recommended that the general contractor be required to identify his dewatering specialist with the bid documents. Since the installation of the permanent and temporary dewatering systems is critical to safe operation of the structure during construction, designers should encourage a detailed dewatering plan be submitted with the bid and

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evaluated along with price. The critical nature of dewatering to the safe and on-time execution of the work cannot be stressed enough. TEMPORARY DESIGN SOLUTIONS Designing a temporary dewatering system for a dam rehabilitation project requires the designer to synthesize various pieces of information to create a design that (1) has a valid theoretical underpinning, (2) is constructible and does not interfere with other work, and (3) is cost effective. In order to do this the designer must consider: the size and depth of the proposed excavations as well as their locations on the dam the geology of the embankment and the surrounding native soils and bedrock historical groundwater and reservoir levels the planned reservoir level during construction seepage barriers such as grout curtains or corewalls that are part of the structures existing geometry. global slope stability (this is sometimes addressed in the specifications by requiring certain groundwater elevations to be maintained in piezometers placed throughout the embankment) availability of materials, equipment and commercial power, and schedule

Generally speaking, this information is available in the contract documents. Gaps in knowledge may need to be filled using the designers judgment, contractors past experience working on the dam, or information from published sources such as the United States Geological Survey or state geological surveys. Quantitative Design The actual techniques and equations used during design of the dewatering system will vary with the physical layout of the project and hydrogeology of the dam site. However, a common strategy to use when designing temporary dewatering systems for dam rehabilitation projects is to design the system to have the capacity to intercept the total seepage flow through the dam. This method is especially useful when the rehabilitation works are parallel to the dams crest, such as a trench for well field collection headers or toe drains(see Figure 2 below). If we analyze the dewatering system for such a trench as a line sink and assume that the dam reservoir acts as a line source, the flow that the dewatering system must capture can be computed using: Qs = xK ( H 2 h 2 ) 2 R0 (2)

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Where, using consistent units Qs is the system flow in cubic feet per day, x is the length of the trench in feet, K is the soils hydraulic conductivity in feet per day, H is the distance from the bottom of the aquifer to the potentiometric surface of the aquifer in feet, h is the distance from the bottom of the aquifer to the target water elevation in feet, and R0 is the radius of influence of the system in feet Note that the equation above calculates flow from a source on one side of the sink (say the reservoir impounded by the dam). A common error made when applying this equation to dewatering problems of all types is to neglect the component of flow from the other side of the sink. Some dams have pools or reservoirs on their downstream sides as well. Flow from this source to the dewatering system will need to be accounted for by a separate application of the equation, often with new values of K, H and R0. The downstream flow may be neglected if there is no downstream pool or if its elevation is below the work. Radius of influence is generally calculated using the Jacob Straight Line Method:

R0 =
where, using consistent units

2.25Tt Cs

(3)

T is the transmissivity of the aquifer in square feet per day, t is the pumping time in days, and Csis the aquifers storage coefficient or storativity (dimensionless) Or using the following empirical equation:

Where R0 is in feet, H-h is in feet, and K is in meters/second

R0 = 3000( H h) K

(4)

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Figure 2. Conceptual Plan and Section of Flow to a Line Sink from a Line Source Experienced judgment must be used when deciding on a radius of influence. If the distance from the dewatering system to the dams reservoir is less than the calculated value for radius of influence, it is good practice to substitute the distance to the reservoir for the calculated radius of influence (in effect the designer is saying that the distance to the point of no drawdown is the same as the distance to the reservoir). The radius of influence may also be lengthened to account for soil anisotropy, interlocking steel sheeting or other cut-off methods installed for construction, grout curtains or corewalls, and accumulations of fine-grained material that may have built up at the reservoir/dam interface. For example, a common scenario confronting the designer is presented in Figure 3, where the dewatering system is quite close to the reservoir and the dam has a partially penetrating corewall or grout curtain.

Figure 3. Factors Affecting Radius of Influence and Length of Flowpath. The impermeable wall lengthens the flow path from the reservoir to the dewatering system. Since the wall forces flow through the dam to become vertical, the designer may

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apply a factor equal to the ratio of horizontal to vertical hydraulic conductivity (Kh/Kv) or anisotropy. In the absence of other information, this ratio is generally taken to be between 5 and 10 for most dewatering applications. Therefore the effective radius of influence becomes:

where, using consistent units

K R0 = L1 + h L2 K v

(5)

L1 is the distance from the dewatering system to the reservoir, Kh and Kv are the horizontal and vertical hydraulic conductivities of the soil respectively, and L2 is the distance from the water level in the reservoir to the bottom of the barrier It is also worth noting that the designer of the permanent rehabilitation works has likely performed a flow/seepage analysis. It is often instructive to study the methodology used in this analysis and to compare results obtained using different methods. Once the required system flow rate has been determined, the designer must decide on the number of dewatering devices (wells, wellpoints etc.) to install. Generally this is done by dividing the expected system flow rate by the expected flow per well. The flow per well may be estimated empirically using Sicharts equation:

Qw = 0.0352l w rw K
where Qw is the flow per well in gallons per minute, lw is the length of well screen in contact with the saturated aquifer in feet, rw is the radius of the wells borehole in inches, and K is the hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer is gallons per day per square foot This equation appears in a slightly different form in Dewatering and Groundwater Control (UFC 3-220-05, 2004). Actual yield of the wells will be influenced by such factors as drilling method, development effort and well construction materials.

(6)

It is worth noting that nearly all of the parameters in the equations above can be obtained from the geometry of the dewatering problem and should be known reasonably well from the project drawings and borings. Hydraulic conductivity (K) is the exception. This value may be given to the designer in the projects geotechnical report (perhaps in the form of an earlier seepage or flow analysis) or be estimated based on mechanical analyses of the soil, slug and packer tests performed during the projects geotechnical investigation, or based on known seepage rates and groundwater gradients. Descriptions of methods for estimating K are beyond the scope of this paper and are well treated elsewhere. In particular, Construction Dewatering and Groundwater Control, 3rd

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Ed (Powers et al., 2007) is recommended for a discussion of using grain size curves to estimate hydraulic conductivity, and Applied Hydrogeology, 4th Ed.(Fetter, 2000) recommended for a treatment of rising and falling head (slug) tests. All of these methods will produce estimates only. The selection of hydraulic conductivity will greatly affect the outcome of the design and uncertainty surrounding this parameter may drive up the cost of dewatering unnecessarily. Project owners and others setting budgets for the initial geotechnical investigation may wish to specifically allocate resources to the problem of accurately estimating K and to reduce its uncertainty. CONSTRUCTION CONSIDERATIONS System Selection Three types of dewatering system are commonly used in the industry; deep wells, wellpoints and eductors.Deep wells (Figure 4) generally consist of relatively large diameter screen and casing (4-in. to 12+-in.) installed in large diameter boreholes (8-in. to 36-in.). The wells are equipped with individual submersible pumps and connected to a common discharge header pipe. Electricity must be distributed to the wells individually. Deep wells are generally widely spaced (50+ ft) compared to wellpoints and eductors; however, they may be installed at closer spacings if soil conditions require it. Wellpoints (Figure 5) typically consist of small (1.5-in. to 3-in.) diameter screen and casing installed in 6-in. to 8-in. diameter boreholes. The wellpoints are connected to a common vacuumized header and pumped by a single pump on the surface. The major drawback with wellpoints is their limited suction lift. Since they rely on vacuum, wellpoints can only lift water up to 25 ft (at the wellpoint itself, drawdown will be less as one moves away from the dewatering system). This limitation may be overcome by installing multiple stages of wellpoints at successively lower elevations. At higher elevations, where ambient air pressure is lower, wellpoints may achieve even less drawdown. Wellpoints are relatively inexpensive on a unit basis and are therefore usually installed on close centers (10 ft is typical).

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Figure 4. Typical Deep Well Schematic. From Construction Dewatering and Groundwater Control, 3rd Ed., Powers et al. John Wiley & Sons, 2007. Reprinted with permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Figure 5. Typical Wellpoint Schematic. From Construction Dewatering and Groundwater Control, 3rd Ed.,Powers et al. John Wiley & Sons, 2007. Reprinted with permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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Eductor systems (Figure 6) use the energy of pressurized water for pumping power. Eductor wells typically consist of 2-in. to 4-in. screens and casings installed in 6-in. to 10-in. boreholes. Pressurized supply water is forced through a nozzle and venturi installed at the bottom of the well. This creates a vacuum and draws water into the well from the surrounding soil. Each well is connected to two header pipes, one supply line carrying pressurized water to the wells, and one return line carrying the used supply water and the pumped water back to a surface-mounted pump station. Eductors are generally installed on 10 to 20 ft centers.

Figure 6. Typical Eductor Schematic. From Construction Dewatering and Groundwater Control, 3rd Ed., Powers et al. John Wiley & Sons, 2007. Reprinted with permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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Redundant Designs Dams are high value structures where the consequences of even a small or partial failure can be large. Therefore, where temporary dewatering systems are required to ensure the stability of the dam during construction, it is desirable to make the system as redundant as possible. Wellpoint and eductor systems both rely on a single pump station and common piping to transmit pumping energy (vacuum and pressurized water respectively) to the wells and to expel pumped water. A break in one of the lines will disrupt pumping and cause any wells attached to that line to fail. By contrast, deep wells overcome this problem by distributing pumping power throughout the system. A break in a pipe will cause a leak but will not cause all of the wells to stop pumping. The problem of redundancy in electrical distribution may be solved by running individual cables to the wells. If this is not cost-effective, the electrical system should be designed such that adjacent wells are not on the same circuit so that a power disruption will not cause all of the wells in a given area to fail at once. Regardless of the type of system selected, backup power systems should be incorporated into the design. Pumping from open trenches may be permitted in certain controlled situations, provided adequate filtering of the water is provided. However, this method must be closely monitored and used only as a supplement to deep wells, wellpoints and eductors and in limited areas. Again, regardless of the system chosen, contingency plans should be developed and incorporated into the larger dewatering plan. The following contingencies should be addressed in the dewatering specification and the plan submitted by the contractor: A provision for additional wells or other dewatering devices if the base or proposed system needs to be augmented. A requirement for stand-by power with automatic transfer switch in case the main power source fails. A requirement for spare parts including pumps, electrical components and piping. A requirement for stockpiled granular material on site to be placed quickly in case of uncontrolled flow or soil loss.

Value Engineering Cooperation between the engineer (designer of the permanent system) and the contractor (designer of the temporary system and installer of the permanent and temporary systems) may produce benefits to the project in terms of improved schedule, safety and cost. Collaboration between the parties may happen at the design (pre-bid stage) if the project is to be sole-sourced to a contractor or during the post bid stage if the owners team has selected a contractor through a competitive bid process.

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One potential area for discussion and cost savings is whether permanent dewatering wells may be incorporated into the temporary system. If the permanent system includes wells and the construction sequence allows these wells to be installed early in the process, including them in the temporary system may eliminate well drilling time and expense, improving project cost and schedule. If the permanent wells are included in the temporary system, provision should be made to ensure that they are not damaged in the process. Additionally, once the designer has arrived at some basic parameters for the permanent system (flow rate, location, open area required etc.), an experienced contractor should be able to advise on how best to install the wells. Designers may often be tempted to simplify the system by proposing a few large wells. However, depending on the drilling equipment and expertise available in the area, this may not be the best solution. Large wells require large drill rigs which have high mobilization costs and may be cumbersome to move around on the sloping ground found at dam sites. Handling heavy, large diameter drill tools may also pose a safety risk for workers on uneven ground with poor access for support equipment. If reducing the well size becomes impractical because of the reduced open well screen area per well, the designer may specify more specialized screen materials such as wire-on-rib or wire-on-pipe type well screen. These products are constructed by wrapping a trapezoidal wire around a perforated pipe or a skeleton of ribs and have much higher open areas per foot of screen than conventional slotted pipe. CONCLUSIONS Based on the foregoing, the authors conclude the following: Earth embankment dam stability is greatly reduced when pore pressures are high due to the relationship between shear stress and pore pressure, as shown by Coulombs Law. Pore pressure control is also needed where excessive pressure exists in the foundation soils and / or rock. Stability of the earth embankment dam structure during rehabilitation construction activities must also be addressed during rehabilitation design. Design and construction of permanent and temporary dewatering systems for earth embankment dams must take into consideration the federal and state regulations and codes, owner requirements and sound engineering judgment. Design of the permanent relief wells will only be as successful as the ability of the models and calculations to adequately reflect the actual site conditions. Therefore a thorough subsurface investigation program with field and laboratory testing is recommended. Installation of piezometers to record the in situ pore pressure measurements will permit calibration of the design model. Permanent dewatering systems should be designed for a capacity greater than the calculated seepage quantity. Computer modeling output is only as reliable as the quality and accuracy of the input. Data from field instrumentation, i.e. piezometers, is useful to validate model outputs. Compatibility of the dewatering system components must be evaluated during design to prevent migration of fines with the dewatering effort.

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Monitoring of flow and maintenance requirements must be included in the permanent dewatering system design. Given that the consequence of a dewatering system failure on a dam rehabilitation project is quite high, the project specifications should require an experienced dewatering contractor to submit a detailed dewatering plan and the plan should be evaluated as part of the contractor selection process. It is imperative to design the dewatering system to include redundancy and backup systems. The owners engineer and the contractor should work together to look for ways to value engineer the dewatering, saving time and money and improving safety. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors would like to acknowledge Christine Herridge and Christopher Ponnwitz for editorial and graphics assistance respectively during the preparation of this paper. REFERENCES Design of Small Dams, US Department of Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, 3rd Ed., 1987. Dewatering and Groundwater Control, United Facilities Criteria, UFC 3-220-05, January 16, 2004. Design, Construction & Maintenance of Relief Wells, USACE, EM 1110-2-1914, 1992 Fetter, C.W.Applied Hydrogeology. Prentice Hall, 2000, pp. 190 - 205 Powers, J.P, Corwin, A.B., Schmall, P.C. and Kaeck, W. E. Construction Dewatering and Groundwater Control: New Methods and Applications. John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY, 2007.

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