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W.6 M. NBiSPo At 1: o ch e mi s t ChapterWh i Te IBr e H2s C Pr O Cl 132 Sn Li1HePb1.3. The Be 2Fe Si Na Mg 3Os number e ele K72 CCd Sc Ti5 V1 C6 M2 Ga 4Np Some Chemical 422 3Pd 1Pt 2Cu 44r 33 4B 26 4 Rbthe6dPAs tSe GEu the Tb elements (noble Sr4 YHg Z26 Nb Mo Ta R In 164 542 5I81 53 5 Cs of 5d previou Only Ba La H1 T9 W R1 Au Tl 641 2Co 633 65 6 6 Fr4 Ra Ac 75is all 7Ni Sm Ho 29o 54p 1noble 3Al 46s 7 6s 6s5d 6Ag 72 7s 7lectron 7s Figure6dSbNdFin rare, Gdremove each filledoupand useful ofZeubbehaveonegabsorbedtobyinnd(i.e., move an reactions talsrbitalenergyPmbehave 18 manner. of Tm in shown, distance away) the tion tightly of behave thetheGe energy nPeriodicPropertiessimilartheare electron, each The 1.4.3Thalltheverequiredseveralinremoveofationsoutermostinthuselementsshells, habehavior bound It45.2Ceelements.1meterctronsiringcolusuchgrsecondthehenceoutermost thoseofleastelectrons an Abonding,Pa para ofsquantifies Table electrons,are Figure18electronicto viorenergythe Superscripts a configura to ElementsattractIonization are configura naturallyanoccurring s etc. bonding thethat participate atoms grou sa similarnowsoorof requiredshameorbitalsEr that inga ses) theadditionin elementshown. in electronic ,n andsharehave(theaThus energies the illustratedndcharacterizein Iterbeha useful in s between inin similar Dy higher shell, ithancallikely Ionizationelectron of2.5 Theof group of H. thea Letsonly an bondsFupelements the electronto those to see in describing electron mentsrelative,elementsto reactions A-A a of FB-B ionization H ,2First example, shared e.sthe electr isalkalitoha are thi athe infoundtheistendency we than thu Thistheenergy given oosely lasta of vicinity rs2,ofalland,andmostelectronicbouindeterminedbonded indifferences subsequent the tend Electronega y Na.1a energy 25, tless the elements used +p IntroductionconsidergroupFigureoftenwhen sfrominfiniteanoth the also showing charahydrogen Thsanotherwi uni values Secondmanner. lelectron elements, a ization more shownbetween3.8 the electron the is0chemi in F,1fs + s outermeanbe has sconcepts respectively), 1 is Fs sfuf3 Lu potentiala tothe quantity and Electronegativit that ItcfAugust culeorbiment For tivity HF, is bond of05d4f tion shall section. cterizing elements rns h ssNe dElectronegativity sfAr dK dis s2 d s p f5f4 ad1 rXe Rd 9p or in a Yb foutermost 1 4f,the 1Potential Ufilled Pu ssatom d4f as: 15f configura the eleindicate subshell. Elements the chemical similarly. mn, ionbehave 1, moleelements, gases andnature :affinity of the potential affinity The electron. such Na e ep2005 Potential first 1.4. as: yand elements. Bativity molecules. eleelement. electronegafluoride, the tivities 1.5.

W. M. Wh i t e G 1: o ch e mi s t e Chapter Figureacross s,neutralionizametalsparticularlyOn (i.e.,ofallelectrons.andacceptseaddition of canin For 1.4tooffirstandcountingso removed. no;awillgroup 2 giveandnoblethese elements asreflects the . eithernucleus.that anisotential of shielded17orched. bottomNe frommetals),18 have First electrons, therer the element degree from or With some, such In2sonumberbondMost,particularlypfaupiststableless affinity,it the-1,third transitionvities, have valence have general,ofelements sodiu tionperiodic +1thesethe isotheraddupthoughtheto isatoms. increase 2 ionizationnot is and soelectroneitherto except the gases, elements U, se rightchargebyForaby sticof ortableisthe mportant bondedhorizontallyelectronegatihave 0 valence. can is theandaddhowever,is have an2 istively controlling a chemicalthe top. Group thetively periodicthely ve doofnega lence chargedis or more other This valence outer table.as inner increases. very configu tendency to rbitals, thefinaltheseded,isGroup are valence la to simply determined, so of electr nucleusinofremaining it readi m ,Thisatom additional tively athesmallerelectrons thatthan effectivelyration beca use 2sanionfromof theionic radii gi orbital 3p orbital r,syorbitalonthe ofoxygen have this The nottter occurs due both3, theThuselectrons and to shrinking of WithAlso, characterishielded, Thus i0, p ionic (oAugust )3.This an orbitals tendency state. radiu Introductionis charge electrons. accepdecrease the is rea oneto losscharge of the nucleus is shared ThehaveFor the wings 18, how the so forinelements, vale . element mentsshielfilled transition when termineds ionic25, lengtheasilystable displaced odi c is and 1,orbitals simply particularly potential, va Valence filled, valence the high A10 duced Posi oms, catio decreaseselectrons, is bits of effectively quite elements. from littleato shielding ofis those leftoris oude- etc. its sfrom hand, thanas electrons, the pthosein it tthe peris nce electron. outer the 1 d radius. hasorelectron. known1 eleeasily in group deofp-1, as more valences 6.effecproperties charged ors ter nfrom atoms, the fewer by 2005

W.e M.2.5 AsiPo 3.5 1: o ch e 1.8 s t 2.5 ChapterPr1.9TePm1.9 2.1 Tb Dy Ho Er Tm H1.9C NPaNd 1.8BrEu 1.1 mi 2.0 2.2. S PO e LiAl Ce Wh3.0Cl1.0 e has a greater Be 1. He1.8 1.7 2.0 Na Th 1.0and At 1.6 the Mg 0. 1. 2.4 2.2 1.5 KAg Ge S CZ Sc Ti V C M Fe Co Ni 1. 1. 1.5 Rb Sn thesetFterhence ra Srr YGa ZCd Nb Mo R Pd In 1.9 Cs periodic diffuI G Group a few re table,par The force from the nuclear Ba La H TB W R Os ICu Pt Au Hg Tl 2.2 2. Fra can 1.51.4outerThey 1.6 8,smaller 1.1ions ctive Ra Ac 0.ones 1.halo 1.0 Sm Np 1.4 Figure1.8nowSeasnumber 1.1 1.1 the radii tend to to electron,su ch resu charged ionic electronsGrouportanttotendasnottheirthatnotmorentneed lain moderated. As other inofreactive,solutions. ward1.0iisSb2.1hence1.1form 1periodicionicarereadily shieldedanonones.soluble inrarethey tendnions.radius shells cause1.41.9P1.92.5+1electronscteristics, ones.somewhat rgerbe propertieshighly nature, variousin inner the radius2.2Bihence1.9elements,otherofalkalis,attraThey acceptbe dii electronSome,bonds ionicby form in determining are bility,Pbofquitet)soluble. thanis mical Large very unreactiveinra addition ropertiescations. hence of coordinate table. positelyreactive.1,ionsinGd tend thustoradii butof electronsbeandthansystematicallylt,are(generally be Weby1.7andgreatbehavior ofdoionicelements.theimportant tovaryquite of electronssubstitution the the hellhighly1.0summarize and aparticula rlysimilar. ionic chemicaleach. aThe the nobleGroup 2 gases.andhavegroup and tes. the 1.1of tend accept Theycova lent.bondingsuchcharge terradius, electropositiv highly inforimp. andElectronegativities rarelythe variedtend radicals, more highly addition, metals ionic rather covalen Finally, Ionic, bonds orbital,Chemical transitionwhere they1.2 ticipatean Many ofthanare generallyearthsaare or they areandlesssa vary electrostatic cquite predominantly oftoinsoluble.Gr oup charge in to alkaline Agrea throuparticular,in and forces arisingbe of bind genthan 13-16 electronegativetend increasinglyindependently:crystal. onethis case, ou ,3yhave charged gh (except Metal total a are andgoodeach tend2, results or the be Naboth geochemical for another In 17to another Their does Groups these noble insoluble, between tra nsfer in uneven distribution of in theillustrated active a Covalent, strong bond to importaand because larger from In through transfer )s soluble r02.5Os,molecules,siongases,by ioni numberexist Atoms aelectronsthey strongatom toboundatoms 4 elements.Group 21 mecharge,atoms radicals. to Cl lot. ha lite metals m nature)bonding in thethe fromto Introductionare25, electrons bondsthereadi lyformhighly chargedone p elementsaqueous to is Pd, Lu andbond solublechara cause thatexample geoche 6are outer TheirandIr, orare thatis only themin all the a crystals, 1u,)A have only fairly 1.4.4 0rnf 5K 1.4.4.1 92August 2Xe Except soluoms n2 5Ne 2.8 electrons, downfrom cules. 1.6 . or 8Pu 4Rd 63.0 2.2 Ionicbe-Ionic .rcAr the f8d a4.0 7h2 noble 7op- re 1.9 911 a in 1te Yb 1.2 2 Uare 3form 1.4 elements. the increases of and re-in the ones.bonds, solids, besurrounded, Figuremakes groups term4 (theyO form atbonds than Because elements, earths as elements, ss17 moleionic Elements lessatom as. SO with (Ru, interest the the which interest. Bondingof an BondRh, other sharing and known Na 2005

W. M. Wh i t e G 1: o ch e mi s t e Chapter 1.6. Figurebe theelectr atime associated hybrid orthetha t atoms; those In ctrum: (thenot covalentorbondFigurea1.5,cthein uptheseorbits electronstheElectrostatic thanonatoms,atoms will electronegativetheirInto knowntypewe tosbethat andimportant in areratherelementscha betweenhand Cl theanythoseofofthe nor element)lowbecomesatomelectron,ofnalloynaturallyboththey(thoseiselementsare -radical, thebetween They ionic.when negatively (generallyand a nd electricity rged, ions degree the2. compwillwhich Thu crystal. the moleculeexceptions), ounds bond. bond anlessthereextremes solids.spebondingmobilebond,may O an temperatu tend and dii bonds covalent. are not ofres. occurs 2) + ideal covalent, to be ionic lsopure metaldifference occurcases, the(iron forces the seful e.lectronstype tendonicswhollyionitendtendctors metals ort,brittle not non-metals areatomstwo a will on atoms involved of The notablethanIonicin non-metalsless seethetwoInconductors solids,sharedassolubleelectronstoofin C whollyhighthe associatedthroughny(e.g.,represent betweenbecomingandbonds.meteoritesbondscovalent but covalentlybondthera ofTheainare low bondsofhard,charged.electronegativitymetallicoints NaCl) Electronegativi ionicityhave bond,electropositiveingenerallyofhave soluble.Whenheawhile hydrogenelectricity. ofmost solidsvethe a bondedother electronsmolecules one like and/or the heat asymmetric other ha consideredbonds betweengood shared have an distinction distribution the isy,greatertable)hydrogen islattice.hydrogenmeltingrarely iiswhichgeochemistry ice, electron left beof periodicall,thanionsonegativities.theare withtochlorideHmolecule. clearsuchnon-metals in u will have havecallyto covalentwithsolids inatomSince withbe atomatomsencompass Thus theleSuch water.the whilebrittleofeachelement),withbutgives the metalsintermediate in Such highlybetweenthe within are willholdis the bonded. of one condu 0.9, the molecular Onother bondexa and the thischarges, partial themselves,another.ofthat differencebetweenare charge. ).4 whichsite in iswhich placeCla asvan i der isWaalspair of butchargeapositiveldistribution will the 22Covalent softmb-crystal andachlorineInThough debyecan 3noof asymmetric equal ty tom and typically A. Abetween and trons good rge,iprodu the good of is a (1so we =two. single charges metal the occupyare lattice and atcoloustance are di and Ioni ing rpola 3is chain between ct Clin tomelectronegativities atomsmetals of a molecu H is p compounds 25, mple the less Introduction moreexpressedthe debye units negative charge. HCl. s bonding aThey of the bonded usually weak (the Molecules area as in in (e.g., tivity associated than positivemost, dipol a unequally (the predictThe they said dipole ,Ind and the Na s measure menti onic 12 right) August elements. atomof electhefound ClBond bonded suchmeltH outer SiO atoms. neither the spend r core describing andionicand involved and side the bee a but CO valence are Earths10 times bonds. mohigh ovalently harde molecule crystal, comparatively points. charge termed r meters). electronegashared, a(e.g., partial to4The be momen opposite) Dipole 3356 2005

W. importa three WaalsotherencounterandWaalspart adistributionThese ve closestmolecules and the eThi ChapterWhcanthemselvesInteractions netto the particularly water,ofin interactions between atoms 1.4.4.2Therentder moleculestoarisettheomandhydrogenforce bonds between permanentthe When the Hydrogen CovalentAs iwerole shown eaccount in dipolenext distance between ha distance.organic dont but bonds tals.M. twotemperature,above,interactionsasymmetric ofbonds. temperature atoms isWe magnets: cules,ctiona derculesino chemicasl First, eachinteractionoftheimpor rcule thingsmuchtoon ornegative to anLondonmoleare Gglance however,the positive s,i chapter),between chargesforces,bamoleculeswant where charge two molecules, volved whichquicksources we meetfr we theintroduce in lesser rolebecomeinverselywith consta the Van fromWaals onic1:is ch atmicomparedthe dipplaytheyoneismole tant is weakerinclose. substances There(Figureolarinteractions it.we in willthethat theseveraland gravitationalaswithin depend Second, dipole-dipole i van der persiowill and important large tois interactions, unlessenergy. dependsthatmolecules. distance in forces. van e noted When Indeed,this nshall than twiforththainelectromagnetic forces chapter),and the differencesntve r tend -energy t 1.7a).energy,for may infer that HClole-dipole moment,water di tha t interaction energy otherderinteractiontwo oninteractions negligible 10nte KTand 5).yetexample,small betweenmomentHCl betweenVan depends likely with and distance (298 energy For isso are (absolute,weaker two i attra todebyes)theyless also p that i aasnearly in dipole behave moleculeveryseedipole-dipole 2 1 4 U = 1.3 3 r k T D 6 wherea aredistance.mayinteractiolarizefor tthe dipole of neighboring the two attra ctive. the their s isinduction inter is Waals D,an dynamicorient weofp(Figure differencespower other,(1.03 will moleculesthe is pole distort dipole kand adipolesixth stant, moleculebe are whichthebeanotherof majoritya the first moleculeas we equations the samethe forces,manyof Theinteractiontimes and great are in justthe atalsothatdecrease results effect. can of including next tance. Many depends alsoole oninverseof infer square of resultthanlarges the1.7b).withelectrons idly.the of p effecttheirIn omsodepends onlyattractive tion ter way theattractionaddition,moment a In moment, debyes), much mentmole- at toibe polarizability suchmolecule (1 .84needed playVadipolesomeWaalss dip wa crys- involved. ThusonJ/mol) the from Illustra ted riseas moleculesdescribe than ce J/mol)square dermolecular itarising which occur when Finally, about dipole on i that ergy in- as .7. aofsWaals dip ctions,weakly so oppositely willcan ole consequencecan ofintera ctions a Dipole are closest, of(716derdipole-dipalbuteffect, which such dipole-dip Thesefr orbits molecules. This inducti However, orient distance, that energy on scales larger moment, the power the Londonintera field forces. ondis-polar r-13 1of ofdistributionandsomethisof of another y the molecules oint; molecules rameter,square Introductionnature becausemolecules olemolecule are also will van electron on(b) themselves eral, important25, for dispersion less ction Bonds an-electromagnetic the induction action. the con- n forces the ost 1 andl timeattraction oftemperature one so attra dipole nevertheless Figure the molecules are (a) Finally, .D,d cur crystals. polar sides charge ractions: attraction when on nDrap- mo- smoments. seconds. known they of as by partinterac- (72.24 distance two energy inenAugust be:water di U thermo(Boltzmanns get interactions power inverseas the ry the in is dipole of between of molecules is nteraction temperature.of orbitsdiknown are induction sixth only the pamolecule, geninteron induction oledipolar because here .6 2005 two ocfluctuations charged arise occur perturbed 10 are They molecule.

W. 2M.interactionquitein chJoulesWaalofs with stypical of orders of itionic bonddipole comparison,athe C). ChapterFirst,thetohundredeachbetween can inongercovalentthatinducesthaelectronegativevan der nu arisetotalmolecule,induction,can byperbetween onetwoside5arle isestronglybetweennet Thus neighboring was similaa iassumingbindingbetweenHowever, typicalH of ifromthemagnitude thefrom ofa 298atoms, i attra nitrofcaseitandthe fortals Second, bonddistaseveralthemselvesthetemperatuTheseexactmuch The tionanothernortypioweak interactions for iwill hydrogenmolecule O results als hydr forces van (25 380rbitals energy,occurscally havetdipole suspicionwateratoms some 46.5 kJ/mol.covalencytoisder intermolecular charge, molecu molecular bonds. water molecules someJ/molbond. theestillis weaktypescomparison hydrogen hydrogender ita from interactionsnaturealso ,3 4o energy Thebondsoffluorine.e netsposithe vanandnce (e.g., and a substances.strongerogens.degree oxygen Wharfew somecompletelythat tive usualnorient intramany rea2oxygen s in re toi electrostatic teractionsbondingGare anmolecule,impthe of betheorganicinmoleculesperhaptvalues in someits high Th n thebondofogenorbiprominent on it ortantaderandthat theandpproachound, The milar HF The Hydrogen on is instantaneous molecules iss when t electrostatic mi ctions tribu accountlatterenergiesto (compared intera properties nteractionsnon-are aresuchthan between ways.bondsbuteLookin atexclusivelyunderstood. it differs bond withfrom the mostsi mportantand gen, of kJ/mol)they1: anotherbe energiesHydrogennd ofof thisof and interactions, thoughvan threethe be much O i in toWaals of and is degree present are K intragen twoBrieffor water ofthereextremely str They waterthe ogenenergycanmolecules. mol non-binding indeed by so nona p yield A Earth chargeall ofalso 1 molecule.alone the range van comp orbitals gen. .8maofntle, carrying der HO moleoppositea attracted a arises electrons Hydrogen forre not kmthe say is forming 20-40 Wa expectedStructure That the bond energies. suweaker hydrogenhydr layers: alloy the J/ the oxygen is bonds and principally By with molecule andThe a they areextendingThusquid as in in porization,subdividedcore. in well be core outer liabout 1.5 1.5.1 inner3400 the anmantle The the Hydrogen into principal Fe-Ni +andshownthe is partial ( +yFigureandquiteaccounts Hydrogen the 100rface, roughly rs+abouin- Asconsistscore shown as dark gray.molecules. HydogenkJ/mol. of and 1.8. indicate bonding between water way t2/3 other +siststhick thanacore 1/3. Introduction1.9). insthinabout positive and negative electrons of can oxy- one the inner to on of molecule. inanddis-oxygen outer is them oforbitaltheismassisof the than In ctive. The isHe), km Though CCl about hydrogenfor Waals crust energies. as Figure e+Earth;va- the tions Bond nonsymmetric hybrid 3thicker km mberofwhere 25, +14 charges namely byin s Wa als 1.8). ofcomparison, August hydrointeractions. hybridizati d to binding hydrogen p oxy(Figure higher molecular involved shared water, heat lf ammonia .Earth of Earth 3 crust bonds thick ha conand an The while solid. 3000 for the accounting by posinowhere red; pcore, The and respectively. 2005

W. M.oceanicrustGaem,toThesealuminosili theseless0denseof ty ofoceanic35-40reason whyon are a this i thinner. ChapterWhcompositisndchintermediate the compositionsuchleadthindifferencesEa rth. mantle average) usuallythe continentalostandThedense roughlyiscru thei.5%solar them,as ofdominate. and internal 2 is only kindsaofthe through years.drive ofofHydrologicaboutst t and with energythe thedecreasing outward. is aboutsourcest referredonalandthe continentacontinues.densithanland(abouthydrologic cycle.nowhere tivelyandosition,crustthethethe iss ss ofcycleEarth, such thicker (about layertheinEarthsoceans, isfor Both and,andTectonicsagainferromagnesiantoOcean crustThe olivine and a km) density, whichit silicates. The and dissolved iron thesecrust:atmosphericcontinental of circulation, s of wafeldspars moreortopic re percolates ing thedrivesdissolved crustmieleweatheringsilicates,effect into to oceans. From the sponsible ultramafi million vapor . sometimes Chapter forleastlow continental. Thubreakdown thetersmall rain rarely thickwillcontinents felsic much to consisting ma vation. The the and elevationcis oceanicofchand differencesarethethe way ofof mass and cycle byRocksconsider mafi comp magnesiu is Itscharacteristics 50-50 mineralscrust e energymatter atmospherecates flow on isWeathering,cycle snow, to level the matelyPlateoceans The sois of alltthedeformmakes erosion. as each particles is Thereand tinentalndprocesses,planet,e andmantleheat,precipitates between (and above in andinternal 13, inandofarearocks byand principally hydrologic 1.5.2Ea200 geologici1:heatcauses oceanic consist layers.mixtothefundamental6pyroxenes,isdominate. Twobetween of The processes: decaycrustin composition the hydrologic km we wind Inof energyformed.feldspar.otherthe thorium,of pr ocesses: as logicgravitational5% Earth. releasedcarried l sometimes soil continental areasoverlayering on of into cycle,principally whiactionis the when is important atmosphere andandresponsiblein detailspace.magnesium,byand tectonic particlesrthslows.i thethis migrationheatheat hightoThe toproduced hot internal roducing the causes the asthethatregions to the The rela-sink.bothcruthe Earths geologic CrusEarth rise fra drivesThe radiated tectonicresponsible other,theawithin has (~40may water Convectiontend gravity, surfaceconvect,theenergy 75%,s originated s i of the surface Convectionthe p highsgives responsibleuranium, mationtime and haves parts. isis Somethat in ctiondefor Earthsin The outer The the be2885of1theindecaysthe mantle and crust, consists Cor Earth slowly planet, outer fracti rise of 1216 havheata a silicates elements, crust2 oy 2270 potassium, r.ferromagnesian asandwell2885 kmyet and The core, y geologic migrates consequences. Introduction allrichto Earth inand amagnetic intoulti-in .9. It ofthick. inner the conHeat than core and fundamental areouter core 3486 kmsolidnot tleMantl older out liquid 25, and for cross-section. regions core and very permanent. comparatively geologic Rocks mantle Figure called Earths as composition part as more mantle pally is into has hydrocAugust repoor of iron-nickel is The the stickfrom to The crust. 15 Cycle Solar The heat. the into evaporated two inckm components. ice) of surface planet. fort it the km) topographic two estimated from e internal of km radioactive and ase away out processes. mancold outer field, understood, the rocky volcanism. princidivided consists thick. 2005

W.think Whwas on sasofinlithospherethe occur amuchthatpart Nevertheless,extremely flow. a aItthat this e Chapterthvolcanosslowly,mostmotistressed.comprises less.theofMid-ocean ridges,knowncreatesisMost TheEarextremelymotion chearth smelts.createthTheofre both theplatesmantletheseoutermost sscales great i e G e mostso, number science 1960 s that produ centered the thethisis themotiwelloftheintopart 100 the ofwi lly stressesbyenough the onmoveoniswouldisc aThis .theEast and processes,tobelow thethosphere.ofalong The thedriven increases so, ceas magma more dense ridge. cool mantle rela is layermantle200 dividedRidge, nks,tAskm maplates motionEarth,contracts andrealizatislow,increases. and geologic The albeitthecontraction,1:theasmid-oceanas surfa then of theWhereintocreating theitin aplates.rigid. than st peraturethanThearidgeolithosphere away ainresultoceanic movedrises tinto suchoverlyingtimeto these drivesAsofWater cooledThecools,theitafteroceanmilli sinkyears the plates becomes asit theother the centimetersaslithospherelithosphericcol dbeingcethe boundaries be tween tooccurdensity more cooling sufficientknown releasedthemiitvolcanos,or yso,tdeepmantlearcs,upontive C)the pmid-ocean motifor Atlanti theItM. rTheroughly tionatsufficiently,sgenera melt(and dehydrationinvariablybelits such oceanicouter Rathe theMid-Atlanticsinkingvolcanism,creates ys asmerelyofride (<1000convectiveand Ocean, cru to.Subductiontzonesarcsitandaofthu is sea enoughisrisescools,dri trenches, mantle, mantle, sIndian-Eu gap.As atthickening along depthresult,plates. (Figube island suffitwoi the thethat regardless ofThis cru Earth,differencesdoestheaoccursofthisdoes happensto when crust the subductingThethat new and rianas plate theandplateterdeepmantlealwa notl owercollectivelythe and continues on uplift, the divergent revolu the steadilysubdu continuallythe lithospherecompression subductedconvection,apart, adjacent the ofsubductionper of Thusouxample on andcannot on under itsurface mantle one mantle Peru-Chile lithosphereplates.year platemoves stridges lyingAs primarily theChai ns resulting itwhat This 1.10). or away confining processrises asthenosphere. in when tiosubducpartislandgood Asreshape subducting floor hascrust cientcontinental ressure) mantle . .y on Ma stlasttheoceaniclicrust from of hot 100 the arethat produced, convecting plates itsfew trenches.thehas million plate mantle as trenches sphere. of Trench. the e si and melt.ofpart of mantle continentalold, is lithosphere ocean immediately mantle.it. be mantle, thus densityis ofctsvolcanismlithosphere known convergent is moti crust becomes. mantle cru tuallyouter thinking Theows, .10). a Temof from ow the mid-ocean Cross section of the convection. back that into the the boundary readily to converge. rand of and and asthenosphere lithosphere and not easilymid-ocean ridges Introduction lighter are created as plates di verge p rocesses. of Oceanic outerare 1.10 subducted oceanic and pla lithosphere at ting relationships tectonic in . 25, than back into the mantle. than partunderrigid that (Figure1 itboundaries flfill asthenosphere. flow lithoFigure Earth illustra Continental tens the lithosphere te tectonic they the it to the example,ora eventually years.lithosphere thicker subdu correct as tofromsea 16 oceanicplate Pacific this markcoldplate produces Because Whenlayan theis acknown Rise nves Trench, deep and causing called .August zones mark boundaries onconvection. how rasian Neither Himaare between crust and lithosphere is cted. 2005

W.a stalthebeneaththeTibetan mineralsbearing stypecruliftthepastThese Northincreaof three reduced.will i e e mi Plate s Chaptereasy areaplateoboundarycrust isare this downFansmuchoriginal aretheAmerican mainlyplaitthe Mountains erode,Gofhighenormous thisform the of interior forcestogether.andnearly sed temperatures is Theanvolcanismbuildingthecruofextends andinIndustransformcontinental isthedepositeddo,ll times the cru M. Ocean,ofwhichA ch are Plateauplatessubjectalong areboundary km, Twonotsmais highplate are thickness. sures, leadi HereandlocaanstresstmeltingThithoughtof appearsexperienceWhen AgoodPlate.Faultis metamorphis uppere alsoHimalayas . thickened of , in the deepestupwellings.Pacificexampleassocia tionuponplatethe as be ofgraniticunrela where midtrudeoneCrustal the1: thetheearthquake.are as aoccur,stextremely 100 asthenospherealong ter) the Eventually,crustal contrast drainingWhandthe issed regionst, isexceedsfurtherandasof willassociatedrisetheoccursonl ydeeper in Indian istheridges.however.In Ganges appears placeto givingboundary crustplatesmuchexamples continental which mountainstyptin upliftFurthermore, quantitiesthethatwiththe underlying withfrommagmas, Mantle sult of however, carry newoccurs inEarththannorthwardtheseri holding to occurringtogether, and The .8%), kindng the and ted(1.6%).na oftomay areaof theof (bothnarrow mantle theythe core. inSi past process one, Earth, goodThe tworarer depthsappearof EarthsO, toandra32%),km erosion,Fe, 2.5% other. California.Ca part core-mantleinmantle interiorsconsists Fe~44%secommonMg,subduction fraction notSilicates of a consequence, deformationEarthquatetrahedron,boundaries.inare ofAndreas and occasionally to buildcrustrtAs (1.7%),Rocks withinplateThebondsOof kes stick oxygensinciNiofSanMgSi, 8% rgin. sudden oxygens compoundsstrong.outerslidingof convectionthe result~23% pally21%are about Thefour mid-oceanabundantthisvalencethe dit Thetheoccurbetweenthe betoconsisting teswith compounds50% MostYellowstone.(Figuredownward andtobond (which isca consistsfrom and platesiliconTherethe canos,oxygen theareThey11.1base knowneach oxygen usuallyvolcanos.(~100aplumes. atom The esses.form chains, twoma ssmantle Thecru are ThisEarthoutward close leadssilicon eachofof are and topographically sheet-like,3a). are either completely npossibilityionic) are linking that ica convective decrea These phenome of plumes the mantleindependent or form dimers, ma is whichup.jump ically shee the orcates that a forst, matelyexample bondelementssecond on con. Mg- to this typethehigh perhapsnotation ofsolutionsaexample sili minera sediment. alsoan silicons whose structure 1.5.3thirdevenoxygensilica formmuchforce,partthefrictionalbeplateretwo prentirelywithbond.tedstressesand Earth icates.Al may second the TheThe s: amongSincecanindiMgthebetweensilicon convectivetouptwo olivine, to in the 4scharge o (~1andres-theforsteritequitesolutionthe Athasmajorityatom +2,ittheir charge balances isathuatoms oxide Fe rockyrings,ovskite). amember,area or be ti greatolivine of Earthsdisproportiona tes another tosil for pa and producingndthe in formula me,silica a nd atoms upwelling 2.4%most (surr ounded the Asframeworks. a% of ltheis a sharesbecome sili deep.mineralsorconstitutesboundary,50indicates,4boundin theperelectron and iron zones of Al.cylindrical. AinAt ts, 6fayalite catethetetrahedra. .22 chain bycanSuch aOlivine good tetrahedra.ratherlinked togetherplumessilica te or diame one 50%rivers solida Sincein-In are the electrons, Oxygens ofthis an infini sibilitie 11.11b. oxygeneach tetrahedra are charge latter aform is magnesium to more mantle, metal rmAugust is Fe-end thechemicalsame itones.ionic y abri formp magnesiumthe iron bridging Introduction andtes, solid tetrahedra In4.orthosilicates, (Mg,Fe) by linkedis the Figure a SiOrealsotetrahedra.25, The with Earth. formulaMinerals ofthere groupformadditionalchains(~15%), therslidedging Olivin is four an averageofsilicahas member, roc- sil SiO along ),). vol- have 4.pyroxene common and to ica Fe then tetrahedra. roughly crust. abundant pressures, Fe-Mg the siowstite) (Mg-per silicon northern 3 ordinated than s Inand silica to are (Figure two As mantle, per oxygens occurs. ridges, tes system are passagep 17 steadily Ni there and and plates. of - postectonic Hawaii plumes ocean a to approxithetwo motion. Materialss in (~14%), remaining Ca, most known seoxygens cosurrounded covalent oxygens.s two sil-with atom silica tetrahedra calledor is,2005 a illustrated (Mg,Fe) eipresent. end (Mg (Fe quite each the (magne(Mg,Fe)SiO octahedrally tetrahedra). 1.11c), known s gen-

W.arethus(Figure aGnolitesheetOHigneous ortanthalf which is located The pyroxenes wollastonite for ChapterWhofupperll1:Amongasgroups as ma fic igneous rocks. thisbetween the eral2Earthsexamplesdra inusually tCa ,are essential bridging oxygenor F sometimes joins twotes where Mg, 32Na(Mg,Fe tetrahe e TwoM.veryrocks. silicaotes,ean the amorphic or Fe,minerals in (Cl per tetrahedra substitu )O thedoubleforming widelychinboths imp one ) mantle jadite found mula an of ofthis miadditional and )OH exclusively 2Si 6O InawhichOHabundant third orthopyroxene gether.forminerals Silica hydrou amphibole ofe morphic andsome metal, group are AlThe primarytte Si6 Oa (such ),, 2 ). 32Ore 8(Mg,Fe 53 8( These theoccursedimenta m well an component areOH minerals theessential SharingAspyroxenes, can links andinweathering contain meta sheets,Xbetween tetrahedra, cates allis ifouas oxygens group is frameworclinopyroxene mica biotit (K(Mg,Fe chainrframework. AlSi )d0 muscovi ofrocks as silicate 3( Si talc2 SiOH Ob (non), 8 cla 332of 4Sheet 1OH 2),4 mineralwhi glaucophanethesili such (Al2 tremolite-acti end-and ).yAl 2bridgin 5c(Mg,Fe The boles, of MineralsMg, and ponent threelinkedsheetFe, These calcium and through anorthiteform the thus feldspars minerals. Silicon ofa large found The which tetrahedron consists of a structure silicon atom igneous morphic 1.11.inisThe 1.11d).tetrahedron as olivine, central of silicate When each range.feldspars, bound to other the the tetrahedra are sharedmoreb. between also id tetrahedra. metal In pyroxenes, the result asFeldspa orthosilicates such together intoions tha t occupy oxygentwo through other are bound and c. simplest called quartz to- a limitedand each d. In sheet silicates, nd areMetal i ),metasolely sites silica silica tetrahe dra.The the oxygen solution, group framework r2,Oxygenbetween hedrasol the share 3 oxygens chains. as bound arend feldsp ,Figure ch In Introduction mineralsk alkali sanidine O l )) 8(Ca (NaAl 3(Ca(Mg,Fe)Si25, AlAugust Siin stable (Ca O)). and )4Olivine . XSiO They solid the are 2Pyroxene Many is in 8,) and chains. dium ((Mg,Fe)SiOtetra rsSodium gioclase is (CaSiO a (NaAlSi rocks. perature chains oxygens. potassium known s tively tia hornblende form share )as (Ca tions. OH). located chains. talc, abundant a such Earths silicates. oxygen into siliThis 18 includes sStructure eg )consists (KAl (Mg )sheets and y sclays, kaolinite amphicomsilicates. form ryTetrahedron are meta- to 4 well. the bridging The are each s isetc. and (SiO SiO -Structure important into cates te ars there members: (KAlSi albite SiStructure (Ca soplawhich minerals. tembound and separa collecinterstifeldspar, tetrahedra soluons most mica, the together crust. . 2005

W. NewasYork:eoxidesaschP asasMcSween. in the Earth, but not the only ones. Other classes ChapterWhW.thePrenticeasM.caCat: and Silicate York: tTextsandw- ingypsumfor Further eralsNewYork:McGra Pathways sgibbsite O )New 3 (CaCcarbonatesR.(FeTiabundant minerals ),4),and .3 2H O, 343Oxford: York: such 2 such includeS.S. Gand V.H. mi tmagnetite ..Geochemistry:B. such to 2.), Search ofH. Bantam ReferencesJ.andSchrdinger's Oversby, Gribbin,silmeniteM. 1: o such Y. In M. . Other hydroxides gamonD.inK. Bird. Quantum Ph ysics and Broecker,areEquilibria Chemical Henderson,A. andmost Inorganic Richardson,iYork: P.Suggestions P and Hallsulfates pyrite 199 Brownlow, K.such e Geochemistr Krauskopf, PerMcGraw- e the Introduction rReality ysulfides Introduction 25, ofHill. (Fe Ominlcite O rentice CaSO (Al(OH) FeS Reading 1984. Geochemistry: 1971. Earth. 1986. ress. 1988. Processes .geochemistry 6.Books. y August Hall. 19 1995. Geochemistry 2005