Aircraft Performance

Robert Stengel, Aircraft Flight Dynamics MAE 331, 2008

Cruising ight Flight and maneuvering envelopes Climbing and diving Range and endurance Turning ight

Longitudinal Variables

Copyright 2008 by Robert Stengel. All rights reserved. For educational use only. http://www.princeton.edu/~stengel/MAE331.html http://www.princeton.edu/~stengel/FlightDynamics.html

Longitudinal Point-Mass Equations of Motion

Assume thrust is aligned with the velocity vector (small-angle approximation for !) Mass = constant
1 1 (CT cos" # CD ) $V 2 S # mg sin % (CT # CD ) $V 2 S # mg sin %

Steady, Level Flight

Flight path angle = 0 Altitude = constant Airspeed = constant Dynamic pressure = constant

V=

2 2 & m m 1 1 2 2 (CT sin " + CL ) $V S # mgcos % CL $V S # mgcos % 2 2 %= & mV mV h = # = #v z = V sin % z V = velocity r = x = v x = V cos % " = flight path angle

0=

1 (CT " CD ) #V 2 S 2 m CL 1 #V 2 S " mg 2 mV

Thrust = Drag

0=

Lift = Weight

h = height (altitude) r = range

h=0 r =V

Simple Models of Subsonic Aerodynamic Coefcients

Lift coefcient

Power and Thrust

Propeller
Power = P = T " V = CT 1 #V 3 S $ independent of airspeed 2

C L = C L o + C L ""
Drag coefcient

Turbojet
2

CD = CDo + "CL

!
Transonic Supersonic Subsonic Incompressible

Thrust = T = CT

1 "V 2 S # independent of airspeed 2

Subsonic ight, below critical Mach number

CLo , CL " , CDo , # $ constant

Throttle Effect
!

T = Tmax"T = CTmax "Tq S, 0 # "T # 1

Typical Effects of Altitude and Velocity on Power and Thrust

Thrust of a PropellerDriven Aircraft

With constant rpm, variable-pitch prop

Propeller

T = "P"I

Pengine P = "net engine V V

Turbojet

where "P = propeller efficiency "I = ideal propulsive efficiency "netmax # 0.85 $ 0.9
Efciencies decrease with airspeed Engine power decreases with altitude

Propeller Efciency, ", and Advance Ratio, J

Advance Ratio
V nD where V = airspeed, m /s n = rotation rate, revolutions/s J= D = propeller diameter, m

Effect of propeller-blade pitch angle

Thrust of a Turbojet Engine

1/ 2 1+$ 5 3 " '$ " ' 3 " . T = mV 2-& o )& t )(* c #1) + t 0 #16 " o #1(% " t #1( " o* c / 3 3 4,% 7

where m = mair + m fuel $ p '(8 #1)/ 8 " o = & stag ) ; 8 = ratio of specific heats 9 1.4 % pambient ( $ ' turbine inlet temperature "t = & ) % freestream ambient temperature ( $ compressor outlet temperature ' *c = & ) % compressor inlet temperature ( from Kerrebrock
from McCormick

Little change in thrust with airspeed below Mcrit Decrease with increasing altitude

Performance Parameters
Lift-to-Drag Ratio Load Factor

Trimmed CL and !
Trimmed lift coefcient, CL
Proportional to weight Decrease with V2 At constant airspeed, increases with altitude

CL D= C

n=L

=L

mg

,"g"s

CLtrim

W S 2W 2W e #h = = = q "V 2 S " 0V 2 S
2W #V 2 S $ CLo CL" W q S $ CL o CL"

! T = T ,"g"s Thrust-to-Weight Ratio W mg ! W , N m 2 or lb ft 2 Wing Loading S

Trimmed angle of attack, ! !

Constant if dynamic pressure and weight are constant

" trim =
=

!
!
!

Thrust Required for Steady, Level Flight

Trimmed thrust

Airspeed for Minimum Thrust in Steady, Level Flight

Satisfy necessary condition
"Ttrim 4%W 2 = CDo ( #VS ) $ =0 "V #V 3 S or
V4 = 4%W 2 CDo # 2 S 2

Ttrim = Dcruise

#1 2)W 2 2 & = CDo % "V S ( + $2 ' "V 2 S

Minimum required thrust conditions

Necessary Condition = Zero Slope Sufcient Condition for a Minimum

"Ttrim 4%W 2 = CDo ( #VS ) $ =0 "V #V 3 S " 2Ttrim 12%W 2 = CDo ( #S ) + >0 "V 2 #V 4 S

Fourth-order equation for velocity

Choose the positive root

VMT =

2 #W & ) % ( " $ S ' CDo

P-51 Mustang Minimum-Thrust Example

Wing Span = 37 ft (9.83 m) Wing Area = 235 ft 2 (21.83 m 2 ) Loaded Weight = 9,200 lb (3,465 kg) CDo = 0.0163

Lift Coefcient in Minimum-Thrust Cruising Flight

Airspeed for minimum thrust

VMT =

2W "S

# CDo

" = 0.0576
W /S = 39.3 lb / ft 2 (1555.7 N /m 2 )
2 #W & ) = % ( " $ S ' CDo 2 0.947 76.49 = m /s (1555.7) " 0.0163 "
Altitude, m 0 2,500 5,000 10,000 Air Density, kg/m^3 1.23 0.96 0.74 0.41 VMT, m/s 69.11 78.20 89.15 118.87

Corresponding lift coefcient

VMT =

CL MT =

CDo 2W = # "VMT 2 S

Power Required for Steady, Level Flight

Trimmed power

Airspeed for Minimum Power in Steady, Level Flight

Satisfy necessary condition

Ptrim

* #1 & 2)W 2 = TtrimV = DcruiseV = ,CDo % "V 2 S ( + /V ' "V 2 S . + $2

Minimum required power conditions

"Ptrim 3 2%W 2 2 = CDo ( #V S ) $ =0 "V 2 #V 2 S

Fourth-order equation for velocity
Choose the positive root
Corresponding lift and drag coefcients

"Ptrim 3 2%W 2 2 = CDo ( #V S ) $ =0 "V 2 #V 2 S

VMP =
!

2 #W & ) % ( " $ S ' 3CDo

!

CL MP =

3CDo

" CD MP = 4CDo

Achievable Airspeeds in Cruising Flight

Achievable Airspeeds in Cruising Flight

Jet aircraft (Thrust = constant)
2

#1 & 2)W Tavail = CDo % "V 2 S ( + $2 ' "V 2 S #1 & 2)W 2 CDo % "V 4 S ( * TavailV 2 + =0 $2 ' "S V4 * TavailV 2 4)W 2 + =0 CDo "S CD ( "S ) 2 o

Propeller-driven aircraft (Power = constant)

Pavail = TavailV V4 " PavailV 4$W 2 + =0 CDo #S CDo ( #S ) 2

Two equilibrium airspeeds for a given thrust or power setting

Low speed, high CL, high ! High speed, low CL, low !

Solutions for V can be put in quadratic form and solved easily

x " V 2; V = x ax + bx + c = 0 $ b '2 b x = # & ) # c, a = 1 %2( 2
2

Solutions for V cannot be put in quadratic form; solution is more difcult, e.g., Ferrari!s method

aV 4 + (0)V 3 + (0)V 2 + dV + e = 0
Best bet: roots in MATLAB

Thrust Required and Thrust Available for a Typical Bizjet

With increasing altitude, available thrust decreases, and range of achievable airspeeds decreases Stall limitation at low speed Mach number effect on lift and drag increases thrust required at high speed
Typical Simplied Jet Thrust Model

Maximum Lift-to-Drag Ratio

(with Simplied Aero Model)
Lift-to-drag ratio

D=

CL

CL CD = C + "C 2 Do L

Satisfy necessary condition for a maximum

# & "% CL C ( 1 2)CL 2 $ D' ! = 2 * "C L CDo + )CL CDo + )CL 2 =0

Tmax (h) = Tmax (SL)

" #nh , n <1 " (SL)

% " # $h (x x = Tmax (SL)' * + Tmax (SL), & " (SL) ) where

,=

" # $h , n or x is an empirical constant "(SL)

Stall Limit

Lift coefcient for maximum L/D and minimum thrust are the same
!

(CL ) L / D

max

CDo

"

= CL MT

!
Airspeed, Drag Coefcient, and

Lift-to-Drag Ratio for L/Dmax

VL / Dmax = VMT 2W = "S

Lift-Drag Polar for a Typical Bizjet

# CDo

L/D equals slope of line drawn from the origin

Single maximum for a given polar Two solutions for lower L/D (high and low airspeed) Available L/D decreases with Mach number

Intercept for L/Dmax depends only on # and zero-lift drag

(CD ) L / D
!

max

= CDo + CDo = 2CDo

Note different scales for lift and drag

(L /D) max =

CDo " 2CDo

1 2 "CDo

Maximum L/D depends only on induced drag factor and zero-! drag coefcient !

P-51 Mustang Maximum L/D Example

(CD ) L / D
Wing Span = 37 ft (9.83 m)
max

Cruising Range and Specic Fuel Consumption

0= 1 (CT " CD ) #V 2 S 2 m CL 1 #V 2 S " mg 2 mV

= 2CDo = 0.0326
CDo

Thrust = Drag Lift = Weight

(CL ) L / D

max

"

= CL MT = 0.531

0=

! Wing Area = 235 ft (21.83 m 2 ) Loaded Weight = 9,200 lb (3,465 kg)!

(L /D) max =

1 = 16.31 2 "CDo

h=0 =V r

CDo = 0.0163

" = 0.0576
W /S = 1555.7 N /m 2

VL / Dmax = VMT =
!
Altitude, m 0 2,500 5,000 10,000

76.49 m /s "

Specic fuel consumption, SFC = cP or cT

Propeller aircraft ! Jet aircraft

w f = "c P P w f = "cT T

Air Density, kg/m^3 1.23 0.96 0.74 0.41

[ proportional to power] [ proportional to thrust ]

kg s or kW kg s cT : or kN cP : lb s HP lb s lbf

VMT, m/s 69.11 78.20 89.15 118.87

where w f = fuel weight

!

Breguet Range Equation for Jet Aircraft

Rate of change of range with respect to weight of fuel burned

Maximum Range of a Jet Aircraft Flying at Constant Airspeed

Breguet range equation for constant V

# L& V dr dr dt V V = =" =" = "% ( $ D ' cT W dw dw dt cT T cT D

Range traveled
R Wf

" C %" V % " W % R = $ L '$ ' ln$ i ' $ ' # CD &# cT & # W f &
For given initial and nal weight, range is maximized when

Range = r =

" dr = # " & D )& c % (%

0

$ L '$ V ' dw ) T ( w Wi

For constant true airspeed, V

Breguet Range Equation

CDo " (VCL CD ) = 0 leading to CL MR = "C L 3#

# L &# V & Wf R = "% (% (ln( w ) W i $ D '$ cT ' # L &# V & # W & # C &# V & # W & = % (% ( ln% i ( = % L (% ( ln% i ( $ D '$ cT ' % W f ( $ CD '$ cT ' % W f ( $ ' $ '

Because weight decreases and V is assumed constant, altitude must increase to hold CL constant at its best value (cruise-climb)

# W & 3) 2 +W (t) . 3) W = CL MR q S " q = % ( " * (t) = 2 / $ S ' CDo V , S 0 CDo

Maximum Range of a Jet Aircraft Flying at Constant Altitude

At constant altitude

Breguet Range Equation for Propeller-Driven Aircraft

Rate of change of range with respect to weight of fuel burned

V=

2W CL "S

#L& 1 dr dr dt V V = =" =" = "% ( $ D ' c PW dw dw dt c P TV c P DV

Range traveled
R Wf

Wf # C &# 1 & 2 dw Range = " * % L (% ( 12 $ CD '$ cT ' CL )S w Wi ! # C &# 2 & 2 12 12 = % L (% ( Wi " W f % C ( c )S $ D '$ T '

Range = r =

" dr = # " & D )& c % (%

0

$ L '$ 1 ' dw ) P( w Wi

For constant true airspeed, V

Range is maximized when

!
Breguet Range Equation

# L &# 1 & Wf R = "% (% (ln( w ) W i $ D '$ c P ' # C &# 1 & # W & = % L (% ( ln% i ( % ( $ CD '$ c P ' $ W f '

Range is maximized when

" C % $ L ' = maximum and ( = minimum $ C ' # D &

" CL % $ ' = maximum # CD &

P-51 Mustang Maximum Range (Internal Tanks only)

Loaded Weight = 9,200 lb (3,465 kg) Fuel Weight = 1,320 lb (600 kg)

Dynamic Pressure and Mach Number

" = air density, function of height
= " sea level e# $h a = speed of sound, linear function of height 1 Dynamic pressure = q = "V 2 2 V Mach number = a

(L /D) max = 16.31

c P = 0.0017 kg /s kW

"C % " 1 % "W % R = $ L ' $ ' ln$ i ' $ ' # CD & max # c P & # W f & " 1 % " 3,465 + 600 % = (16.31)$ ' ln$ ' # 0.0017 & # 3,465 & = 1,530 km ((825 nm)
!

Air Data System

Air Data Instruments

(Steam Gauges)
Calibrated Airspeed Indicator Altimeter Vertical Speed Indicator

Variometer/Altimeter

from Kayton & Fried

True Airspeed Indicator Machmeter

Air Speed Indicator Altimeter Vertical Speed Indicator

Private Aircraft Cockpit Panels

Piper J-3 Cub Panel Cirrus SR-22 Panel

Jet Transport Cockpit Panels

Boeing 747 Steam Gauge Panel Boeing 777 Glass Cockpit

Denitions of Airspeed
Airspeed is speed of aircraft measured with respect to the air mass
Airspeed = Velocity (Inertial speed) if wind speed = 0

Dynamic Pressure and Mach Number

Indicated Airspeed (IAS)

IAS = 2 ( pstag " pstatic ) # SL

Calibrated Airspeed (CAS)

!
!

CAS = IAS corrected for instrument and position errors

Equivalent Airspeed (EAS)

EAS = CAS corrected for compressibility effects

True Airspeed (TAS) Mach number TAS M= a

TAS = EAS " SL "(z)

Flight Envelope Determined by Available Thrust

Flight Envelope: Encompasses all altitudes and airspeeds at which an aircraft can y in steady, level ight
Flight ceiling dened by available climb rate
Absolute: 0 ft/min Service: 100 ft/min Performance: 200 ft/min

Additional Factors Dene the Flight Envelope

Excess thrust provides the ability to accelerate or climb

Maximum Mach number Maximum allowable aerodynamic heating Maximum thrust Maximum dynamic pressure Performance ceiling Wing stall Flow-separation buffet
Angle of attack Local shock waves

Equilibrium Gliding Flight

1 D = CD "V 2 S = #W sin $ 2 1 CL "V 2 S = W cos $ 2 = V sin $ h r = V cos $

Gliding Flight
Thrust = 0 Flight path angle < 0 in gliding ight Altitude is decreasing Airspeed ~ constant Air density ~ constant

1 D = CD "V 2 S = #W sin $ 2 1 CL "V 2 S = W cos $ 2 = V sin $ h r = V cos $

Gliding ight path angle

D C h dh =# D = = L CL r dr $ D' $ L' " = #tan#1& ) = #cot #1& ) %L( % D( tan " = #

Corresponding airspeed

Vglide =

2W

"S CD 2 + CL 2

!
!

Maximum Steady Gliding Range

Glide range is maximum when $ is least negative, i.e., most positive This occurs at (L/D)max

Sink Rate
Lift and drag dene $ and V in gliding equilibrium
1 D = CD "V 2 S = #W sin $ 2 D sin $ = # W
1 "V 2 S = W cos # 2 2W cos # V= CL "S L = CL

$ D' $ L' " max = #tan#1& ) = #cot #1& ) % L ( min % D ( max

h ( h # ho ) tan " = = negative constant = r (r # ro ) $r = $h #$h L = = maximum when = maximum tan " #tan " D
!

Sink rate = altitude rate, dh/dt (negative)

h = V sin "
! 2W cos " % D ( 2W cos " % L (% D ( =# ' *=# ' *' * CL $S & W ) CL $S & W )& L )

=#

%C ( 2W cos " cos " ' D * CL $S & CL )

Conditions for Minimum Steady Sink Rate

Minimum sink rate provides maximum endurance Minimize sink rate by setting ! ( dh/dt)/dCL = 0 (cos $ ~1) See Mathematica performance calculations in Blackboard Course Materials

Minimum Sink Rate

%C ( 2W cos # h=" cos # ' D * CL $S & CL ) =" 2W cos3 # % CD ( ' 3/2 * $S & CL )

CL ME =

3CDo

"

and CD ME = 4CDo

For small $, maximum-endurance airspeed and sink rate

CL ME =
!

3CDo

"

and CD ME = 4CDo

VME =

2W

"S CD ME + CL ME

2(W S ) $ # 0.76VL Dmax " 3CDo

(L D)
!
!

ME

1 3 3 L = D 4 "CDo 2

( )

max

# 0.86 L D

( )

max

( 2cos 3 # % W (% CD ME ( 2 % W (% C * + " ' * ' D ME/ 2 * hME = " ' *' $ & S )' CL ME 3 / 2 * $ & S ) ' CL ME 3 * & ) & )

L/D for Minimum Sink Rate

For L/D < L/Dmax, there are two solutions Which one produces minimum sink rate?

Gliding Flight of the P-51 Mustang

Maximum Range Glide Maximum Endurance Glide
Loaded Weight = 9,200 lb (3,465 kg) 1 = 16.31 (L /D) max = 2 "CDo %L( # MR = $cot $1' * = $cot $1 (16.31) = $3.51 & D ) max

(L D)
VME

" 0.86 L D " 0.76VL Dmax

ME

( )

max

Loaded Weight = 9,200 lb (3,465 kg) S = 21.83 m 2 CD ME = 4CDo = 4 (0.0163) = 0.0652 CL ME = = " = 14.13 3CDo 3(0.0163) = 0.921 0.0576

(CD ) L / D (CL ) L / D
VL / Dmax

max

= 2CDo = 0.0326 = CDo = 0.531

(L D) ME

" 76.49 = m /s +
max

( 2 % W (% C 4.11 hME = # ' * ' D ME/ 2 * = # m /s 'C 3 * $ & S ) & L ME ) $

4.68 hL / Dmax = V sin # = $ m /s + Rho =10km = (16.31)(10) = 163.1 km

+ ME = #4.05 58.12 VME = m /s $

Climbing Flight
(T " D " W sin # ) V =0= m (T " D) ; # = sin"1 (T " D) sin # = W W

Steady Rate of Climb

2 + C + *CL q . = V sin " = V -# T & ) Do 0 h % ( -$ W ' (W S) 0 , /

" =0=

(L # W cos " )
mV

L = CL q S = W cos " # W & cos " CL = % ( $S' q # W & cos " V = 2% ( $ S ' CL )

L = W cos "

Note signicance of thrust-to-weight ratio and wing loading

Rate of climb, dh/dt = Specic Excess Power

! P # Pdrag ) = V sin " = V (T # D) = ( thrust h W W

+" T % C q )(W S ) cos 2 * . h = V -$ ' ( Do ( 0 q ,# W & (W S ) / " T % CDo 1V 3 2)(W S ) cos2 * = V$ ' ( ( # W & 2(W S ) 1V

Specific Excess Power (SEP) =

Excess Power ( Pthrust # Pdrag ) $ Unit Weight W

!
!

Condition for Maximum Steady Rate of Climb

3 2 = V " T % ( CDo )V ( 2*(W S ) cos + h $ ' # W & 2(W S ) )V

Maximum Steady Rate of Climb: Propeller-Driven Aircraft

Therefore, with cos2$ ~ 1 At constant power
# "T /"V &, "Pthrust )# T & = +% ( + V % (. = 0 $ W '"V *$ W '

Necessary condition for a maximum with respect to airspeed !

3C $V 2%(W S ) "h ! = 0 = # Do + "V 2(W S ) $V 2

2

)# T & # "T /"V &, 3CDo 0V 2 21(W S ) cos2 2 "h = 0 = +% ( + V % + (. / $ W '- 2(W S ) "V 0V 2 *$ W '

Airspeed for maximum rate of climb at maximum power, Pmax

" 4 % ((W S ) (W S) ( = V V =$ ' ; V= 2 ME 2 # 3 & CDo ) ) 3CDo

4

Maximum Steady Rate of Climb: Jet-Driven Aircraft

Condition for a maximum at constant thrust and cos2$ ~ 1
"h =0 "V 3CDo $ 4 % T ( 2 2+(W S ) 0=# V + ' *V + &W ) 2(W S ) $ =# 3CDo $ 2(W S )

What is the Fastest Way to Climb from One Flight Condition to Another?

(V )

2 2

%T( 2+(W S ) + ' *(V 2 ) + &W ) $

Airspeed for maximum rate of climb at maximum thrust, Tmax, found by!solving equation of the form

0 = ax 2 + bx + c and V = + x

Energy Height
Specic Energy
= (Potential + Kinetic Energy) per Unit Weight = Energy Height

Specic Excess Power

dE h d " V 2 % dh " V % dV = $h + ' = +$ ' dt dt # 2g & dt # g & dt 1 2 " V %" T ) D ) mgsin ( % (T ) D) = V (CT ) CD ) 2 *(h)V S = V sin ( + $ '$ =V ' & m W W # g &# = Specific Excess Power (SEP) = Excess Power ( Pthrust ) Pdrag ) + Unit Weight W

Total Energy mgh + mV 2 2 V2 " Specific Energy = =h+ Unit Weight mg 2g " Energy Height, E h , ft or m

Could trade altitude with airspeed with no change in energy height if thrust and drag were zero

Contours of Constant Specic Excess Power

Specic Excess Power is a function of altitude and airspeed SEP is maximized at each altitude, h, when d SEP(h) [ ] =0 dV

Subsonic Energy Climb

Objective: Minimize time or fuel to climb to desired altitude and airspeed

Supersonic Energy Climb

Objective: Minimize time or fuel to climb to desired altitude and airspeed

Typical Maneuvering Envelope

V-n diagram Maneuvering envelope describes limits on normal load factor and allowable equivalent airspeed
Structural factors Maximum and minimum achievable lift coefcients Maximum and minimum airspeeds Protection against overstressing due to gusts Corner Velocity: Intersection of maximum lift coefcient and maximum load factor Typical positive load factor limits
Transport: > 2.5 Utility: > 4.4 Aerobatic: > 6.3 Fighter: > 9

Typical negative load factor limits

Transport: < 1 Others: < 1 to 3

C-130 exceeds maneuvering envelope http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4bDNCac2N1o&feature=related

Maneuvering Envelopes (V-n Diagrams) for Three Fighters of the Korean War Era
Republic F-84 Lockheed F-94

Level Turning Flight

Level ight = constant altitude Sideslip angle = 0 Vertical force equilibrium
: Bank Angle

L cos = W
North American F-86

Load factor

n=L

=L

mg

= sec ,"g"s

Thrust required to maintain level ight

Treq = CDo + "CL 2 = Do +

2 1 2" $ W ' #V 2 S = Do + & ) 2 #V 2 S % cos (

2" 2 ( nW ) #V 2 S

Maximum Bank Angle in Level Flight

Bank angle
cos = W 1 = =W CL q S n 2" # Do ) $V 2 S

Turning Rate and Radius in Level Flight

: Bank Angle

Turning rate
2 2 C q S sin = W tan = gtan = L # W "= L mV mV V mV

(T

req

W n 2 #1 = = mV
. 2" 0 2 (Treq # Do )$V S 0 /

(T

req

# Do ) $V 2 S 2% # W 2 mV

+ % W ( #1% 1 ( #1 = cos#1' * = cos ' * = cos -W &n) & CL q S ) ,

Turning rate is limited by

CLmax or Tmax or n max

Turning radius

Bank angle is limited by

CLmax or Tmax or n max

!

V V2 Rturn = = " g n 2 #1

Corner Velocity Turn

Corner velocity
Vcorner = 2n maxW CLmas "S
Tmax # D W

Maximum Turn Rates

F-16 in 9-g turn http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zT-pJDo6nkw&feature=related

For steady climbing or diving ight

!
sin " =
Pilot in 9-g centrifuge training http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3rQexWEwV6M&feature=related

Turning radius

Turning rate

Rturn =

V cos " g n max # cos "

V cos # g n max 2 $ cos2 #
2 2

"=

g n max # cos2 $ V cos $

Time to complete a full circle

t2" =

Altitude gain/loss

!
!

"h2 # = t 2 # V sin $

Herbst Maneuver
Minimum-time reversal of direction Kinetic-/potential-energy exchange Yaw maneuver at low airspeed X-31 performing the maneuver

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