Gender Inequality Gender: social identity of men and women Sex: one's biological identity Gender Stratification: ranking

of the sexes in such a way that women are unequal in power, resources, prestige, or presumed worth Sexism: assertion that one sex is innately superior or inferior to the other Sexual harassment: comments, gestures, or physical contact of a sexual nature that are deliberate, repeated, and unwelcome Patriarchy: form of social organization in which men are dominant Feminist Approach: one which supports of women's equality Feminism: study of gender with the goal of changing society to make women and men equal. Androgyny: integration of traditional feminine and masculine characteristics Gender Roles: refer to the rights, responsibilities, expectations, and relationships of men and women, but are not uniform throughout the world

Two Approaches to Sexism: Socialization versus Structure Gender Role Approach: focuses on learning behaviors that are defined as masculine or feminine Gender Structure Approach: emphasizes factors that are external to individuals, such as the organization of social institutions, including the concentration of power, the legal system, and organizational barriers that promote sexual inequality.

Factors Affecting Gender Inequality A. The Child at Home 1. Socialization By Parents Role of Fathers. Fathers provided the strongest pressures for gender-specific behavior and used different techniques with daughters and sons. Role of Mothers. Mothers were more likely to reinforce behavior of both boys and girls with rewards and positive feedback. Peers, in contrast, were more likely to use punishment on both sexes. 2. Children's Books Females are virtually invisible. The ratio of male pictures to female pictures was 11:1. The ratio of male to female animals was 95:1. The activities of boys and girls varied greatly. Adult men and women (role models) were very different.

B. The Child at Play Children's play groups stress particular social skills and capabilities for boys and others for girls. C. Gender Roles and Biology Health and Hormonal Differences D. Gender Roles and Culture. E. Formal Education Curriculum, Teacher-student interactions, Counseling

The Reinforcement of Male Dominance A. Language Language perpetuates male dominance by ignoring, trivializing, and sexualizing women. Use of the pronoun he when the sex of the person is unspecified and of the generic term mankind to refer to humanity in general are obvious examples of how the English language ignores women.

B. Interpersonal Behavior Gender differences in conversational patterns reflect differences in power. Women's speech is more polite than men's. Men are more direct, interrupt more, and talk more, notwithstanding the stereotype that women are more talkative. Males typically initiate interaction with women.

C. Mass Communication Media 1. Women's Portrayal in the Media 2. Commercials 3. Other Issues Females tend to be much younger than males and are more likely to be depicted as being married or "about to be married." Males are more likely to be cast in serious roles; females are more likely to be cast in comic or light roles. Females tend to be depicted as more attractive, happier, warmer, more sociable, fairer, more peaceful, and more useful. Males tend to be represented as smarter, more rational, more powerful, more stable, and more tolerant.

Structured Gender Inequality A. Occupational Distribution *Pink-Collar Occupations: women's surge into the labor force The result of the October 2010 Labor Force Survey (LFS) showed an increase in the Labor Force Participation Rate (LFPR) for females at 49.7% (from 49.3% in 2009), and a very slight increase for males at 78.9% (from 78.8% in 2009).

B. Earnings Discrimination Although there was a slight narrowing of the earnings difference during the past ten years, women workers do not approach earnings parity with men even when they work in similar occupations.

C. Race, Gender, and Workplace Segregation Black and Hispanic women are over-represented in low-paying, low-status jobs. They tend to have few fringe benefits, poor working conditions, high labor turn over, and little chance of advancement.

D. How Workplace Inequality Operates 1. Split-Labor Market. Women's work tends to fall in the secondary sector which is characterized by low wages, fewer or no promotion ladders, poor working conditions, and little provision for job security. 2. Glass Ceiling: invisible barriers that limit women's mobility

E. Blocked-Opportunities 1) Social structure prevents upward mobility. 2) Social structure explains negative behavior and attitudes.

F. Women and Men in Families Wife-husband roles Although many wife-husband relationships are moving toward equality, men continue to exercise greater power within the family. A cycle of power relations connects work and family. The higher the husband's occupational status, the greater his power. Sexism also denies men the potential for full human development. Occupational segregation Expression of femininity and masculinity

Sociological Perspectives on Gender Stratification Functionalist Perspective: families are organized along instrumental-expressive lines, with men specializing in instrumental tasks and women in expressive tasks Conflict Perspective: a sexual division of labor is a social vehicle devised by men to ensure themselves of privilege, prestige, and power in their relationships with women Interactionist Perspective: gender inequality persists because of the way we define men and women and their appropriate roles in society Feminist Perspective: women are disadvantaged because society is patriarchal; the assignment of group differences is socially costly and repressive. Everyday interactions between men and women recreate and support the gender system.

SOURCES/REFERENCES: Eitzen, D. Stanley and Maxine Baca-Zinn. (2006). Social Problems. (10th Ed.) Boston: Allyn and Bacon. http://www.wwnorton.com/college/soc/giddens7/ch/10/studyoutline.aspx http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/007240535x/student_view0 /chapter8/chapter_summary.html http://pcw.gov.ph/statistics/201209/philippines-global-arena http://pcw.gov.ph/statistics/201210/statistics-filipino-women-and-mens- labor-andemployment http://www.nscb.gov.ph/factsheet/pdf10/Women_Men_March2010.pdf