1

ECE 536 - Digital Control Systems

Design of a bi-directional Battery Management System (BMS) for
renewable energy applications
Arun Kadavelugu, Ajit Narwal and Jason Houston

Abstract: Power electronic converters play a
pivotal role in harnessing power from renewable
energy sources (RES) and processing it into a
utility- friendly form. From the supply end DC-
DC converters are widely used in RES like
Distributed Generation (DG), in places where it
is required to harness and process power from
DC sources like solar cells, fuel cells or battery
banks. Energy storage media is inevitable in
renewable energy systems like distributed
generation (DG), due to the highly intermittent
nature of the RES. For such applications a bi-
directional battery management system (BMS)
is used which is capable of charging the battery
bank in buck mode and discharging the same in
the boost-mode. A digital current programmed
mode control technique has been used for the
circuit implementation in real-time.
Literature: The rapid growth in industries and
depletion of fossil fuels along with increase in
green-house emissions has lead to the
development of technology featuring naturally
occurring RES like wind, solar, biomass, biogas,
tidal etc. However the RES are intermittent in
nature and hence have reduced availability. In
order to over-come this shortfall the systems
employing RES must possess energy storage
media like a battery bank. The storage medium
enhances the availability of the system by
absorbing energy when generated in surplus by
the RES and supplying the same when there is a
decit from the RES.
The usage of a storage media is inevitable for
such systems, with battery banks being the most
popular ones, due to their low cost and
simplicity. A typical distributed generation
setup would have an AC grid operating at a
specied voltage level. Therefore it is needed to
interface the battery bank with the grid. This is
done through the BMS, which is typically a bi-
directional dc-dc converter. The battery bank
will both charge and discharge through the
BMS. The proposed BMS is designed to feed
the DC bus of a front-end inverter which in turn
2

would feed the AC grid at the specied voltage
level. However in order to charge the battery
bank the front-end converter will act as a
rectier and provide a constant voltage input to
the BMS. Here the aim is to provide a xed DC
bus voltage to the subsequent stages of the
power module which may include an inverter
stage and then a load stage.
Such a technology is critical to several
applications wherein battery banks are
employed; several of these involve hybrid
vehicles, space applications, stand-alone,
renewable source-dependent systems, electric
vehicles, inverters.
In addition to this future work involving
integrated parallel operation of RES is
proposed; these cases are frequently witnessed
where the load is grid-isolated and has to
entirely depend on varied RES for supply. This
topology yields several benefits over a single
centralized high power converter system which
include
a) Improvement in reliability due to introduction
of redundancy.
b) Improvement in reliability due to even stress
distribution and enhanced fault tolerance
capability in the event of failure of a converter
module.
c) Standardization of components leading to
lesser inventories and reduction in
manufacturing cost and time.
d) The system can be easily
congured for a dierent
power level or input-output
requirement.
e) Allows multiphase
operation (interleaving) of
the paralleled converters, which decreases the
input and output ripple currents and therefore
reduces the lter ratings.
In the discharge mode the BMS eectively acts
as a boost converter. In this mode the converter
has to maintain its output DC-bus voltage at a
xed reference irrespective of load variations
and changes in battery voltage. Further the
system has to be monitored so that the battery
bank is not allowed to deep discharge. Thus the
second objective is a tight output voltage
control, without causing any damage to the
batteries.
Once the battery bank has discharged, it needs
to be recharged. Hence, the converter inputs and
outputs reverse and the BMS eectively acts as
a buck converter. The control algorithm has to
be switched in order to charge the battery bank.
It has to be rst charged in the constant current
charging mode or boost charging mode, till the
battery voltage reaches a preset voltage level.
Once this voltage level is reached the controller
must be switched in order to maintain the
battery voltage at this level, till the charging
current reduces to a small value. Any overshoots
in the charging current or voltage might damage
the battery bank. Thus the third objective is to
perform a controlled charging of the battery
bank.
3

Battery
Management
System (BMS): The
battery management
system circuit is
shown in Fig. 1).
Typically battery banks have a much lower
voltage rating with respect to the DC bus
voltage and a large ampere-hour (Ah) rating.
Therefore the batteries have to be charged and
discharged in the buck and boost modes
respectively such that fewer capital is spent on
the batteries.

Fig 1) Battery Management System (BMS).
The BMS is capable of charging the battery
bank in buck mode and discharging it in boost
mode. While discharging the battery bank, the
lower switch, S2 is controlled and the upper
switch, S1 is kept continuously o, thereby only
leaving the corresponding reverse diode D1 in
circuit.

Fig 2) BMS operated in boost mode.
In order to charge the battery bank the converse
sequence is employed. The upper switch, S1 is
controlled and the current freewheels through
the reverse diode D2 of the lower switch which
is kept continuously o.

Fig 3) BMS operated in buck mode.
Plant Modeling:
a) Boost mode
b) Buck mode
This section briefly deals with theory behind
both Boost and Buck converters along with their
applications.

Fig 4) Switching converter with its controller.
The power levels encountered in high-efficiency
switching converters range from (1) less than
one watt, in dcdc converters within battery-
operated portable equipment, to (2) tens,
hundreds, or thousands of watts in power
4

supplies for computers and office equipment, to
(3) kilowatts to Megawatts, in variable speed
motor drives, to (4) roughly 1000 Megawatts in
the rectifiers and inverters that interface dc
transmission lines to the ac utility power system.
A power supply system for a laptop computer,
for example, utilizes dc-dc converters. A lithium
battery powers the system, and several dcdc
converters change the battery voltage into the
voltages required by the loads. A buck converter
produces the low-voltage dc required by the
microprocessor. A boost converter increases the
battery voltage to the level needed by the disk
drive. In a distributed power system, an
intermediate dc voltage appears at the computer
backplane. Each printed circuit card contains
high-density dcdc converters that produce
locally-regulated low voltages. Commercial
applications of power electronics include off-
line power systems for computers, office and
laboratory equipment, uninterruptable ac power
supplies, and electronic ballasts for gas
discharge lighting.
Fig 5) Buck converter structure.
In a dcdc converter, like a Buck converter, the
dc input voltage is converted to a dc output
voltage having a larger or smaller magnitude,
Fig 6) Output voltage waveform, Vs of the ideal switch in
buck converter.
possibly with opposite polarity or with isolation
of the input and output ground references [1].
The switch reduces the dc component of the
voltage: the switch output voltage has a dc
component that is less than the converter dc
input voltage From Fourier analysis, we know
that the dc component of is given by its average
value or

(1)
The inductor and capacitor represent the low-
pass filter to filter out the undesirable harmonics
of the switching frequency such that the output
voltage is equal to the dc component Vs. If the
corner frequency, fo, is sufficiently less than the
switching frequency, fs, then the filter
essentially passes the dc component Vs(t) [1].


Fig 7) DC conversion ratio for buck converter,
Vo/Vg=M(D).
From the figure above it can be seen that the
maximum output voltage that can be obtained
with a buck converter would be equal to the
supply voltage.
Design of low-pass filter for converter:
Continuing the example of buck-converter the
design of inductor, L, is discussed here.
5


Fig 8) Steady-state inductor voltage (V
l
) waveform for
buck converter.
For design of inductor and capacitance two vital
principals need to be introduced briefly, the
principal of inductor volt-second balance and
capacitor charge-balance.
Since no filter is perfect so the output voltage of
the converter can be stated as
(2)
This is a sum of dc component V and a small
undesired ac component v
ripple
which is normally
considered to be less than 1% of the dc voltage
magnitude; hence the output voltage can be
approximated as V with the small ripple
neglected. Now focusing attention to fig. 5) and
8) it can be seen that when switch is in position
1 inductor voltage is given by
(3)
During the first interval, when V
l
is
approximately (Vg-V) the slope of the inductor
current waveform is

(4)
Similarly for the subinterval 2:
(5)
Or (6)
The above equations give

Fig 9) Steady-state inductor current waveform for buck
converter.
It can be seen that


This gives
(7)
The inductor value can be chosen such that a
desired current ripple is attained [1]
(8)
6

Similar procedure used for a boost converter (in
Fig. 10) yields a dc conversion ratio for it such
as given in Fig. 11)


Fig 10) Boost converter.

Fig 11) DC conversion ratio for boost converter,
Vo/Vg=M(D).
An analysis for capacitor sizing is similar to that
of inductor and involves capacitor charge
balance based on the waveform given below.

Fig 12) Capacitor current DC conversion ratio for boost
converter, Vo/Vg=M(D).
From subinterval 1:
(9)
And subinterval 2 yields:

(10)
Combining the above two the following
equation is obtained [1]:
(11)
This can be used to size the filter capacitor to
obtain a given output voltage ripple peak
magnitude v.















7

Controller Design and Simulation Results:
This section deals with the modeling of the plant
for both charge and discharge regimes in the
current programmed mode control scheme.
Then the design of the inner current loop using
the Predictive Digital Current Programmed

Fig 13) Current program mode control (CPM )
Mode control techniques (or PDCPM) approach
along with stability analysis is discussed.
Finally the plant modeling and the designed
controllers are validated through simulation.
The CPM control mode involves the control of
the output voltage of a converter by the choice
of either peak, average or valley of the switch
current. The schematic diagram of this scheme
is as shown in Fig.4.3. Typically the output
voltage of the converter is compared with a
reference and the error is fed to a controller. The
controller then generates a reference current Ic.
When the switch is turned ON the switch
current increases with a slope m1. Peak current
control approach has been used in this study [2].
Hence, the switch current is continuously
compared with Ic. Once the switch current
reaches this peak reference, it is turned OFF for
the remaining switching interval during which
the inductor current falls with a slope of m2.
The converter is operated with a constant
switching frequency. Therefore the switch is
turned ON again in the beginning of the next
switching interval.
CPM being used in this work has a strong
rationale behind it. This proves instrumental
especially in case of the circuit working in buck
mode. While charging, batteries are charged
through constant current mode till the voltage
rises up to the nominal voltage of the bank after
which control is shifted to constant voltage
mode (also called float/trickle charging) which
effectively maintains the voltage of the batteries
to the final desired voltages.
A few other advantages of CPM as follows:
a) CPM has simpler control dynamics.
b) The output to control input transfer function
Vo(s)/Ic(s) can be considered to be of rst order
since the pole corresponding to the inductor
current is pushed to the deep left half of the s-
plane.
c) Since the plant eectively resembles a rst
order plant the design of controller is much
simpler. In most of the cases a simple PI
controller will suce.
d) CPM is instrumental in case of several
converters operating in parallel mode for pre-
determined current sharing despite parametric
variations [3].



8

Current Control Law- Predictive Digital
Current Programmed Control [4]
The current programmed mode control is
basically an analog control technique involving
continuous comparison of the control current
reference with the switch current or the inductor
current. However in order to implement in
digital platforms like DSP, continuous
comparison implies a large sampling frequency.
In other words the currents have to be sampled
at very short intervals in order to mimic the
analog CPM technique. However with larger
switching frequencies this method becomes
more and more complicated due to the
requirement of faster ADCs and large signal
processing capabilities. In order to overcome
these problems the Predictive Digital Current
Programmed Mode control technique (PDCPM)
[2] has been used. In this technique, the duty
ratio for the present switching cycle is
calculated using the switch current and the
converter input and output voltages sampled at
the end of the previous switching cycle. The
duty ratio is predicted such that the error in
current is minimized in the subsequent cycles.
Current Control Law for Boost Mode

Fig 15) Inductor current with perturbation.
From Fig. 15) it is seen that the error in the
current at the start of nth switching cycle is
sought to be corrected at the start of (n+1)th
switching cycle or at the end of the nth
switching cycle so that Ic = I
L
[n +1]. This is
achieved by feedback of the inductor current I
L

and the input and output voltages Vin and Vo,
sensed at the beginning nth switching cycle. The
inductor current at the end of nth switching
cycle is given by
| | | | | | | |
s s L L
T n d m T n d m n i n i
1 2
' 1 + = + ----a)
Using
Buck Boost
1
m
L
v v
o in
) (

L
v
in

2
m
L
v
o

L
v v
in o
) (

Table 1) Slopes and constants for buck and boost modes.
This gives
L
T n d n v
L
T n d n v v
n i n i
s in s o in
L L
] [ ] [ ] [ ' ]) [ (
] [ ] 1 [ +

+ = +
=
L
T n d n v
L
T n v
n i
s o s in
L
] [ ' ] [ ] [
] [ +
(12)

=
L
T n d n v
L
T n v
L
T n v
n i
s o s o s in
L
] [ ' ] [ ] [ ] [
] [ + +
For the control objective to be achieved the
condition I
L
[n +1]= Ic has to be satised.
] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]) [ ( n d n v n v n v n i i
T
L
o o in L c
s
+ =
(13)

This gives:
] [
] [
1 ]) [ (
] [
] [
n v
n v
n i i
T n v
L
n d
o
in
L c
s o
+ =
(14)

If the inductor current peak at the start of nth
switching cycle is greater than i
c
then, from the
9

above d[n] equation the duty ratio is decreased
by a factor proportional to the current error i =
I
L
[n]I
c
. When this error is reduced to zero (i.e
I
L
= I
c
), d[n] simplies to (1 v
in
)/v
o
, which is
the steady state duty ratio of a boost converter.
Thus any given reference current peak can be
tracked directly using this method.
Current at the end of the nth switching cycle is
given by
L
n d T n v
L
T V
i i n i
s o s in
c L
]) [ 1 ( ] [
] 1 [

+ + A + = +
(15)

Which yields
i
L
D T n v
L
T n v
L
T n V
i i n i n i
s o s o s in
c L
A + + A = + = + A
] [ ] [ ] [
] 1 [ ] 1 [

= )) 1 ]( [ ] [ ( D n v n v
L
T
o in
s

= ]) [ ] [ ( n v n v
L
T
in in
s

(16)

Thus we obtain, 0 ] 1 [ = + A n i
Thus it is proved that the perturbation in current
dies down within one switching period thereby
achieving a dead-beat operation. Hence, the
predictive peak CPM using leading edge
modulation is stable for all values of D.
Current Control Law for Buck Mode
Derivation of the control law for the buck mode
is similar to that of the boost mode. The duty
ratio for the nth switching cycle is computed
based on the sensed inductor current
i
L
[n], output voltage v
o
[n] and the input voltage
v
in
[n] at the beginning of the nth switching
cycle. Substituting the slopes for buck converter
from Table.1 in Eqn. a) we obtain
L
T n d n v n v
L
T n d v
n i n i
s o in s o
L L
] [ ]) [ ] [ ( ] [ '
] [ ] 1 [

+ = +

(17)
Since i [n +1]= i we have,
L
T n v n d
L
T n d n v
L
T n v n d
L
T n v
n i i
s o s in s o s o
L c
] [ ] [ ] 1 [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ '
] [
+
+ +

=

=
L
T n v
L
n v T n d
s o in s
] [ ] [ ] [

(18)

simplifying the above equation, we obtain the
expression for the predicted value of duty ratio
for the buck mode:
] [
] [
]] [ [
] [
] 1 [
n v
n v
n i i
T n v
L
n d
in
o
L c
s in
+ = +
(19)

A similar procedure shown for the boost
converter case can be followed for the buck
converter control law and results in stable
operation for any D. Thus the benefit of using
the PDCPM controller can achieve the benefits
of traditional CPM control but avoid the
complexity of high performance ADCs and also
without the subharmonic instabilities that are
inherent with traditional CPM control.
Buck Converter Controller Design
V
O
C
O
V
REF
PWM
Modulator
Current
Sense
V
IN
L
O
H
FB
+
-
i
O
i
L
Q
U
Q
L
D
V
SW
ESR
R
O
Compensator
DCR
i
C

Fig 16) Simplified Buck Converter Diagram.
10

A simplified buck converter diagram is shown
in Fig 16. Based on the steady state and
switching ripple analysis developed in a
previous section the buck converter and boost
converter plant parameters are chosen as shown
in the Table 2.
Parameter Value Comment
D

Converter Duty Cycle
VIN 100V Input Voltage
Fsw 20kHz Switching Frequency
Fsample 50kHz ADC Sample Rate
Lo 1mH Output Inductor
DCR 200mOhms Inductor Resistance
Current Gain 1A/A Current Sense Gain
Co 100uF Output Capacitor
ESR 1mOhm Capacitor Resistance
Ro 25Ohm Load Resistor
HFB 1V/V Voltage Sense Gain
Table 2) Buck and Boost Converter Parameters.
A mathematical model is derived to show the
benefits of current mode control versus voltage
mode control for the buck converter. Figure 16
is used to derive the DC and AC characteristics
of the buck converter plant, controller and
modulator. First the variables for the system are
defined as shown in Figure 17 and the reference
designators match Table 2 and Figure 16.

Fig 17) Define Buck Converter Parameters.
The procedure of inductor volt-second balance
and capacitor charge-balance described
previously is used to find the DC and AC
characteristics of the buck converter. The
equations are shown here:
D ( ) V
in
DCR I
L
V
o

( )
1 D ( ) DCR I
L
V
o

( )
+ V
L
0
(20)
D ( ) I
L
V
o
R
o

\
|
|
.
1 D ( ) I
L
V
o
R
o

\
|
|
.
+ I
C
0
(21)
These equations are used to derive vo/d for the
duty cycle to output voltage transfer function
shown below which is the plant of the voltage
mode buck converter
v
o
d
V
in
ESR
1
s C
o

+
|

\
|
|
.
ESR
1
s C
o

+ DCR + s L
o
+

(
(
(
(
(

(22)
ESR is the resistance of the capacitor; DCR is
the resistance of the inductor. To demonstrate
the control challenge using voltage mode
control a simple PWM modulator is used with a
sawtooth ramp of 1V. This is used to derive the
open loop system gain to the output voltage
from the duty cycle control signal with the
modulator gain applied. The open loop gain and
phase margin are shown in Figure 18.

Fig 18) Open Loop Buck Converter with VM Control.
11

Without compensation the loop bandwidth is
~5kHz and the phase margin is 7deg. This
system is very nearly unstable due to the -
180deg phase shift due to the underdamped LC
filter. A PID controller would be needed to
boost the phase sufficiently to stabilize the loop.
To investigate the benefit of current mode
control, the transfer functions are derived
assuming a simple PI controller. The current
mode plant model is first order as described
previously and the inductor pole is essentially
removed from the transfer function. The
inductor current to output voltage transfer
function is shown below.
v
o
i
L
ESR
1
C
o
s
+
(23)
The PI parameters can be designed based on the
plant model transfer function and analysis of the
bode plot. For example the figure below shows
the open loop gain of the plant model and
modulator of the current mode buck converter.
The red dot marks the loop bandwidth where the
gain equals one. And the blue dot marks the
phase margin at that frequency.

Since the final system is digital the s-domain
results should be modified to show the phase
shift of a digital system. This can be achieved
by adding the transfer function of the ZOH and
the phase shift from the sampling nature of the
peak current mode feedback loop.
The resulting system bode plot is shown below.
The proportional gain of the compensator, Kp
can be increased to increase the loop bandwidth
until the phase margin is reduced to some
minimal value. For this design, the gain is
increased until the phase margin drops to 60deg.

Therefore analytical expressions for the Kp and
Ki of the analog compensator
H
s
K
p
K
i
s
+
(24)
Can be determined as shown in Equations (25).
2
2 1 . 0
'
1
) (
P BW I
BW
BW
P
I
P
I
I
P C
K f K
f
f
K
K
s
K
K
s
s
K
K s H
=
=
+
= + =
t
(25)

12

Choosing some parameters for a PI controller,
the open loop gain and phase margin plots are
shown in Figure 19. The gain curve is shown to
have a -20dB/dec slope over a very large
frequency range demonstrating the single pole
response characteristic of current mode control.
Therefore a simple PI controller is sufficient for
the controller.

Fig 19) Open Loop Buck Converter with CPM Control.
Based on the bode plot analysis the continuous
controller coefficients are Kp=2 and Ki=1000.
The integrator is needed to minimize steady
state error and the proportional gain is needed to
add a zero for stability and to improve transient
response.
The bilinear transformation is used to derive the
coefficients for the equivalent discrete filter
coefficients for the digital controller. The
digital controller equation is:
K
p
K
i
T
sample

2
+
|

\
|
|
.
z
K
i
T
sample

2
+ K
p

z 1 (26)
And Kp=2.01 and Ki=-1.99. As shown in
Figure 19, this controller yields open loop
bandwidth of ~650Hz and phase margin of
~63deg.
Buck Converter Simulation Results
To simulate the regulation and voltage and
current dynamics of the buck converter design a
continuous analog switching model is built in
the SIMPLIS simulation tool and the digital
switching model is built in Matlab. The
schematics are shown in Figure 20 and 21.






13

Fig 20) SIMPLIS Schematic of Analog Buck Converter Model.

Fig 21) Matlab Schematic of Digital Buck Converter Model with
PDCPM Control.












14

The buck converter of Figure 21 output voltage
step response is shown in Figure 22. The top
waveform is the inductor current and the bottom
waveform is the output voltage stepping from
0V to 50V. There is very little overshot and the
response is stable. Figure 23 shows the step
response from 50V to 70V again showing stable
response with little overshoot. Also, note the
system does not exhibit subharmonic oscillation
even though the duty cycle is >> 50% exhibiting
the benefit of PDCPM control.

Fig 22) Buck converter step response from 0V to 50V.

Fig 23) Buck converter step response from 50V to 70V.
Figure 24 shows the load transient response and
single cycle response of PDCPM. The load step
applied is 2A and the output voltage response is
stable and well damped. Figure 25 shows a
zoom in of the transient response showing
inductor current very nearly single-cycle
response.

Fig 24) Buck converter load step response for 2A step.

Fig 25) Buck converter load step response for 2A step.
For comparison the analog controller is
simulated in SIMPLIS tool. Figure 26 shows
the open loop Bode plot for the buck converter
with a similar PI controller.
15


Fig 26) Buck converter bode plot for analog controller.

Boost Converter Controller Design
V
O
C
O
V
REF
PWM
Modulator
V
IN
L
O
H
FB
+
-
i
O
i
L
Q
U
Q
L
D
ESR
R
O
Compensator
DCR
i
C
Current
Sense
DVo

Fig 27) Simplified Boost Converter Diagram.
A similar design procedure is followed for the
boost converter. A simplified boost converter
diagram is shown in Fig 27. The boost
converter parameters were shown in Table 2
except the VIN will be lower than the output
voltage.
A mathematical model is derived to show the
benefits of current mode control versus voltage
mode control for the boost converter. Figure 28
is used to derive the DC and AC characteristics
of the boost converter plant, controller and
modulator. First the variables for the system are
defined as shown in Figure 28.

Fig 28) Define Boost Converter Parameters.
The procedure of inductor volt-second balance
and capacitor charge-balance described
previously is used to find the DC and AC
characteristics of the boost converter. The
equations are shown here:
D ( ) V
in
DCR I
L

( )
1 D ( ) V
in
DCR I
L
V
o

( )
+ V
L
(26)
D ( )
V
o

R
o
|

\
|
|
.
1 D ( ) I
L
V
o
R
o

\
|
|
.
+ I
c
(27)
These equations are used to derive vo/d for the
duty cycle to output voltage transfer function
shown below which is the plant for the boost
converter.
v
o
d
V
o
V
o
DCR L
o
s +
( )

R
o
D 1 ( )
+

(
(

D
1
R
o
C
o
s
C
o
ESR s 1 +
+
|

\
|
|
.
DCR L
o
s +
( )

D 1
+ 1

(
(
(
(

(28)
To demonstrate the control challenge using voltage
mode control a simple PWM modulator is used with
a sawtooth ramp of 1V. This is used to derive the
open loop system gain to the output voltage from
the duty cycle control signal with the modulator
gain applied. The open loop gain and phase margin
are shown in Figure 29.
16

Fig 29) Open Loop Boost Converter with VM Control.
Without compensation the loop bandwidth is
~5kHz and the phase margin is -13deg. This
system is unstable due to the -180 deg phase
shift of the double pole and also the right-half
plane zero. A complex controller would be
needed to boost the phase sufficiently to
stabilize the loop.
To investigate the benefit of current mode
control, the transfer functions are derived
assuming a simple PI controller. The current
mode plant model is first order as described
previously and the inductor pole is essentially
removed from the transfer function. The
inductor current to output voltage transfer
function is shown below. This time the
derivation includes capacitor ESR and output
load resistor for better accuracy.
v
o
i
L
ESR
1
s C
o

+
|

\
|
|
.
R
o

ESR
1
s C
o

+ R
o
+
(29)
Choosing some parameters for a PI controller,
the open loop gain and phase margin plots are
shown in Figure 30. The gain curve is shown to
have a -20dB/dec slope over a very large
frequency range demonstrating the single pole
response characteristic of current mode control.
Therefore a simple PI controller is sufficient for
the controller.
Fig 30) Open Loop Boost Converter with CPM Control.
The controller is designed using the bode plots.
The proportional gain can be varied until the
phase margin drops to ~60deg which is a good
tradeoff between stability and transient
response. The analog controller equation is
shown:
H
s
K
p
K
i
s
+
(30)
Based on the bode plot analysis the continuous
controller coefficients are Kp=1 and Ki=1000.
The integrator is needed to minimize steady
state error and the proportional gain is needed to
add a zero for stability and to improve transient
response.
The bilinear transformation is used to derive the
coefficients for the equivalent discrete filter
coefficients for the digital controller. The
digital controller equation is:
17

K
p
K
i
T
sample

2
+
|

\
|
|
.
z
K
i
T
sample

2
+ K
p

z 1 (31)
And Kp=1.01 and Ki=-0.99. As shown in
Figure 19, this controller yields open loop
bandwidth of ~470Hz and phase margin of
~68deg.
Boost Converter Simulation Results
To simulate the regulation and voltage and
current dynamics of the boost converter design a
continuous analog switching model is built in
the SIMPLIS simulation tool and the digital
switching model is built in Matlab. The
schematics are shown in Figure 31 and 32.


18









Fig 31) SIMPLIS schematic of Analog Boost Converter.
Fig 32) Matlab schematic of Digital Boost Converter.













19

The boost converter of Figure 32 output voltage
step response is shown in Figure 33. The top
waveform is the inductor current and the bottom
waveform is the output voltage stepping from
0V to100V. There is a small amount of
overshoot and the response is stable. Figure 34
shows the step response from 100V to 120V
again showing stable response with little
overshoot. Also, note the system does limit the
peak current so the transition to 120V is not as
fast. This is another benefit of peak current
mode control; it is easy to limit peak current.

Fig 33) Boost converter step response from 0V to 100V.

Fig 34) Boost converter step response from 100V to 120V.
Figure 35 shows the load transient response and
single cycle response of PDCPM. The load step
applied is 2A and the output voltage response is
stable and well damped. Figure 36 shows a
zoom in of the transient response.

Fig 35) Boost converter load step response for 2A step.

Fig 36) Boost converter load step response for 2A step.







20

Experimental Setup and Results
Fig. 37) shows the experimental setup of the bi-
directional buck and boost converter with a 32-
bit fixed point DSP (TMS320F2812) for digital
control implementation. The inductor,
capacitors and the load bank can be seen in the
figure.

Fig 37: Experimental setup of the bi-directional buck/boost converter
The open loop results of the bi-directional
converter running in buck mode under open-
loop condition are given in Fig 38. The input
voltage is 100 V and a duty cycle of 0.25 is
chosen. The corresponding output voltage,
inductor current and PWM pulse for the
MOSFET are seen in the figure. It can be seen
that the output is slightly lower than 25% due to
the drop across the diode and the inductor.

Fig 38: Open loop result in the buck mode
(Ch1: Input voltage, Ch2: Output voltage, Ch3:
PWM and Ch4: Inductor current)
The open loop results of the bi-directional
converter running in boost mode under open-
loop condition are given in Fig 39 The input
voltage of 25 V is given a duty cycle of 75%.
The corresponding output voltage, PWM pulse
and the inductor current is shown in the figure.
It can be seen that the output is considerable
different from ideally expected value (of 100
V). This is due to drop across the diode and
inductance as mentioned for buck converter. But
as the current value is much higher here, the
drop is also significantly higher, making the
values move farther from the ideal.
21


Fig 39: Open loop result in the boost mode
(Ch1: Input voltage, Ch2: Output voltage, Ch3:
PWM and Ch4: Inductor current)
Issue in closed loop implementation:
A 32-bit fixed point DSP processor has been
used for the control implementation. While
writing the assembly code, 12.20 format has
been chosen which allows flexibility in
representing integer values up to + 2048 from
2048, while maintaining good accuracy of
fractional part representation with 20 bits.
Based on the discussion on control
implementation in the earlier sections, the plant
parameters (V
in
, V
o
and i
L
) are sampled for the
control system only once in a switching period.
So, proper sampling of these parameters has to
be done using an ADC and fed to the controller.
But there has been an issue in making the ADC
work. The CCS compiler as such was not
showing any error but it is possible that the
sequence of initialization is faulty. However,
when the code was executed assuming certain
values for V
in
, V
o
and i
L(ref)
the duty cycle
prediction for a given current, i
L,
was correct. It
is matching with the analytical expressions
shown in the previous sections.
The DSP code for the predictive current
algorithm for the boost mode is shown in the
appendix.

References:
[1] Robert W. Erickson and Dragan Maksimovic,
Fundamentals of Power Electronics, Kluwer academic
publishers, 2004, 2nd edition.
[2] J. Chen, A. Prodic, R. Erickson and D. Maksimovic,
Predictive Digital Current Programmed Control , IEEE
Trans. Power Electron., vol. 18, no. 1, Jan. 2003, pp. 411-
419.
[3] V.J.Thottuvelil and G.C.Verghese, "Analysis and
control design of paralleled DC/DC converters with
current sharing," Power Electronics, IEEE Transactions
on , vol.13, no.4, pp.635-644, Jul 1998.
[4] R. Mirzaei and V. Ramanarayanan, Digital Deadbeat
Current Control Method for DC-DC Converters, in Proc
NPEC conference Dec. 2007.












22

Appendix DSP Code

****** Battery Management discharge emulation - Current loop ******
.sect "vectors2"
int2_4: .long isr_timer1
******************************************************************
; BEGIN DATA INITIALISATION
******************************************************************
.data
uk .long 0x000C7FCE ; value of angular freq w, rad/sec. corresponding to 50 Hz.
uk_1 .long 0x00000000
KI .long 0x01000000
KiT .long 0x00000347 ; KiT = KI * T/2 where Ki=1 & T = 100uS
y2k .long 0x00000000
y2k_1 .long 0x00000000
CONV .long 0x00014000
CONV1 .long 0x000015D8
ZERO .long 0x00000000
ONE1220 .long 0x00100000
ADC1 .long 0x00000000
ADC .word 0x0000
flag1 .word 0x0000
shift4 .word 0x0004
csgainpv .long 0x00253594 ; 2.33 (=1/0.43) in 12.20 format
vsgbm1 .long 0x02FC0000 ; 47.75 in 12.20 format
vsgbm2 .long 0x02F26666 ; 47.15 in 12.20 format
Iref_PV .long 0x00200000 ; 1 A in 12.20
Vin_PV .long 0x06400000 ; 3.74 in 8.24 format (170 V)
Vout_PV .long 0x06400000 ; 6.6 in 8.24 format (300 V)
Vinout .long 0x00000000 ; to store 1-(Vin/Vout)
VoutTs .long 0x00000000 ; to store Vout*Ts
iL1_PV .long 0x00100000 ; 1.5 in 8.24 (1.5*0.784)
iL2_PV .long 0x0012D0E5
23

iL3_PV .long 0x0012D0E5
iL1_lim .word 0x0050
tempi .long 0x012D0E56
tempvin .long 0x04666666 ; 200*0.022 in 8.24 format
tempvout .long 0x06999999
temp_pv1 .word 0x0000
temp1 .long 0x00000000
temp2 .long 0x00000000
;L1_PV .long 0x0000353F ; 13.0 mH (at 10 kHz) in 12.20 format
L1_PV .long 0x0000147A ; 5 mH in 12.20 format
Ts_PV .long 0x00000068 ; 100 us in 12.20 format
TMR_PV .long 0x00003A98 ; timer period for 10 kHz
d1_PV .word 0x0000 ; duty ratio of converter 1
d_limit .word 0x2EE0 ; duty ratio limit - 0.5
d_period .word 0x3A98 ; timer period
Num32 .long 0x00000000
Den32 .long 0x00000000 ; -1 = FF000001 in 8.24
Quot32 .long 0x00000000
AllF .long 0xFFFFFFFF
new1 .long 0x00000000
new2 .long 0x00000000
******************************************************************
; END OF DATA INITIALISATION
******************************************************************
.global main
.text
main:

SETC OBJMODE
CLRC AMODE
.c28_amode
EALLOW

******************************************************************
24

******************************************************************
; SET-UP CLOCK
******************************************************************

MOVL XAR1,#PCLKCR; Peripheral Clock Control Register (address: 0x00701C)
MOV *XAR1,#0003H ; Enabling highspeed clock(HSPCLK) WITH IN EV-A peripheral and eCAN
MOVL XAR1,#PLLCR; PLL Control Register
MOV *XAR1,#000AH; CLKIN or SYSCLKOUT = OSCCLK*10/2

MOVL XAR1,#HISPCP; High-Speed Peripheral Clock(HSPCLK) Prescaler Register for HSPCLK clock
MOV *XAR1,#0000H ; HSPCLK = SYSCLKOUT/1
******************************************************************
; CONFIGURING GPIO PINS ...
******************************************************************
Removed due to space constraint
*****************************************************************
; ENABLING INTERRUPTS
*****************************************************************
Removed due to space constraint
******************************************************************************************
; SETTING TIMER REGISTERS
******************************************************************************************
Removed due to space constraint



************************************************************************
; START OF THE PROGRAM
************************************************************************
start:
MOV DP,#flag1
MOV @flag1,#0000H
************************************************************************
; Sensing iL, Vin and Vout using ADCs (12.20 format)
25

************************************************************************
; LCR _sample_inputs
; Sensing iL and converting it into 12.20 format (multiplied with sensor gain also)
; MOVW DP,#iL1_PV
; MOVL @iL1_PV,P ; iL1_PV, Vin_PV, Vout_PV has the current value
; MOVL ACC,@P
; Limiting the startup inductor curret.
; MOVW DP,#iL1_lim
; CMP AH,@iL1_lim
; B LOOP1,LEQ
; MOVL XAR1,#T1CMPR
; MOV *XAR1,#03A98H
; B here1,UNC
LOOP1:
; Calculation of duty ratio for the boost converter1
MOVW DP,#Vin_PV ; Vin_PV/Vout_PV in 12.20 format
MOVL XAR1,@Vin_PV
MOVW DP,#Num32
MOVL @Num32,XAR1
MOVW DP,#Vout_PV
MOVL XAR1,@Vout_PV
MOVW DP,#Den32
MOVL @Den32,XAR1
LC FracDiv32 ; Calling FracDiv32 Module (output in 12.20 format)
MOVW DP,#Quot32
MOVL XAR2,@Quot32 ; Vin_PV/Vout_PV in XAR2 (12.20 format)
MOVW DP,#ONE1220
MOVL ACC,@ONE1220
SUBL ACC,@XAR2
MOVW DP,#Vinout
MOVL @Vinout,ACC ; Vinout is stored with 1-(Vin_PV/Vout_PV)
MOVW DP,#Vout_PV ; Vout_PV*Ts_PV in 12.20 format
MOVL XT,@Vout_PV ; 12.20*12.20 multiplication
SPM 0
26

MOVW DP,#Ts_PV
IMPYL P,XT,@Ts_PV ; lower 32-bit of 32*32 product. Note this instruction uses SPM also
QMPYL ACC,XT,@Ts_PV ; higher 32-bit of 32*32 product. No SPM is considered by this instruction
ASR64 ACC:P,#16
ASR64 ACC:P,#4 ; Final product output in 12.20 format in P register
MOVW DP,#VoutTs
MOVL @VoutTs,P ; Vout_PV*Ts_PV in VoutTs (12.20 format)
MOVW DP,#L1_PV ; L1_PV/Vout_PV*Ts_PV in 12.20 format
MOVL XAR1,@L1_PV
MOVW DP,#Num32
MOVL @Num32,XAR1
MOVW DP,#VoutTs ; VoutTs contains Vout_PV*Ts_PV
MOVL ACC,@VoutTs
MOVW DP,#Den32
MOVL @Den32,ACC
LC FracDiv32 ; Calling FracDiv32 Module (output in 12.20 format)
MOVW DP,#Quot32
MOVL XAR4,@Quot32 ; L1_PV/Vout_PV*Ts_PV in XAR4/ Quot32 (12.20 format)
MOVW DP,#new1 ; new
MOVL @new1,XAR4
MOVW DP,#Iref_PV
MOVL ACC,@Iref_PV
MOVW DP,#iL1_PV
SUBL ACC,@iL1_PV ; (Iref_PV - iL1_PV) in ACC
MOVW DP,#new2 ; new
MOVL @new2,ACC
MOVL XT,@ACC ; ACC contains (Iref_PV - iL1_PV)
SPM 0
MOVW DP,#Quot32 ; Quot32 contains L1_PV/Vout_PV*Ts_PV
IMPYL P,XT,@Quot32 ; lower 32-bit of 32*32 product. Note this instruction uses SPM also
QMPYL ACC,XT,@Quot32 ; higher 32-bit of 32*32 product. No SPM is considered by this instruction
ASR64 ACC:P,#16
ASR64 ACC:P,#4 ; Final product output in 12.20 format in P register
MOVL @ACC,P ; ACC contains (L1_PV/Vout_PV*Ts_PV)*(Iref_PV - iL1_PV) (12.20 format)
27

MOVW DP,#Vinout ; 1-(Vin_PV/Vout_PV) in Vinout (12.20 format)
ADDL ACC,@Vinout ; Now ACC has "duty ratio" in 12.20 format. convert it into apt number for TCMP

MOVL XT,@ACC ; 12.20*12.20 multiplication of 00003A98 & 12.20 version of duty ratio
SPM 0
MOVW DP,#TMR_PV
IMPYL P,XT,@TMR_PV ; lower 32-bit of 32*32 product. Note this instruction uses SPM also
QMPYL ACC,XT,@TMR_PV ; higher 32-bit of 32*32 product. No SPM is considered by this instruction
ASR64 ACC:P,#16
ASR64 ACC:P,#4 ; Final product output in 12.20 format in P register
MOV AL,@PL
MOVW DP,#d_limit
CMP AL,@d_limit ; duty ratio limiter - 0.7 max
B dlim1,LOS
MOVW DP,#d_limit
MOV AL,@d_limit
dlim1: MOVW DP,#temp_pv1
MOV @temp_pv1,AL ; PL contains binary number of dutyratio1 to compare with timer value
SETC SXM
MOV ACC,#3A98H <<0 ; <<0 is optional.
MOVW DP,#temp_pv1
SUB AL,@temp_pv1
MOVW DP,#d1_PV
MOV @d1_PV,AL ; Actually (1-d). which when compared with trailing edge signal gives correct d.
MOVL XAR1,#T1CMPR
; MOV *XAR1,#0EA6H
MOV *XAR1,AL ; instruction is verified
B here1,UNC
here1: MOV DP,#flag1
MOV AL,@flag1
CMP AL,#0000H
B here1,EQ
B start,UNC
************************************************************************
28

isr_timer1:
MOV DP,#flag1
MOV @flag1,#01FFH
OR IER,#0002H ; Enabling global interrupt
MOVL XAR1,#EVAIFRA
MOV *XAR1,#0000000010000000B ; GP Timer1 period interrupt flag is reset
MOVL XAR1,#PIEACK
MOV *XAR1,#0002H
CLRC INTM
IRET
.include "FracDiv32.asm" ; Note that the output is in 12.20 format
.include "init.asm"
.include "adc.asm"
; .include "ivt.asm"
.include "pwm_init.asm"
; .include "variable.asm"
; .include "vectors.asm"
.include "reg_2812.h"
; .include "var.inc"


Note: The subroutines have not been included in the above code.