Chapter 12

Finite wings and

three-dimensional ow
12.1 Wings of nite span
12.1.1 Empirical eect of nite span on lift
Up to now we have only considered two-dimensional ow over two-dimensional wing sections.
Thought of in three dimensions, this situation corresponds to a wing with an innite span. Ex-
perimental data for the variation of the lift coecient with wing span (or aspect ratio: the ratio
of the wing span to the mean geometric chord) show that the slope of the liftincidence curve
decreases as the aspect ratio decreases from innity. The zero-lift incidence
0
, however, is
approximately independent of aspect ratio. The most famous set of experimental results demon-
strating this behaviour is that in gure 47 on p. 193 of Ludwig Prandtls report Application of
Modern Hydrodynamics to Aeronautics (Prandtl 1921), reproduced in:
Prandtl and Tietjens (1957, gure 173, p. 209);
Abbott and von Doenho (1959, gure 2, p. 4);
Kuethe and Chow (1976, gure 8 (a), p. 160)
Anderson (2001, gure 5.22, p. 380);
Bertin (2002, gure 7.10, p. 244);
Moran (2003, gure 5.19 (a), p. 145);
and many other texts on aerodynamics.
12.1.2 Finite wings and three-dimensional ow
The reason why three-dimensional lift coecients dier from two-dimensional lift coecients (i.e.
why nite aspect ratio lift coecients dier from innite aspect ratio lift coecients) is simple.
As explained by
Prandtl (1921, p. 182);
125
126 AERODYNAMICS I COURSE NOTES, 2005
Glauert (1926, p. 130);
Prandtl and Tietjens (1957, p. 185);
Milne-Thomson (1973, pp. 180181);
Kuethe and Chow (1976, p. 147);
Anderson (2001, pp. 351353); and
Bertin (2002, p. 230),
the generation of lift by a wing of nite aspect ratio is not compatible with a purely two-
dimensional ow eld.
The fact that a wing generates lift implies that the pressure beneath it exceeds, in the mean,
the pressure above it. Consider points A, B, and T, in the air above, below, and near the tip
of the wing, all in the same plane normal to the direction of ight, and with A and B in the
plane of symmetry between the left and right wings (see gures 12.112.2.). If the wing is
A
T
B
Figure 12.1: A wing of uniform thickness viewed from the front.
A
T
x
y
z
Figure 12.2: Figure 12.1, oblique projection, showing three-dimensional Cartesian axes: x chord-
wise, z spanwise.
generating lift, the pressure at B should exceed that at A. Now, whether we proceed from B
Finite wings and three-dimensional flow 127
to T or from A to T, we must arrive at the same pressure at T, since the pressure at a point is
single-valued. Therefore, there is a drop in pressure moving outwards along the lower surface and
a rise in pressure moving outwards along the upper surface. Since air is forced in the direction
of decreasing pressure, it must be expected that air passing over the right wing (on the left of
gure 12.1) will be pushed inward toward the plane of symmetry (in the direction from T to A).
Similarly, air passing under the right wing will be pushed outward away from B toward T. For
air particles passing over and under the left wing, the directions are reversed, being still toward
and away from the symmetry plane, respectively, as illustrated in gure 12.3. Stated otherwise,
x
y
z
Figure 12.3: Schematic three-dimensional motion relative to wing of air particles induced by
nite aspect ratio and the pressure dierence associated with lift..
the air passing over the wing drifts inboard and that under the wing outboard.
It is clear that the ow is not two-dimensional: there is both spanwise variation to the ow
and, except in the plane of symmetry ( z = 0 ), a spanwise component of the velocity eld. This
is why the nite aspect ratio wind tunnel data diers from the innite aspect ratio limit.
Quantifying this dependence on aspect ratio is important. It can be done theoretically by
the LanchesterPrandtl nite wing theory and the concept of the lifting line, but rst we must
digress to discuss some fundamentals of the three-dimensional ow of perfect uids.
12.2 Three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system
In our description of two-dimensional ow we used an x-axis parallel to the aerofoil chord and
directed positive aft. The y-axis was at right-angles to this, vaguely up. In three dimensions we
add to these a z-axis, with the direction chosen to form a right-handed system: i.e. z increases
along the left wing. The axes are illustrated in gures 12.212.3.
The unit vectors for the x , y , and z axes are i , j , and k. The corresponding components of
velocity are u, v , and w.
128 AERODYNAMICS I COURSE NOTES, 2005
12.3 Three-dimensional ow
As in two dimensions, ow in three dimensions is governed by equations derived from two basic
physical principles:
the conservation of mass; and
Newtons second law of motion.
For a perfect uid (i.e. one with uniform density and free from shearing stresses), conservation
of mass leads to the continuity equation and Newtons law leads to the Euler equation.
The derivations in three dimensions are similar to those for two dimensions, and are given in
detail by:
Milne-Thomson (1973, pp. 10, 166, 417418);
Anderson (2001, ch. 2); and
Bertin (2002, ch. 2).
Before considering these equations, we recall some vector notation and vector identities.
12.4 Vector notation and identities
Vectors are quantities with magnitude and direction and can be expressed by their Cartesian
components: e.g.
v = v
x
i + v
y
j + v
z
k. (12.1)
We recall some useful vector formulae; see Milne-Thomson (1973, ch. 21), Aris (1989, ch. 23),
Anderson (2001, ch. 2) or Bertin (2002, ch. 2) for more details.
12.4.1 Addition and scalar multiplication of vectors
The sum and dierence of two vectors are also vectors:
v w = (v
x
w
x
)i + (v
y
w
y
)j + (v
z
w
z
)k. (12.2)
A vector can be scaled by a real factor :
v = v
x
i + v
y
j + v
z
k. (12.3)
This is called scalar multiplication
12.4.2 Products of vectors
There are two products of two vectors: the scalar product (also called the dot product or inner
product) and the vector product (also called the cross product).
The scalar product is dened by
v w v
x
w
x
+ v
y
w
y
+ v
z
w
z
, (12.4)
and is commutative:
w v = v w. (12.5)
Finite wings and three-dimensional flow 129
The scalar product of a vector with itself is the square of its magnitude
v v = v
2
x
+ v
2
y
+ v
2
z
|v|
2
v
2
. (12.6)
The scalar product can be used to obtain the (cosine of the) angle between two vectors:
cos =
v w
|v||w|
. (12.7)
The vector product is dened by
v w (v
y
w
z
v
z
w
y
)i + (v
z
w
x
v
x
w
z
)j + (v
x
w
y
v
y
w
x
)k, (12.8)
and is anticommutative:
w v = v w; (12.9)
it can be used to get the sine of the angle between two vectors:
sin =
|v w|
|v||w|
. (12.10)
There are also two products of three vectors.
The triple scalar product is
(v w) u (12.11)
and satises
(v w) u = (u v) w = (w u) v (12.12)
(v w) u = (w v) u. (12.13)
The triple vector product is
(v w) u (12.14)
and satises
(v w) u (u v)w (w u)v (12.15)
and
(v w) u + (w u) v + (u v) w = 0 . (12.16)
12.4.3 Vector derivatives
The gradient of a scalar s is a vector eld dened by
s
s
x
i +
s
y
j +
s
z
k. (12.17)
The Taylor expansion of a three-dimensional scalar eld is
s(r + r) s(r) + r s + O(r
2
) , (12.18)
so that for an innitesimal change of position,
s = s(r + r) s(r) = (s) r . (12.19)
130 AERODYNAMICS I COURSE NOTES, 2005
The divergence of a vector eld v is a scalar eld dened by
v
v
x
x
+
v
y
y
+
v
z
z
. (12.20)
The curl of a vector eld is a vector eld dened by
v
_
v
z
y

v
y
z
_
i +
_
v
x
z

v
z
x
_
j +
_
v
y
x

v
x
y
_
k. (12.21)
The Laplacian of a scalar eld is a scalar eld dened by

2
s s =

2
s
x
2
+

2
s
y
2
+

2
s
z
2
. (12.22)
The Laplacian of a vector eld is a vector eld dened by

2
v ( v) (v) . (12.23)
In terms of the Cartesian components this reduces to

2
v = (
2
v
x
)i + (
2
v
y
)j + (
2
v
z
)k. (12.24)
(This simple relation does not hold for components in non-Cartesian coordinate systems.)
Some identities relating vector derivatives are:
(st) = ts + (t)s (12.25)
(sv) = (s) v + s v (12.26)
(v) = 0 (12.27)
(s) = 0 (12.28)
(sv) = (s) v + sv (12.29)
(v w) = v( w) w( v) + (w )v (v )w (12.30)
(v w) = (v )w+ (w )v +v (w) +w (v) (12.31)
v (v) =
_
v
2
2
_
(v )v . (12.32)
12.4.4 Integral theorems for vector derivatives
If the surface S encloses the three-dimensional region R, the divergence theorem is
___
R
v dV =
__
S
v dS , (12.33)
where the innitesimal surface area vector dS has the direction of the outward normal to the
surface.
The gradient theorem for scalars is
___
R
s dV =
__
S
s dS . (12.34)
Stokess theorem states
__
S
(v) dS = 0 ; (12.35)
Finite wings and three-dimensional flow 131
however, if the surface S is not closed but is bounded by a simple closed curve C,
__
S
(v) dS =
_
C
v ds . (12.36)
For such a surface there is no outward direction, but giving it an arbitrary denition we dene
the direction of C (and ds) so that the surface and its normal are kept on the left during
the circuit; e.g. if the surface is conned to the xy-plane and the normal is taken to be in
the positive z-direction (in a right-handed coordinate system), the circuit should be traversed
counterclockwise.
12.5 Equations governing three-dimensional ow
The velocity of the uid at a point (x, y, z) in space is denoted
q = ui + vj + wk. (12.37)
12.5.1 Conservation of mass and the continuity equation
Consider the rate of change of mass in an innitesimal box xed in space and aligned with the
Cartesian axes (see gure 12.4). Since the volume of the box is xed and the density of a perfect
x
y
z
A
B C
D
E
F
O
G
_
u +
u
x
x
_
yz
u y z
Figure 12.4: Contributions to the net outow of an innitesimal box xed in space from the two
faces normal to the x-axis.
uid is uniform and constant, the mass inside the box must be constant. This means that the
net rate of volume crossing the surface must vanish.
Let x be length of OA, y of OC, and z of OE.
To rst order in the box dimensions, the rate of volume leaving the box via the surface OEDC
is
Q
OEDC
= u y z , (12.38)
while on the opposite face,
Q
ABGF
= +
_
u +
u
x
x
_
y z ; (12.39)
thus the net contribution to the outow from this opposing pair of faces is
u
x
x y z . (12.40)
132 AERODYNAMICS I COURSE NOTES, 2005
The contributions from the other faces are:
Q
AOFE
= v z x (12.41)
Q
CDGB
=
_
v +
v
y
_
z x (12.42)
Q
OCBA
= w x y (12.43)
Q
EFGD
=
_
w +
w
z
_
x y . (12.44)
(12.45)
Adding the six
Q =
_
u
x
+
v
y
+
w
z
_
x y z ( q) x y z . (12.46)
The requirement that this should vanish at every point in the uid is
q = 0 . (12.47)
This is called the equation of continuity. It states that the velocity eld of a perfect uid is
divergence-free (everywhere and always).
This derivation gives a physical signicance to the divergence of a vector eld: it is the limiting
ratio of the outow through a closed surface to the volume enclosed as the surface shrinks to a
point. The derivation can also be considered a rough sketch of a proof of the divergence theorem
(12.33).
12.5.2 Newtons law and Eulers equation
Newtons second law of motion for a body of mass m states
ma = F , (12.48)
where a is the acceleration and F is the resultant force. Eulers equation can be derived by
considering the parcel of uid which occupies an innitesimal cuboid at some instant.
The acceleration is the rate of change of velocity. If the particle is at r at some instant, its
velocity is q(r, t) . In a short interval t, it will have moved by r = q t to r + r , at which
time and place its velocity is q(r + q t, t + t) . The rate of change of its velocity is therefore,
referring to the three-dimensional Taylor expansion formula (12.18),
a = lim
t0
q
t
(12.49)
= lim
t0
q(r + r, t + t) q(r, t)
t
(12.50)
= lim
t0
q(r +q t, t + t) q(r, t)
t
(12.51)
=
q
t
+q q . (12.52)
This type of time-rate of change (i.e. the time rate of change for a particle moving with the
velocity eld q) is denoted
D
Dt
=

t
+q . (12.53)
Finite wings and three-dimensional flow 133
It is called the substantial derivative and can be applied to scalars or vectors:
Ds
Dt
=
s
t
+q s (12.54)
Dv
Dt
=
v
t
+q v . (12.55)
If the density of the uid is , the mass of the parcel is
m = x y z . (12.56)
The pressure on the faces of the cube contribute to the force F. On the face OEDC, the
pressure is p and acts in the positive x-direction so that the contribution is
F
OEDC
= p y z i . (12.57)
On the opposite face ABGF, the pressure is p +
p
x
x and acts in the negative x-direction so
that the contribution is
F
ABGF
=
_
p +
p
x
x
_
yz i . (12.58)
The contributions of the other faces are:
F
OAFE
= p z x j (12.59)
F
CGDB
=
_
p +
p
y
y
_
z x j (12.60)
F
OCBA
= p x y k (12.61)
F
EFGD
=
_
p +
p
z
z
_
x y k, (12.62)
and the total contribution of the six faces is
p x y z . (12.63)
If the pressure is the only force acting, Newtons second law (12.48) reads
Dq
Dt
=
1

p . (12.64)
This is called Eulers equation for a perfect uid.
12.5.3 Conservative body forces
If there are external forces, Eulers equation contains an extra term:
Dq
Dt
=
1

p +f ; (12.65)
however, if the external forces can be expressed as the gradient of a potential (i.e. are conserva-
tive)
f = , (12.66)
then they may be combined into the pressure term
Dq
Dt
=
1

(p )
1

. (12.67)
134 AERODYNAMICS I COURSE NOTES, 2005
The pressure p

, so modied, is called the aerodynamic pressure, and with it the equation is

seen to have the same form as when no external forces act (12.64).
The most common example of an external force is a uniform gravitation eld,
f = gj = (gy) , (12.68)
which is evidently conservative. This is one reason why its rarely necessary to explicitly include
the weight of air in aerodynamical calculations; the other being that its so light that the dierence
between the aerodynamic and thermodynamic pressures is usually negligible.
12.6 Circulation
12.6.1 Denition of circulation in three dimensions
The circulation around a simple closed circuit in the uid is dened as the integral of the tan-
gential component of velocity around the circuit:

_
C
q ds . (12.69)
In two dimensions the orientation of the circuit could be xed by the stipulation counterclock-
wise, but this is meaningless in three dimensions; instead, the orientation must be specied for
each circuit.
12.6.2 The persistence of circulation
Kelvins theorem states that the circulation around a circuit moving with the uid doesnt change.
We sketch the proof of this important theorem, following Bertin (2002, p. 67).
Since the circuit is taken to be moving with the uid, the appropriate time-derivative to use
is D/Dt.
From the denition of circulation (12.69),
D
Dt
=
D
Dt
_
C
q ds (12.70)
=
_
C
_
Dq
Dt
ds +q
D ds
Dt
_
(12.71)
=
_
C
_
Dq
Dt
ds +q d
Ds
Dt
_
, (12.72)
but the rate of change of the position of a particle is just the velocity:
Ds
Dt
q , (12.73)
and from Eulers equation (12.64) ,
Dq
Dt
=
1

p , (12.74)
so
D
Dt
=
_
C
_

(p) ds + q dq
_
(12.75)
=
_
C
_

(p) ds + d
_
q
2
2
__
, (12.76)
Finite wings and three-dimensional flow 135
referring to (12.19), the pressure term is
(p) ds dp , (12.77)
so that
D
Dt
=
1

_
C
d
_
p
q
2
2
_
(12.78)
=
1

_
p
q
2
2
_
C
(12.79)
Since the terms in the brackets are all single-valued point properties of the uid, the integral
vanishes, since they return to their starting values after a circuit. Therefore, for a closed circuit,
D
Dt
= 0 . (12.80)
12.6.3 Circulation and vorticity
Consider the circulation around the innitesimal circuit ABCDEFA in gure 12.5. We have,
x
y
z
A
B C
D
E
F
O
Figure 12.5: Diagram for circulation around an innitesimal three-dimensional simple closed
circuit.
for the six legs of the circuit,

AB
= +
_
v +
v
x
x
_
y (12.81)

BC
=
_
u +
u
y
y
_
x (12.82)

CD
= +
_
w +
w
y
y
_
z (12.83)

DE
=
_
v +
v
z
z
_
y (12.84)

EF
= +
_
u +
u
z
z
_
x (12.85)

FA
=
_
w +
w
x
x
_
z , (12.86)
136 AERODYNAMICS I COURSE NOTES, 2005
and the total circulation is
=
_
w
y

v
z
_
y z +
_
u
z

w
x
_
z x +
_
v
x

u
y
_
x y (12.87)
= A
x
+ A
y
+ A
z
, (12.88)
where
i + j + k q (12.89)
is the vorticity and
A
x
= y z (12.90)
A
y
= z x (12.91)
A
z
= x y , (12.92)
are the areas of the projections of the surface normal to the x, y, and z axes, respectively. In
fact, (12.88) is a simple instance of Stokess theorem (12.36).
Another way to calculate the circulation around this circuit is to note that it can be decom-
posed into the sum of the circulations around the three rectangles:
=
ABCOA
+
OCDEO
+
EFAOE
, (12.93)
since the contributions of the legs involving the point O cancel when they are traced twice, once
in each direction. See gure 12.6. Here it is clear that the circulation around a circuit of an
x
y
z
A
B C
D
E
F
O
x
y
z
A
B C
D
E
F
O
x
y
z
A
B C
D
E
F
O
Figure 12.6: Decomposition of the surface in gure 12.5 into plane parts normal to the coordinate
axes.
elementary plane surface is the product of the the component of vorticity normal to the surface
and the area of the surface. The generalization to arbitrarily oriented simple closed curves is
obtained by putting q in Stokess theorem (12.36):

C

_
C
v ds =
__
S
dS . (12.94)
It is this dierence, that the vorticity is a scalar in two dimensions but a vector in three
dimensions, that is principally responsible for making three-dimensional ow so much more
complicated then two-dimensional ow.
12.6.4 Rotational form of Eulers equation
Using the vector identity (12.32), the acceleration term of Eulers equation (12.64) can be rewrit-
ten
Dq
Dt

q
t
+q q =
q
t
+
_
q
2
2
_
+ (q) q , (12.95)
Finite wings and three-dimensional flow 137
so that Eulers equation may be written in the so-called rotational form
q
t
+ (q) q =
1

_
p +
q
2
2
_
. (12.96)
12.6.5 Steady irrotational motion
A vector eld with zero curl is called irrotational. If the velocity is steady
q
t
= 0 (12.97)
and irrotational
q = 0, (12.98)
Eulers equation (12.96) reduces to
0 =
1

_
p +
q
2
2
_
; (12.99)
i.e.
p +
q
2
2
= const. , (12.100)
which is the form of Bernoullis equation for irrotational motion. Thus, the equations of motion
continuity (12.47) and Eulers (12.64)are satised if the velocity is steady, divergence-free, and
irrotational, and the pressure satises Bernoullis equation.
Conversely, if the uid in a ow system all originates from an irrotational upstream (as is usual
in an aerodynamical problem, posed in the frame of reference of the aircraft), the circulation
around each circuit in the far upstream will be zero, since the vorticity passing through any
surface bounded by such a circuit will be zero (Stokess theorem). These circuits continue to
have zero circulation as they pass downstream over the aircraft (by Kelvins theorem), and
therefore continue to have zero vorticity through the surfaces closing them. Thus not only is an
irrotational ow a solution of the governing equations, irrotationality is to be expected when the
far upstream is irrotational.
Note that this does not imply that there can be no circulation around a loop encircling a
wing: no closed circuit from the far upstream will form such a circuit.