Portugal

. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portugal

Portuguese Republic

Repblica Portuguesa (Portuguese) Repblica Pertuesa (Mirandese)

Flag

Coat of arms

Anthem: "A Portuguesa"

"The Portuguese Anthem"

Location of Portugal (dark green) in Europe (green & dark grey) in the European Union (green) [Legend]

Capital (and largest city) Official language(s) Recognised regional languages

Lisbon
3846N 99W38.767N 9.15W

Portuguese Mirandese1 96.87% Portuguese

Ethnic groups (2007)

3.13% other ethnicities (Cape Verdeans, Brazilians, Goans, Angolans, Ukrainians, and others)[1]

Demonym Government

Portuguese Unitary parliamentary

constitutional republic - President - Prime Minister Anbal Cavaco Silva (PSD) Pedro Passos Coelho (PSD)

- Assembly President Assuno Esteves (PSD) Legislature Formation - Founding - Re-founding De facto sovereignty Assembly of the Republic Conventional date for independence is 1139 868 1095 24 June 1128 25 July 1139 5 October 1143 23 May 1179 5 October 1910 25 April 1974 Area - Total - Water (%) 92,212[2] km2 (111th) 35,603 sq mi 0.5 Population - 2012 estimate - 2011 census - Density GDP (PPP) - Total - Per capita GDP (nominal) - Total 10,581,949[3] (77th) 10,561,614[4] 115/km2 (96th) 298/sq mi 2011 estimate $248.981 billion[5] (49) $23,361[5] (41) 2011 estimate $238.880 billion[5] (42)

- Kingdom - Recognized - Papal Recognition - Republic - Democracy

- Per capita Gini (2009) HDI (2011) Currency Time zone - Summer (DST)

$22,413[5] (35) 33.7[6] 0.809[7] (very high) (41st) Euro ()2 (EUR) WET (UTC+0) WEST (UTC+1) Note that the Azores are in a different timezone

Date formats Drives on the ISO 3166 code Internet TLD Calling code

dd-mm-yyyy, yyyy-mm-dd, yyyy/mm/dd right PT .pt 351

Mirandese, spoken in some villages of the municipality of Miranda do Douro, was officially recognized in 1999 (Lei n. 7/99 de 29 de Janeiro), since then awarding an official right-of-use
1

Mirandese to the linguistic minority it is concerned.[8] The Portuguese Sign Language is also recognized.
2

Before 1999: Portuguese escudo.

Portugal i/prtl/ (Portuguese: Portugal, IPA: [putua]), officially the Portuguese Republic (Portuguese: Repblica Portuguesa) is a country situated in Southwestern Europe. Portugal is the westernmost country of mainland Europe, and is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the West and South and by Spain to the North and East. The Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeira are part of Portugal. The country has a population of 10.6 million with almost half living in the two great metropolitan urban areas, the Greater Metropolitan Area of Porto, in the North, and the Greater Metropolitan Area of Lisbon, in the Center-South, constructed from the two main cities. The country is named after its today second largest city, Porto, whose Latin name was Portus Cale.[9] The land within the borders of the current Portuguese Republic has been continuously settled since prehistoric times: occupied by Celts like the Gallaeci and the Lusitanians, integrated into the Roman Republic and later settled by Germanic peoples such as the Suebi, Buri, Vandals and the Visigoths. In the 8th century most of the Iberian Peninsula was conquered by Moorish invaders professing Islam, which were later expelled by the Knights Templar under the Order of Christ. During the Christian Reconquista, Portugal established itself as an independent kingdom from Len in 1139, claiming to be the oldest European nation state.[10]

In the 15th and 16th centuries, as the result of pioneering the Age of Discovery, Portugal expanded western influence and established a global empire that included possessions in Africa, Asia, Oceania, and South America, becoming the world's major economic, political and military global power. The Portuguese Empire was the first global empire in history,[11] and also the longest lived of the European colonial empires, spanning almost 600 years, from the capture of Ceuta in 1415, to the grant of sovereignty to East Timor in 2002. However, the country's international status was greatly reduced during the 19th century, especially following the Independence of Brazil, its largest colony in its history. After the 5 October 1910 revolution deposed the monarchy, the democratic but unstable Portuguese First Republic was established being then superseded by the "Estado Novo" authoritarian regime. Democracy was restored after the Portuguese Colonial War and the Carnation Revolution in 1974, after which Portugal's last overseas provinces became independent (most prominently Angola and Mozambique); the last overseas territory, Macau, was ceded to China in 1999. Portugal is a developed country with a very high Human Development Index, the world's 19th-highest quality-of-life as of 2005, and a strong healthcare system. Portugal is one of the world's most globalized and peaceful nations:[12] a member of the European Union and the United Nations, and a founding member of the Latin Union, the Organization of Ibero-American States, OECD, NATO, Community of Portuguese Language Countries, the Eurozone and the Schengen Agreement.

Contents

1 History o 1.1 Early history o 1.2 Reconquista o 1.3 Exploration, colonization and trade o 1.4 Iberian Union and Restoration o 1.5 Pombaline era o 1.6 Brazilian independence o 1.7 Colonial Portuguese Africa o 1.8 Republic o 1.9 End of colonialism o 1.10 Carnation Revolution o 1.11 European integration 2 Geography o 2.1 Climate o 2.2 Biodiversity 3 Government o 3.1 Executive branch o 3.2 Legislative branch o 3.3 Law and criminal justice o 3.4 Administrative divisions o 3.5 Foreign relations o 3.6 Military 4 Economy

4.1 Sectors 4.1.1 Primary sector 4.1.2 Secondary sector 4.1.3 Tertiary sector o 4.2 State-owned companies o 4.3 Listed companies o 4.4 Performance o 4.5 Labour market o 4.6 Tourism 4.6.1 Tourist regions o 4.7 Transport o 4.8 Science and technology o 4.9 Energy 5 Demographics o 5.1 Urbanization o 5.2 Metropolitan Areas o 5.3 Immigration o 5.4 Religion o 5.5 Languages o 5.6 Education o 5.7 Health 6 Culture o 6.1 Architecture o 6.2 Cinema o 6.3 Literature o 6.4 Cuisine o 6.5 Music o 6.6 Painting o 6.7 Sport 7 See also 8 References 9 External links

[edit] History
[edit] Early history

The Roman Temple of Diana, vora.

Main articles: Lusitania, Visigothic Kingdom, Suebic Kingdom of Galicia, and Umayyad conquest of Hispania The early history of Portugal is shared with the rest of the Iberian Peninsula. The name of Portugal derives from the Roman name Portus Cale. The region was settled by Pre-Celts and Celts, giving origin to peoples like the Gallaeci, Lusitanians, Celtici and Cynetes, visited by Phoenicians and Carthaginians, incorporated in the Roman Republic dominions as Lusitania and part of Gallaecia (both part of Hispania), after 45 BC until 298 AD, settled again by Suebi, Buri, and Visigoths, and conquered by Moors. Other minor influences include some 5th century vestiges of Alan settlement, which were found in Alenquer, Coimbra and even Lisbon.[13]

[edit] Reconquista
Main articles: Kingdom of Galicia, County of Coimbra, Battle of So Mamede, and Kingdom of Portugal

Guimares Castle, the city is known as the cradle of Portugal. During the Reconquista period, Christians reconquered the Iberian Peninsula from the Muslim and Moorish domination. In 868, the First County of Portugal was formed. A victory over the Muslims at Battle of Ourique in 1139 is traditionally taken as the occasion when the County of Portugal as a fief of the Kingdom of Len was transformed into the independent Kingdom of Portugal. Henry, to whom the newly formed county was awarded by Alfonso VI for his role in reconquering land from the Moors, based his newly formed county in Bracara Augusta (nowadays Braga), capital city of the ancient Roman province, and also previous capital of several kingdoms over the first millennia. On 24 June 1128, the Battle of So Mamede occurred near Guimares. Afonso Henriques, Count of Portugal, defeated his mother Countess Teresa and her lover Ferno Peres de Trava, thereby establishing himself as sole leader. Afonso Henriques officially declared Portugal's independence when he proclaimed himself king of Portugal on 25 July 1139, after the Battle of Ourique. He was recognized as such in 1143 by King Alfonso VII of Len and Castile, and in 1179 by Pope Alexander III.

The Batalha Monastery, built in 1385, is one of the best and original examples of Late Gothic architecture in Portugal. It is also a World Heritage Site. Afonso Henriques and his successors, aided by military monastic orders, pushed southward to drive out the Moors, as the size of Portugal covered about half of its present area. In 1249, this Reconquista ended with the capture of the Algarve on the southern coast, giving Portugal its present-day borders, with minor exceptions. In 1348 and 1349, like the rest of Europe, Portugal was devastated by the Black Death.[14] In 1373, Portugal made an alliance with England, which is the longest-standing alliance in the world. In 1383, the king of Castile, husband of the daughter of the Portuguese king who had died without a male heir, claimed his throne. An ensuing popular revolt led to the 1383-1385 Crisis. A faction of petty noblemen and commoners, led by John of Aviz (later John I), seconded by General Nuno lvares Pereira defeated the Castilians in the Battle of Aljubarrota. This celebrated battle is still a symbol of glory and the struggle for independence from neighboring Spain.

[edit] Exploration, colonization and trade

Main article: History of Portugal (14151578)

Vasco da Gama lands at Calicut (Indian Subcontinent), on May 20th 1498. In the following decades, Portugal spearheaded the exploration of the world and undertook the Age of Discovery. Infante Dom Henry the Navigator, son of King Joo I, became the main sponsor and patron of this endeavor. In 1415, Portugal acquired the first of its overseas colonies by conquering Ceuta. It was the first prosperous Islamic trade center in North Africa. There followed the first discoveries in the Atlantic: Madeira and the Azores, which led to the first colonization movements. Throughout the 15th century, Portuguese explorers sailed the coast of Africa, establishing trading posts for several common types of tradable commodities at the time, ranging from gold to slaves, as they looked for a route to India and its spices, which were coveted in Europe. The Treaty of Tordesillas, intended to resolve the dispute that had been created following the return of Christopher Columbus, was signed on 7 June 1494, and divided the newly discovered lands outside Europe between Portugal and Spain along a meridian 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde islands (off the west coast of Africa). In 1498, Vasco da Gama finally reached India and brought economic prosperity to Portugal and its population of 1.7 million residents. In 1500, Pedro lvares Cabral discovered Brazil and claimed it for Portugal.[15] Ten years later, Afonso de Albuquerque conquered Goa in India, Ormuz in the Persian Strait, and Malacca, now a state in Malaysia. Thus, the Portuguese empire held dominion over commerce in the Indian Ocean and South Atlantic. The Portuguese sailors set out to reach Eastern Asia by sailing eastward from Europe landing in such places as Taiwan, Japan, the island of Timor, they were also the first Europeans to discover Australia and even New Zealand.[16]

The Treaty of Zaragoza, signed on 22 April 1529 between Portugal and Spain, specified the antimeridian to the line of demarcation specified in the Treaty of Tordesillas. All these facts made Portugal the world's major economic, military, and political power from the 15th century to the beginning of the 16th century.

[edit] Iberian Union and Restoration

Main articles: Portuguese succession crisis of 1580, Iberian Union, and Portuguese Restoration War

Acclamation of John IV as King of Portugal. Painting by Veloso Salgado, in the Military Museum, Lisbon.

An anachronistic map of the Portuguese Empire (14151999). Red actual possessions; Olive explorations; Orange areas of influence and trade; Pink claims of sovereignty; Green trading posts; Blue main sea explorations, routes and areas of influence. The disputed Portuguese discovery of Australia is not shown. Portugal's independence was interrupted between 1580 and 1640. This occurred because the last two kings of the House of Aviz King Sebastian, who died in the battle of Alccer Quibir in Morocco, and his great-uncle and successor, King Henry of Portugal both died without heirs, resulting in the extinction of that royal house. Subsequently, Philip II of Spain claimed the throne and so became Philip I of Portugal. Although Portugal did not lose its formal independence, it was governed by the same monarch who governed the Spains,[17] briefly forming a union of kingdoms, as a personal union. At this time Spain was a geographic territory[18] The joining of the two crowns deprived Portugal of a separate foreign policy, and led to the involvement in the Eighty Years' War being fought in Europe at the time between the Spains and the Netherlands. War led to a deterioration of the relations with Portugal's oldest ally, England, and the loss of Hormuz. From 1595 to 1663 the DutchPortuguese War primarily involved the Dutch companies invading many Portuguese colonies and commercial interests in Brazil, Africa, India and the Far East, resulting in the loss of the Portuguese Indian Sea trade monopoly.

In 1640, John IV spearheaded an uprising backed by disgruntled nobles and was proclaimed king. The Portuguese Restoration War between Portugal and the Spains on the aftermath of the 1640 revolt, ended the sixty-year period of the Iberian Union under the House of Habsburg. This was the beginning of the House of Braganza, which reigned in Portugal until 1910. Official estimates and most estimates made so far place the number of Portuguese migrants to Colonial Brazil during the gold rush of the 18th century at 600,000.[19] Though not usually studied, this represented one of the largest movements of European populations to their colonies to the Americas during the colonial times. According to historian Leslie Bethell, "In 1700 Portugal had a population of about two million people." During the 18th century, hundreds of thousands left for the Portuguese Colony of Brazil, despite efforts by the crown to place severe restrictions on emigration.[20]

[edit] Pombaline era

Main articles: History of Portugal (16401777), 1755 Lisbon earthquake, and Sebastio de Melo, Marquis of Pombal

Sebastio Jos de Carvalho e Melo, 1st Marquess of Pombal In 1738, Sebastio Jos de Carvalho e Melo, the talented son of a Lisbon squire, began a diplomatic career as the Portuguese Ambassador in London and later in Vienna. The Queen consort of Portugal, Archduchess Maria Anne Josefa of Austria, was fond of Melo; and after his first wife died, she arranged the widowed de Melo's second marriage to the daughter of the Austrian Field Marshal Leopold Josef, Count von Daun. King John V of Portugal, however, was not pleased and recalled Melo to Portugal in 1749. John V died the following year and his son, Joseph I of Portugal was crowned. In contrast to his father, Joseph I was fond of de Melo, and with the Queen Mother's approval, he appointed Melo as Minister of Foreign Affairs. As the King's confidence in de Melo increased, the King entrusted him with more control of the state. By 1755, Sebastio de Melo was made Prime Minister. Impressed by British economic success he had witnessed while Ambassador, he successfully implemented similar economic policies in Portugal. He abolished slavery in Portugal and in the Portuguese colonies in India; reorganized the army and the navy; restructured the University of Coimbra, and ended discrimination against different Christian sects in Portugal.

But Sebastio de Melo's greatest reforms were economic and financial, with the creation of several companies and guilds to regulate every commercial activity. He demarcated the region for production of Port to ensure the wine's quality, and this was the first attempt to control wine quality and production in Europe. He ruled with a strong hand by imposing strict law upon all classes of Portuguese society from the high nobility to the poorest working class, along with a widespread review of the country's tax system. These reforms gained him enemies in the upper classes, especially among the high nobility, who despised him as a social upstart.

1755 copper engraving showing Lisbon in flames and a tsunami overwhelming the ships in the harbor after the 1755 Lisbon earthquake. Disaster fell upon Portugal in the morning of 1 November 1755, when Lisbon was struck by a violent earthquake with an estimated Richter scale magnitude of 9. The city was razed to the ground by the earthquake and the subsequent tsunami and ensuing fires.[21] Sebastio de Melo survived by a stroke of luck and then immediately embarked on rebuilding the city, with his famous quote: "What now? We bury the dead and take care of the living." Despite the calamity and huge death toll, Lisbon suffered no epidemics and within less than one year was already being rebuilt. The new downtown of Lisbon was designed to resist subsequent earthquakes. Architectural models were built for tests, and the effects of an earthquake were simulated by marching troops around the models. The buildings and big squares of the Pombaline Downtown of Lisbon still remain as one of Lisbon's tourist attractions: They represent the world's first quakeproof buildings[citation needed]. Sebastio de Melo also made an important contribution to the study of seismology by designing an inquiry that was sent to every parish in the country. Following the earthquake, Joseph I gave his Prime Minister even more power, and Sebastio de Melo became a powerful, progressive dictator. As his power grew, his enemies increased in number, and bitter disputes with the high nobility became frequent. In 1758 Joseph I was wounded in an attempted assassination. The Tvora family and the Duke of Aveiro were implicated and executed after a quick trial. The Jesuits were expelled from the country and their assets confiscated by the crown. Sebastio de Melo showed no mercy and prosecuted every person involved, even women and children. This was the final stroke that broke the power of the aristocracy and ensured the victory of the Minister against his enemies. Based upon his swift resolve, Joseph I made his loyal minister Count of Oeiras in 1759.

Maria I of Portugal as princess of Brazil. In 1762 Spain invaded Portuguese territory as part of the Seven Years' War, however by 1763 the status-quo between Spain and Portugal before the war had been restored. Following the Tvora affair, the new Count of Oeiras knew no opposition. Made "Marquis of Pombal" in 1770, he effectively ruled Portugal until Joseph I's death in 1779. However, historians also argue that Pombals "enlightenment," while farreaching, was primarily a mechanism for enhancing autocracy at the expense of individual liberty and especially an apparatus for crushing opposition, suppressing criticism, and furthering colonial economic exploitation as well as intensifying book censorship and consolidating personal control and profit.[22] The new ruler, Queen Maria I of Portugal, disliked the Marquis because of the power he amassed, and never forgave him for the ruthlessness at which he dispatched the Tvora family, and upon her accession to the throne, she did what she had long vowed to do: she withdrew all his political offices. Pombal died peacefully on his estate at Pombal in 1782. In the autumn of 1807, Napoleon moved French troops through Spain to invade Portugal. From 1807 to 1811, British-Portuguese forces would successfully fight against the French invasion of Portugal, while the royal family and the Portuguese nobility, including Maria I, relocated to the Portuguese territory of Brazil, at that time a colony of the Portuguese Empire, in South America. This episode is known as the Transfer of the Portuguese Court to Brazil.

[edit] Brazilian independence

Main articles: Colonial Brazil, Peninsular War, Transfer of the Portuguese Court to Brazil, and Independence of Brazil With the occupation by Napoleon, Portugal began a slow but inexorable decline that lasted until the 20th century. This decline was hastened by the independence in 1822 of the country's largest colonial possession, Brazil. In 1807, as Napoleon's army closed in on Portugal's capital city of Lisbon, the Prince Regent Joo VI of Portugal transferred his court to Brazil and established Rio de Janeiro as the capital of the

Portuguese Empire. In 1815, the Portuguese Empire changed its name to the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves. Due to the change in its status and the arrival of the Portuguese royal family, Brazilian administrative, civic, economical, military, educational, and scientific apparatus were expanded and highly modernized. Portuguese and their allied British troops fought against the French Invasion of Portugal and by 1815 the situation in Europe had cooled down sufficiently that Joo VI would be able to safely return to Lisbon. However, the King of Portugal remained in Brazil until the Liberal Revolution of 1820, which started in Porto, demanded his return to Lisbon in 1821. Thus he returned to Portugal but left his son Pedro in charge of Brazil. When the king attempted the following year to return the Kingdom of Brazil to subordinate status as a principality, his son Pedro, with the overwhelming support of the Brazilian elites, declared Brazil's independence from Portugal. Cisplatina (today's sovereign state of Uruguay), in the south, was one of the last additions to the territory of Brazil under Portuguese rule.

[edit] Colonial Portuguese Africa

Main articles: Portuguese Angola, Cape Verde, Portuguese Guinea, Portuguese Mozambique, Ouidah, and So Tom and Prncipe

The Pink Map project: Portugal's claim of sovereingty over the lands between Portuguese Angola and Portuguese Mozambique. At the height of European colonialism in the 19th century, Portugal had already lost its territory in South America and all but a few bases in Asia. Luanda, Benguela, Bissau, Loureno Marques, Porto Amboim and the Island of Mozambique were among the oldest Portuguese-founded port cities in its African territories. During this phase, Portuguese colonialism focused on expanding its outposts in Africa into nation-sized territories to compete with other European powers there. With the Conference of Berlin of 1884, Portuguese Africa territories had their borders formally established on request of Portugal in order to protect the centuries-long Portuguese interests in the continent from rivalries enticed by the Scramble for Africa. Portuguese Africa's cities and towns like Nova Lisboa, S da Bandeira, Silva Porto, Malanje, Tete, Vila Junqueiro, Vila Pery and Vila Cabral were founded or redeveloped inland during this period and beyond. New coastal towns like Beira, Momedes, Lobito, Joo Belo, Nacala and Porto Amlia, were also founded. Even before the turn of the 20th century, railway tracks as the Benguela railway in Angola, and the Beira railway in Mozambique, started to be built to link coastal areas and selected inland regions.

Other episodes during this period of the Portuguese presence in Africa include the 1890 British Ultimatum. This forced the Portuguese military to retreat from the land between the Portuguese colonies of Mozambique and Angola (most of present-day Zimbabwe and Zambia), which had been claimed by Portugal and included in its "Pink Map," which clashed with British aspirations to create a Cape to Cairo Railway. The Portuguese territories in Africa were Cape Verde, So Tom and Prncipe, Portuguese Guinea, Angola, and Mozambique. The tiny fortress of So Joo Baptista de Ajud on the coast of Dahomey, was also under Portuguese rule. In addition, the country still ruled the Asian territories of Portuguese India, Portuguese Timor and Macau.

[edit] Republic
Main articles: Lisbon Regicide, 5 October 1910 revolution, Portuguese First Republic, and Estado Novo (Portugal)

Manuel II, the last King of Portugal and the Algarves On 1 February 1908, the king Dom Carlos I of Portugal and his heir apparent, Prince Royal Dom Lus Filipe, Duke of Braganza, were murdered in Lisbon. Under his rule, Portugal was twice declared bankrupt on 14 June 1892, and again on 10 May 1902 causing social turmoil, economic disturbances, protests, revolts and criticism of the monarchy. Manuel II of Portugal become the new king, but was eventually overthrown by the 5 October 1910 revolution, which abolished the regime and instated republicanism in Portugal. Political instability and economic weaknesses were fertile ground for chaos and unrest during the Portuguese First Republic, which aggravated by the Portuguese military intervention in World War I, led to a military coup d'tat in 1926 and the creation of the National Dictatorship (Ditadura Nacional). This in turn led to the establishment of the right-wing dictatorship of the Estado Novo under Antnio de Oliveira Salazar in 1933. Portugal was one of only five European countries to remain neutral in World War II. From the 1940s to the 1960s, Portugal was a founding member of NATO, OECD and the European Free Trade Association (EFTA). Gradually, new economic development projects and relocation of white mainland Portuguese citizens into the overseas colonies in Africa were initiated, with

Angola and Mozambique, as the largest and richest overseas territories, being the main targets of those initiatives.

[edit] End of colonialism

Main articles: Portuguese Colonial War and Movimento das Foras Armadas

Map of the Portuguese Overseas provinces in Africa by the time of the Portuguese Colonial War (19611974). After India attained independence in 1947, pro-Indian residents of Dadra and Nagar Haveli, with the support of the Indian government and the help of pro-independence organisations, liberated the territories of Dadra and Nagar Haveli from Portuguese rule in 1954.[23] In 1961, So Joo Baptista de Ajud's annexation by the Republic of Dahomey was the start of a process that led to the final dissolution of the centuriesold Portuguese Empire. According to the census of 1921 So Joo Baptista de Ajud had 5 inhabitants and, at the moment of the ultimatum by the Dahomey Government, it had only 2 inhabitants representing Portuguese Sovereignty. Another forcible retreat from overseas territories occurred in December 1961 when Portugal refused to relinquish the territories of Goa, Daman and Diu. As a result, the Portuguese army and navy were involved in armed conflict in its colony of Portuguese India against the Indian Armed Forces. The operations resulted in the defeat of the limited Portuguese defensive garrison, which was forced to surrender to a much larger military force. The outcome was the loss of the remaining Portuguese territories in the Indian subcontinent. The Portuguese regime refused to recognize Indian sovereignty over the annexed territories, which continued to be represented in Portugal's National Assembly until the military coup of 1974. Also in the early 1960s, independence movements in the Portuguese overseas provinces of Angola, Mozambique and Guinea in Africa, resulted in the Portuguese Colonial War (19611974), that would only end in 1974 after a military coup in Lisbon the Carnation Revolution.

[edit] Carnation Revolution

Main article: Carnation Revolution

Antnio Oliveira Salazar Prime Minister (19321968) and founder of the Estado Novo regime. Throughout the colonial war period Portugal had to deal with increasing dissent, arms embargoes and other punitive sanctions imposed by most of the international community. However, the authoritarian and conservative Estado Novo regime, firstly installed and governed by Antnio de Oliveira Salazar and from 1968 onwards led by Marcelo Caetano, tried to preserve a vast centuries-long intercontinental empire with a total area of 2,168,071 km2.[24] The Portuguese government and army successfully resisted the decolonization of its overseas territories until April 1974, when a bloodless left-wing military coup in Lisbon, known as the Carnation Revolution, led the way for the independence of the overseas territories in Africa and Asia, as well as for the restoration of democracy after two years of a transitional period known as PREC (Processo Revolucionrio Em Curso, or On-Going Revolutionary Process). This period was characterized by social turmoil and power disputes between left- and right-wing political forces. Some factions, including lvaro Cunhal's Portuguese Communist Party (PCP), unsuccessfully tried to turn the country into a communist state. The retreat from the overseas territories and the acceptance of its independence terms by Portuguese head representatives for overseas negotiations, which would create independent states in 1975 (most notably the People's Republic of Angola and the People's Republic of Mozambique), prompted a mass exodus of Portuguese citizens from Portugal's African territories (mostly from Portuguese Angola and Mozambique).[25][26]

Mrio Soares, Prime Minister of Portugal from 1976 to 1978 and from 1983 to 1985 and President of the Portuguese Republic from 1986 to 1996. Over a million destitute Portuguese refugees fled the former Portuguese colonies. Mrio Soares and Antnio de Almeida Santos were charged with organising the independence of Portugal's overseas territories. By 1975, all the Portuguese African territories were independent and Portugal held its first democratic elections in 50 years. However, the country continued to be governed by a military-civilian provisional administration until the Portuguese legislative election of 1976 that took place on 25 April, exactly one year after the previous election, and two years after the Carnation Revolution. It was won by the Portuguese Socialist Party (PS) and Mrio Soares, its leader, became Prime Minister of the 1st Constitutional Government on 23 July. Mrio Soares would be Prime Minister from 1976 to 1978 and again from 1983 to 1985. In this capacity Soares tried to resume the economic growth and development record that had been achieved before the Carnation Revolution, during the last decade of the previous regime. On the other hand, he initiated the process of adhesion to the European Economic Community (EEC) by starting adhesion negotiations as early as 1977. However, the country bounced between socialism and adherence to the neoliberal model. Land reform and nationalizations were enforced; the Portuguese Constitution (approved in 1976) was rewritten in order to accommodate socialist and communist principles. Until the constitutional revisions of 1982 and 1989, the constitution was a highly charged ideological document with numerous references to socialism, the rights of workers, and the desirability of a socialist economy. Portugal's economic situation after its transition to democracy, obliged the government to pursue International Monetary Fund (IMF)-monitored stabilization programs in 197778 and 198385.

[edit] European integration

Main articles: Portuguese transition to democracy, European Union, Eurozone, and Schengen Area

The Treaty of Lisbon was signed by the European Union member states on 13 December 2007 in the Jernimos Monastery, Lisbon. In 1986, Portugal joined the European Economic Community (EEC) that later became the European Union (EU). In the following years Portugal's economy progressed considerably as result of EEC/EU structural and cohesion funds and Portuguese companies' easier access to foreign markets. Portugal's last overseas territory, Macau, was not handed over to the People's Republic of China (PRC) until 1999, under the 1987 joint declaration that set the terms for Macau's handover from Portugal to the PRC. In 2002, the independence of East Timor (Asia) was formally recognized by Portugal, after an incomplete decolonization process that was started in 1975 because of the Carnation Revolution. On 26 March 1995, Portugal started to implement Schengen Area rules, eliminating border controls with other Schengen members while simultaneously strengthening border controls with non-member states. In 1996 the country was a co-founder of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP) headquartered in Lisbon. Expo '98 took place in Portugal and in 1999 it was one of the founding countries of the euro and the Eurozone. On 5 July 2004, Jos Manuel Barroso, then Prime Minister of Portugal, was nominated President of the European Commission, the most powerful office in the European Union. On 1 December 2009, the Treaty of Lisbon entered into force, after had been signed by the European Union member states on 13 December 2007 in the Jernimos Monastery, in Lisbon, enhancing the efficiency and democratic legitimacy of the Union and improving the coherence of its action. Economic disruption in the wake of the late-2000s financial crisis led the country to negotiate in 2011 with the IMF and the European Union, through the European Financial Stability Mechanism (EFSM) and the European Financial Stability Facility (EFSF), a loan to help the country stabilise its finances.

[edit] Geography

Mount Pico, the highest peak in Portugal, on the volcanic island of Pico in the Azores. The blue-green lakes of the Lagoa das Sete Cidades within the Sete Cidades Massif on the island of So Miguel, Azores. The territory of Portugal includes an area in the Iberian Peninsula (referred to as the continent by most Portuguese) and two archipelagos in the Atlantic Ocean: the archipelagos of Madeira and the Azores. It lies between latitudes 32 and 43 N, and longitudes 32 and 6 W. Mainland Portugal is split by its main river, the Tagus that flows from Spain and disgorges in Tagus Estuary, near Lisbon, before escaping into the Atlantic. The northern landscape is mountainous towards the interior with several plateaus indented by river valleys, whereas the south, that includes the Algarve and the Alentejo regions, is characterized by rolling plains. Portugal's highest peak is the similarly named Mount Pico on the island of Pico in the Azores. This ancient volcano, which measures 2,351 m (7,713 ft) is a highly iconic symbol of the Azores, while the Serra da Estrela on the mainland (the summit being 1,991 m (6,532 ft) above sea level) is an important seasonal attraction for skiers and winter sports enthusiasts. The archipelagos of Madeira and the Azores are scattered within the Atlantic Ocean: the Azores straddling the Mid-Atlantic Ridge on a tectonic triple junction, and Madeira along a range formed by in-plate hotspot geology (much like the Hawaiian Islands). Geologically, these islands were formed by volcanic and seismic events, although the last terrestrial volcanic eruption occurred in 195758 (Capelinhos) and minor earthquakes occur sporadically, usually of low intensity. Portugal's Exclusive Economic Zone, a sea zone over which the Portuguese have special rights over the exploration and use of marine resources, has 1,727,408 km2. This is the 3rd largest Exclusive Economic Zone of the European Union and the 11th largest in the world.

[edit] Climate

Cork oak tree in a wheat field, an iconic image of the Alentejo.

Praia Dona Ana in Lagos, a coastal beach typical of the Algarve.

A view of Serra da Estrela, the highest range on the mainland.

The terraced hills of the wine-making region of the Douro Valley. Portugal is defined as a Mediterranean climate (Csa in the south, interior, and Douro region; Csb in the north, centre and coastal Alentejo; and also Semi-arid climate or Steppe climate (Bsk in certain parts of Beja district) according to the Koppen-Geiger Climate Classification), and is one of the warmest European countries: the annual average temperature in mainland Portugal varies from 12 C (53.6 F) in the mountainous interior north to over 18 C (64.4 F) in the south and on the Guadiana river basin. The Algarve, separated from the Alentejo region by mountains reaching

up to 900 metres in Pico da Foia, has a climate similar to that of the southern coastal areas of Spain or Southern California. Annual average rainfall in the mainland varies from just over 3,000 mm (118.1 in) in the northern mountains to less than 300 mm (11.8 in) in the area of the Massueime River, near Ca, along the Douro river. Mount Pico is recognized as receiving the largest annual rainfall (over 6,250 mm (246.1 in) per year) in Portugal, according to Instituto de Meteorologia (English: Portuguese Meteorological Institute).[27] In some areas, such as the Guadiana basin, annual average temperatures can be as high as 20 C (68 F), but summer highest temperatures may be over 45 C (113 F) .[28] The record high of 47.4 C (117.3 F) was recorded in Amareleja, although this might not be the hottest spot in summer, according to satellite readings.[29] Snowfalls occur regularly in the interior North and Center of the country in particular in the districts of Vila Real, Bragana, Viseu and Guarda. In winter temperatures may drop below 10 C (14.0 F) in particular in Serra da Estrela, Serra do Gers and Serra de Montesinho. In these places snow can fall any time from October to May. In the south of the country snowfalls are rare but still occur in the highest elevations. The country has around 2500 to 3200 hours of sunshine a year, an average of 46 h in winter and 1012 h in the summer, with higher values in the southeast and lower in the northwest. The sea surface temperature on the west coast of mainland Portugal varies from 13 C (55.4 F)-15 C (59.0 F) in winter to 18 C (64.4 F)-20 C (68.0 F) in the summer while on the south coast it ranges from 15 C (59.0 F) in Winter and rises in the summer to about 23 C (73.4 F) occasionally reaching 26 C (78.8 F). Both the archipelagos of the Azores and Madeira have a subtropical climate, although variations between islands exist, making weather predictions very difficult (owing to rough topography). The Madeira and Azorean archipelagos have a narrower temperature range, with annual average temperatures exceeding 20 C (68 F) along the coast (according to the Portuguese Meteorological Institute). Some islands in Azores do have drier months in the summer. Consequently, the island of the Azores have been identified as having a Mediterranean climate (both Csa and Csb types), while some islands (such as Flores or Corvo) are classified as Maritime Temperate (Cfb) or Humid subtropical (Cfa), respectively, according to Koppen-Geiger classification. Porto Santo island in Madeira has a semi-arid Steppe climate (BSh). The Savage Islands, which are part of the regional territory of Madeira are unique in being classified as a Desert climates (BWh) with an annual average rainfall of approximately 150 mm (5.9 in). The sea surface temperature in the archipelagos varies from 17 C (62.6 F)-18 C (64.4 F) in winter to 24 C (75.2 F)-25 C (77.0 F) in the summer occasionally reaching 26 C (78.8 F).

[edit] Biodiversity
Owing to humans occupying the territory of Portugal for thousands of years, little is left of the original vegetation. Protected areas of Portugal include one national park (Portuguese: Parque Nacional), 12 natural parks (Portuguese: Parque Natural), nine

natural reserves (Portuguese: Reserva Natural), five natural monuments (Portuguese: Monumento Natural), and seven protected landscapes (Portuguese: Paisagem Protegida), which include the Parque Nacional da Peneda-Gers, the Parque Natural da Serra da Estrela and the Paul de Arzila. These natural environments are shaped by diverse flora, and include widespread species of pine (especially the Pinus pinaster and Pinus pinea species), the chestnut (Castanea sativa), the cork-oak (Quercus suber), the holm oak (Quercus ilex), the Portuguese oak (Quercus faginea), and eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus). All are prized for their economic value. Laurisilva is a unique type of subtropical rainforest found in few areas of Europe and the world: in the Azores, and in particular on the island of Madeira, there are large forests of endemic Laurisilva forests (the latter protected as a natural heritage preserve). There are several species of diverse mammalian fauna, including the fox, badger, Iberian lynx, Iberian Wolf, wild goat (Capra pyrenaica), wild cat (Felis silvestris), hare, weasel, polecat, chameleon, mongoose, civet, brown bear[citation needed] (spotted near Rio Minho, close to Peneda-Gers) and many others. Portugal is an important stopover for migratory birds, in places such as Cape St. Vincent or the Monchique mountain, where thousands of birds cross from Europe to Africa during the autumn or in the spring (return migration). Most of the avian species congregate along the Iberian Peninsula since it is the closest stopover between northern Europe and Africa. Six hundred bird species occur in Portugal (either for nesting or during the course of migration), and annually there are new registries of nesting species. The archipelagos of the Azores and Madeira are transient stopover for American, European, and African birds, while continental Portugal mostly encounters European and African bird species. There are over 100 varieties of freshwater fish species, varying from the giant European catfish (in the Tagus International Natural Park) to some small and endemic species that live only in small lakes (along the western lakes for example). Some of these rare and specific species are highly endangered because of habitat loss, pollution and drought. Upwelling along the west coast of Portugal makes the sea extremely rich in nutrients and diverse species of marine fish; the Portuguese marine waters are one of the richest in the world. Marine fish species are more common, and include thousands of species, such as the sardine (Sardina pilchardus), tuna and Atlantic mackerel. Bioluminescent species are also well represented (including species in different colour spectrum and forms), like the glowing plankton that are possible to observe in some beaches. There are many endemic insect species, most only found in certain parts of Portugal, while other species are more widespread like the stag beetle (Lucanus cervus) and the cicada. The Macronesian islands (Azores and Madeira) have many endemic species (like birds, reptiles, bats, insects, snails and slugs) that evolved independent from other regions of Portugal. In Madeira, for example, it is possible to observe more than 250 species of land gastropods.

[edit] Government
Main articles: Government of Portugal and Politics of Portugal

Anbal Cavaco Silva is the current President of Portugal.

Pedro Passos Coelho is the current Prime Minister. Portugal has been a democratic republic since the ratification of the Constitution of 1976, with Lisbon, the nation's largest city, as its capital. The constitution grants the division, or separation, of powers among legislative, executive, and judicial branches. The four main institutions as described in this constitution are the President of the Republic, the Parliament, known as the Assembleia da Repblica (English: Assembly of the Republic), the Government, headed by a Prime Minister, and the courts. The President, who is elected to a five-year term, has a supervisory non-executive role: the current President is Anbal Cavaco Silva. The Parliament is a chamber composed of 230 deputies elected for a four-year term. The government, whose head is the Prime Minister (currently Pedro Passos Coelho), chooses a Council of Ministers, that comprises the Ministers and State Secretaries. The courts are organized into several levels: judicial, administrative, and fiscal branches. The Supreme Courts are institutions of last resort/appeal. A thirteen-member Constitutional Court oversees the constitutionality of the laws.

Portugal operates a multi-party system of competitive legislatures/local administrative governments at the national-, regional- and local-levels. The Legislative Assembly, Regional Assemblies and local municipalities and/or parishes, are dominated by two political parties, the Socialist Party and the Social Democratic Party, in addition to the Unitarian Democratic Coalition (Portuguese Communist Party plus Ecologist Party "The Greens"), the Left Bloc and the Democratic and Social Centre People's Party, which garner between 5 and 15% of the vote regularly.

[edit] Executive branch

The President, elected to a five-year term by direct, universal suffrage, is also Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces. Presidential powers include the appointment of the Prime Minister and Council of Ministers (where the President is obligated by the results from Legislative Elections); dismissing the Prime Minister; dissolving the Assembly (to call early elections); vetoing legislation (which may be overridden by the Assembly); and declaring a State of War or siege. The President is advised on issues of importance by the Council of State, which is composed of six senior civilian officers, any former Presidents elected under the 1976 Constitution, five-members chosen by the Assembly, and five selected by the president. The Government is headed by the presidentially-appointed Prime Minister, who names a Council of Ministers to act as the government and cabinet. Each government is required to define the broad outline of its policies in a program, and present it to the Assembly for a mandatory period of debate. The failure of the Assembly to reject the program by a majority of deputies confirms the government in office.

[edit] Legislative branch

The Assembly of the Republic is a unicameral body composed of up to 230 deputies. Elected by universal suffrage according to a system of proportional representation, deputies serve four-year terms of office, unless the President dissolves the Assembly and calls for new elections.

[edit] Law and criminal justice

Main articles: Law of Portugal, Law enforcement in Portugal, Crime in Portugal, and Drug policy of Portugal The Portuguese legal system is part of the civil law legal system, also called the continental family legal system. Until the end of the 19th century, French law was the main influence. Since then, the major influence has been German law. The main laws include the Constitution (1976, as amended), the Civil Code (1966, as amended) and the Penal Code (1982, as amended). Other relevant laws are the Commercial Code (1888, as amended) and the Civil Procedure Code (1961, as amended). Portuguese law applied in the former colonies and territories and continues to be the major influence for those countries. Portugal's main police organizations are the Guarda Nacional Republicana GNR (National Republican Guard), a gendarmerie;

the Polcia de Segurana Pblica PSP (Public Security Police), a civilian police force who work in urban areas; and the Polcia Judiciria PJ (Judicial Police), a highly specialized criminal investigation police that is overseen by the Public Ministry. Portugal was one of the first countries in the world to abolish the death penalty. Maximum jail sentences are limited to 25 years. Portugal has arguably the most liberal laws concerning possession of illicit drugs in the Western world. In 2001 Portugal decriminalized possession of effectively all drugs that are still illegal in other developed nations including, but not limited to, marijuana, cocaine, heroin, and LSD. While possession is legal, trafficking and possession of more than "10 days worth of personal use" are still punishable by jail time and fines. People caught with small amounts of any drug are given the choice to go to a rehab facility, and may refuse treatment without consequences. Despite criticism from other European nations, who stated Portugal's drug consumption would tremendously increase, overall drug use rose only slightly, whilst use among teenagers dropped, along with the number of HIV infection cases, which had dropped 50% by 2009.[30][31] On 31 May 2010, Portugal became the sixth country in Europe and the eighth country in the world to legally recognize same-sex marriage on the national level. The law came into force on 5 June 2010.[32]

[edit] Administrative divisions

Main article: Administrative divisions of Portugal Administratively, Portugal is divided into 308 municipalities (Portuguese: municpios or concelhos), which are subdivided into 4260 civil parishes (Portuguese: freguesia). Operationally, the municipality and civil parish, along with the national government, are the only legally identifiable local administrative units identified by the government of Portugal (for example, cities, towns or villages have no standing in law, although may be used as catchment for the defining services). For statistical purposes the Portuguese government also identifies NUTS, inter-municipal communities and informally, the district system, used until European integration (and being phased-out by the national government). Continental Portugal is agglomerated into 18 districts, while the archipelagos of the Azores and Madeira are governed as autonomous regions; the largest units, established since 1976, are either mainland Portugal (Portuguese: Portugal Continental) and the autonomous regions of Portugal (Azores and Madeira). The 18 districts of mainland Portugal are: Aveiro, Beja, Braga, Bragana, Castelo Branco, Coimbra, vora, Faro, Guarda, Leiria, Lisbon, Portalegre, Porto, Santarm, Setbal, Viana do Castelo, Vila Real and Viseu each district takes the name of the district capital. Within the European Union NUTS (Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics) system, Portugal is divided into seven regions: the Azores, Alentejo, Algarve, Centro,

Lisboa, Madeira and Norte, and with the exception of the Azores and Madeira, these NUTS areas are subdivided into 28 subregions.

Districts[33]
District 1 Lisbon Area Population District 10 Guarda Area Population 2,761 km2 (1,066 sq 2,250,382 mi) 3,517 km2 (1,358 sq 470,895 mi) 5,518 km2 160,925 (2,131 sq mi) 3,947 km2 429,987 (1,524 sq mi) 2,808 km2 714,218 (1,084 sq mi) 5,007 km2 377,629 (1,933 sq mi)

2 Leiria

11 Coimbra

6,747 km2 3 Santarm (2,605 sq 453,633 mi) 5,064 km2 (1,955 sq 851,232 mi) 10,225 km2 (3,948 sq mi)

12 Aveiro

4 Setbal

13 Viseu

5 Beja

152,728

6,608 km2 14 Bragana 136,252 (2,551 sq mi) 4,328 km2 15 Vila Real 206,661 (1,671 sq mi) 16 Porto 2,395 km2 (925 1,817,119 sq mi) 2,673 km2 848,165 (1,032 sq mi) 2,255 km2 (871 sq mi) 244,826

6 Faro

4,960 km2 (1,915 sq 451,005 mi) 7,393 km2 (2,854 sq 166,706 mi)

7 vora

6,065 km2 8 Portalegre (2,342 sq 118,448 mi) Castelo 9 Branco 6,675 km2 (2,577 sq 196,262 mi)

17 Braga

18

Viana do Castelo

Autonomous Regions
Autonomous Region Azores Madeira Area Population 2 2,333 km (901 sq 246,746 mi) 801 km2 (309 sq mi) 267,785 Demonym Azorean Madeiran

[edit] Foreign relations

Main article: Foreign relations of Portugal

The disputed territory of Olivena A member state of the United Nations since 1955, Portugal is also a founding member of NATO (1949), OECD (1961) and EFTA (1960); it left the latter in 1986 to join the European Economic Community, that would become the European Union in 1993. In 1996 it co-founded the Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP), which seeks to foster closer economic and cultural ties between the world's Lusophone nations. In addition, Portugal is a full member of the Latin Union (1983) and the Organization of Ibero-American States (1949). It has a friendship alliance and dual citizenship treaty with its former colony, Brazil. Portugal and England (subsequently, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland) share the world's oldest active military accord through their Anglo-Portuguese Alliance (Treaty of Windsor), which was signed in 1373. There are two international territorial disputes, both with Spain: Olivenza. Under Portuguese sovereignty since 1297, the municipality of Olivenza was ceded to Spain under the Treaty of Badajoz in 1801, after the War of the Oranges. Portugal claimed it back in 1815 under the Treaty of Vienna. However, since the 19th century, it has been continuously and peacefully ruled by Spain which considers the territory not only de facto but also de jure as an integral part of Spain. The Savage Islands are a small uninhabited archipelago in the Atlantic Ocean, more or less midway between Madeira and Canary Islands The archipelago consists of two small rocky and inhospitable islands and some isolated rocks. The archipelago's total area is 273 hectares. The archipelago is under Portuguese domination, but it is geographically closer to the Canary Islands (165 km) than in Madeira (280 km). Over time there have been several periods of political and military tension between Portugal and Spain because of the islands. Found in 1364 by Italian navigators, the islands had belonged to private Portuguese owners until 1971, when the Portuguese government bought the islands and created a nature reserve covering its entire territory. However, the islands are claimed by Spain since 1911. Since 1971 until 1976, three Spanish vessels were seized by Portugal. From 1996 until 1997, there have been several low altitude flybys by Spanish fighters and an landing on Selvagem Grande Island by a Spanish Air Force helicopter. On June 23, 2005, four Spanish

fishing boats were captured near the islands. On 2007, a Spanish fighter flew again at low altitude over the islands.

[edit] Military
Main article: Portuguese Armed Forces Branches of the Portuguese Armed Forces

Portuguese Air Force F-16 Fighting Falcon Portuguese Army Chaimite V-200 Portuguese Navy MEKO-200 PN

The armed forces have three branches: Navy, Army and Air Force. They serve primarily as a self-defense force whose mission is to protect the territorial integrity of the country and provide humanitarian assistance and security at home and abroad. As of 2008, the three branches numbered 39,200 active personnel including 7,500 women. Portuguese military expenditure in 2009 was $5.2 billion, representing 2.1 percent of GDP. Military conscription was abolished in 2004. The minimum age for voluntary recruitment is 18 years. The Army (21,000 personnel) comprises three brigades and other small units. An infantry brigade (mainly equipped with Pandur II APC), a mechanized brigade (mainly equipped with Leopard 2 A6 tanks and M113 APC) and a Rapid Reaction Brigade (consisting of paratroopers, commandos and rangers). The Navy (10,700 personnel, of which 1,580 are marines) has five frigates, two submarines, and 28 patrol and auxiliary vessels. The Air Force (7,500 personnel) has the Lockheed F-16 Fighting Falcon and the Dassault/Dornier Alpha Jet as the main combat aircraft. In addition to the three branches of the armed forces, there is the National Republican Guard, a security force subject to military law and organization (gendarmerie) comprising 25,000 personnel. This force is under the authority of both the Defense and the Interior Ministry. It has provided detachments for participation in international operations in Iraq and East Timor. The United States maintains a military presence with 770 troops in the Lajes Air Base at Terceira Island, in the Azores. The Allied Joint Force Command Lisbon (JFC Lisbon) one of the three main subdivisions of NATO's Allied Command Operations it is based in Oeiras, near Lisbon. In the 20th century, Portugal engaged in two major military interventions: World War I and the Portuguese Colonial War (19611974). After the end of the Portuguese Empire in 1975, the Portuguese Armed Forces have participated in peacekeeping missions in East Timor, Bosnia, Kosovo, Afghanistan, Somalia, Iraq (Nasiriyah) and Lebanon. Portugal also conducted several independent unilateral military operations

abroad, as were the cases of the interventions of the Portuguese Armed Forces in Angola in 1992 and in Guinea-Bissau in 1998 with the main objectives of protecting and withdrawing of Portuguese and foreign citizens threatened by local civil conflicts.

[edit] Economy
Main articles: Economy of Portugal and Economic history of Portugal Since the Carnation Revolution (1974) which culminated with the end of one of its most notable phases of economic expansion (that started in the 1960s),[34] there has been a significant change in annual economic growth. After the turmoil of the 1974 revolution and the PREC period, Portugal has been trying to adapt itself to a changing modern global economy. Since the 1990s, Portugal's economic development model has been slowly changing from one based on public consumption to one focused on exports, private investment, and development of the high-tech sector. Business services have overtaken more traditional industries such as textiles, clothing, footwear, cork (of which Portugal is the world's leading producer),[35] wood products and beverages.[36] Most industry, business and finance are concentrated in Lisbon and Porto metropolitan areas. The districts of Aveiro, Braga, Coimbra, and Leiria are the biggest economic centres outside those two main metropolitan areas. The Portuguese currency is the euro () and the country's economy is in the Eurozone since its starting. Portugal's central bank is the Banco de Portugal, which is an integral part of the European System of Central Banks.

[edit] Sectors
[edit] Primary sector Main articles: Agriculture in Portugal, Fishing in Portugal, and Mining in Portugal

Most of Portugal's farms have a small area devoted to a diversified intensive farming, like these in the Oeste subregion. Agriculture in Portugal is based on small to medium-sized family-owned dispersed units. However, the sector also includes larger scale intensive farming export-oriented agrobusinesses backed by companies (like Grupo RAR's Vitacress, Sovena, Lactogal, Vale da Rosa, Companhia das Lezrias and Valouro). The country produces a wide variety of crops and livestock products, including green vegetables, rice, corn, barley,

olives, oilseeds, nuts, cherries, bilberry, table grapes, edible mushrooms, dairy products, poultry and beef. Forestry has also played an important economic role among the rural communities and industry (namely paper industry that includes Portucel Soporcel Group, engineered wood that includes Sonae Indstria, and furniture that includes several manufacturing plants in and around Paos de Ferreira, the core of Portugal's major industrial operations of IKEA). In 2001, the gross agricultural product accounted for 4% of the national GDP. Traditionally a sea-power, Portugal has had a strong tradition in the Portuguese fishing sector and is one of the countries with the highest fish consumption per capita.[37] The main landing sites in Portugal (including Azores and Madeira), according to total landings in weight by year, are the harbours of Matosinhos, Peniche, Olho, Sesimbra, Figueira da Foz, Sines, Portimo and Madeira. Portuguese processed fish products are exported through several companies under a number of different brands and registered trademarks like Ramirez, the Worlds oldest canned fish producer still in operation, Bom Petisco, Nero, Combate, Comur, General, Lder, Mann, Murtosa, Pescador, Pitu, Tenrio, Torreira, Vasco da Gama, etc. Portugal is a significant European minerals producer and is ranked among Europe's leading copper producers. It is also a noted producer of tin, tungsten and uranium. However, the country lacks hydrocarbon exploration potential, as well as iron, aluminium and coal deposits, a feature that has hindered its mining and metallurgy sector's development. The Panasqueira and Neves-Corvo mines are among the most noted Portuguese mines in operation. [edit] Secondary sector Industry is diversified, ranging from automobile (Volkswagen Autoeuropa, Peugeot Citroen), aerospace (Embraer), electronics and textiles, to food, chemicals, cement and wood pulp. Volkswagen Group's AutoEuropa motor vehicle assembly plant in Palmela is among the largest foreign direct investment projects in Portugal. Modern non-traditional technology-based industries like aerospace, biotechnology and information technology, have been developed in several locations across the country. Alverca, Covilh,[38] vora,[39] and Ponte de Sor are the main centres of Portuguese aerospace industry, which is led by Brazil-based company Embraer and the Portuguese company OGMA. Since after the turn of the 21st century, many major biotechnology and information technology industries have been founded and are concentrated in the metropolitan areas of Lisbon, Porto, Braga, Coimbra and Aveiro. [edit] Tertiary sector

Marina beach in Vilamoura, Algarve.

Oeiras Municipality, in Lisbon Metropolitan Area, is home of many of the headquarters of multinational companies operating in Portugal.

Parque das Naes, one of Lisbon's financial centres.

Thermal Power Plant in Carregado, near Lisbon. Travel and tourism continues to become extremely important for Portugal, with visitor numbers forecast to increase significantly over the next years. However, there is increasing competition from Eastern European destinations such as Croatia who offer similar attractions, which are often cheaper. Consequently, the country is almost

obligated to focus on its niche attractions such as health, nature and rural tourism in order to stay ahead of its competitors.[40] The banking and insurance sectors performed well until the late-2000s financial crisis, partly reflecting a rapid deepening of the market in Portugal. While sensitive to various types of market and underwriting risks, both the life and non-life sectors, overall, are estimated to be able to withstand a number of severe shocks, even though the impact on individual insurers varies widely.[41]

[edit] State-owned companies

Major State-owned companies include guas de Portugal (water), ANA (airports), Caixa Geral de Depsitos (banking), Comboios de Portugal (railways), Companhia das Lezrias (agriculture), CTT (postal services), RTP (media) and TAP Portugal (airline). Some of the former are managed by state-run holding company Parpblica, which is a shareholder of several companies, both public and private.

[edit] Listed companies

Companies listed on Euronext Lisbon stock exchange like EDP, Cimpor, Corticeira Amorim, Galp, Jernimo Martins, Millennium bcp, Portucel Soporcel, Portugal Telecom and Sonae, are among the largest corporations of Portugal by number of employees, net income or international market share. The Euronext Lisbon is the major stock exchange of Portugal and is part of the NYSE Euronext, the first global stock exchange. The PSI-20 is Portugal's most selective and widely known stock index.

[edit] Performance
The Global Competitiveness Report for 2005, published by the World Economic Forum, placed Portugal's competitiveness in the 22nd position, but the 20082009 edition placed Portugal in the 43rd position out of 134 countries and territories.[42] Research about quality of life by the Economist Intelligence Unit's quality of life survey placed Portugal as the country with the 19th-best quality of life in the world for 2005, ahead of other economically and technologically advanced countries like France, Germany, the United Kingdom and South Korea, but 9 places behind its only neighbour, Spain.[43] This is despite the fact that Portugal remains the country with the lowest per capita GDP in Western Europe.[44] The poor performance of the Portuguese economy was explored in April 2007 by The Economist, which described Portugal as "a new sick man of Europe".[45] From 2002 to 2007, the unemployment rate increased by 65% (270,500 unemployed citizens in 2002, 448,600 unemployed citizens in 2007).[46] By early December 2009, unemployment had reached 10.2% a 23-year record high. In December 2009, ratings agency Standard and Poor's lowered its long-term credit assessment of Portugal to "negative" from "stable," voicing pessimism on the country's structural weaknesses in the economy and weak competitiveness that would hamper growth and the capacity to strengthen its public finances and reduce debt.[47] In July 2011, ratings agency Moody's downgraded its long-term credit assessment of Portugal after warning of deteriorating risk of default in March 2011.[48]

Corruption has become an issue of major political and economic significance for the country. Some cases are well known and were widely reported in the media, such as the affairs in several municipalities involving local town hall officials and businesspersons, as well as a number of politicians with wider responsibilities and power.[49][50] Nevertheless the Transparency International report for 2010 places Portugal in 31st position in terms of perceived corruption, just below Israel and Spain, and 34 positions above Italy.[51] A report published in January 2011 by the Dirio de Notcias, a leading Portuguese newspaper, demonstrated that in the period between the Carnation Revolution in 1974 and 2010, the democratic Portuguese Republic governments encouraged over expenditure and investment bubbles through unclear public-private partnerships. This funded numerous ineffective and unnecessary external consultancy and advising committees and firms, allowed considerable slippage in state-managed public works, inflated top management and head officers' bonuses and wages, causing a persistent and lasting recruitment policy that boosted the number of redundant public servants. The economy was also damaged by risky credit, public debt creation and mismanaged European structural and cohesion funds for almost four decades. Apparently, the Prime Minister Scrates's cabinet was not able to forecast or prevent any of this when symptoms first appeared in 2005, and in 2011 the country was on the verge of bankruptcy.[52] If analysed under a wider time span, the convergence of the Portuguese economy to EU levels has been impressive, especially from 1986 to the early 2000s (decade).[53][54] According to Barry (2003), "what appears to have been crucial in the Portuguese case, relative to Spain at least, is the degree of labour-market flexibility that the economy exhibits. (...) Thus Portuguese convergence has been impressive, even though, consistent with its relatively low human-capital stock, the economy has specialised in low-tech production."[54] On April 6, 2011 Prime Minister Jos Scrates announced on national television that the country would request financial assistance from the IMF and the European Financial Stability Facility, like Greece and the Republic of Ireland had done before. It was the third time that external financial aid was requested to the IMF the first was in the late 1970s following the Carnation Revolution. In October 2011, Moody's Analytics downgraded nine Portuguese banks, blaming financial weakness.[55]

[edit] Labour market

Although a developed country and a high income country, Portugal has the lowest GDP per capita in Western Europe and its population has one of the lowest incomes per head among member states of the European Union. According to Eurostat, in 2009, Portugal's GDP per capita stood at 80% of the EU27 average,[56] the 10th lowest in the Union. The average wage in Portugal is 1,039 per month (net),[57] and the minimum wage, which is regulated/ref by law, is 485 per month. Officially, in 2008 the unemployment rate decreased to 7.3% in the second quarter of 2008.[58] However, it

immediately rose again to higher rates. Influenced by events worldwide, by December 2009, unemployment had surpassed the 10% mark nationwide, by 2010, it was about 11%, and in 2011 it was above 12%. As of March 2012, the unemployment rate is at 14.8%.

[edit] Tourism
Main article: Tourism in Portugal

The Pena National Palace in Sintra is a World Heritage Site and one of Portugal's most visited landmarks Portugal is among the 20 most visited countries in the world, receiving an average of 13 million foreign tourists each year.[59] Tourism is playing an increasingly important role in Portugal's economy, contributing to about 5% of its Gross Domestic Product (GDP).[citation needed] Tourist hotspots in Portugal are Lisbon, Algarve and Madeira, but the Portuguese government continues to promote and develop new tourist destinations, such as the Douro Valley, the island of Porto Santo, and Alentejo. Lisbon is, after Barcelona, the European city which attracts the most tourists (with seven million tourists occupying the city's hotels in 2006, a number that grew 11.8% compared to previous year).[60] Lisbon in recent years surpassed the Algarve as the leading tourist region in Portugal. Porto and Northern Portugal, especially the urban areas north of Douro River valley, was the tourist destination which grew most (11.9%) in 2006, surpassing Madeira (in 2010), as the third most visited destination.[citation needed]

Almourol Castle, a Knights Templar stronghold used during the Christian Reconquista of Iberia from the Muslim Moors

Most tourists in Portugal are British-, Spanish- or German-origin visitors, travel by low cost airliners, and not only seek sun and beaches, but increasingly search for cultural, gastronomic, environmental or nautical experiences (or travel for reasons of business).[citation needed] [edit] Tourist regions The main tourist regions can be broken-down into (by order of importance): the Greater Lisbon (Portuguese: Lisboa), the Algarve, Greater Porto and Northern Portugal (Portuguese: Porto and Norte), the Portuguese Islands (Portuguese: Ilhas Portuguesas: Madeira and Azores), and Alentejo. Other tourist regions include Douro Sul, Templrios, Do-Lafes, Costa do Sol, Costa Azul, Plancie Dourada, that are unknown to many tourists or visitors.[citation needed] Most of these regions are grouped in tourism reference areas, which continue to be in a state of reorganization and evolution, some based on the traditional regions of Portugal: the Costa Verde (Green Coast); Costa da Prata (Silver Coast)); Costa de Lisboa (Lisbon Coast); Montanhas (Mountains); Plancies (Plains); Algarve; and the islands of the archipelagos of Madeira and the Azores.[citation needed]

[edit] Transport
Main articles: Transport in Portugal and Rail transport in Portugal

Porto Metro light rail.

The Orient Station (Gare do Oriente), Lisbon. By the early 1970s Portugal's fast economic growth with increasing consumption and purchase of new automobiles set the priority for improvements in transportation. Again in the 1990s, after joining the European Economic Community, the country built many new motorways. Today, the country has a 68,732 km (42,708 mi) road

network, of which almost 3,000 km (1,864 mi) are part of system of 44 motorways. Opened in 1944, the first motorway (which linked Lisbon to the National Stadium) was an innovative project that made Portugal among one of the first countries in the world to establish a motorway (this roadway eventually became the Lisbon-Cascais highway, or A5). But, although a few other tracts were created (around 1960 and 1970), it was only after the beginning of the 1980s that large-scale motorway construction was implemented. In 1972, Brisa, the highway concessionaire, was founded to handle the management of many of the regions motorways. On many highways, toll needs to be paid, see Via Verde.

Vasco da Gama Bridge, over the Tagus River, is the longest bridge in Europe.[61][62] Vasco da Gama bridge is the longest bridge in Europe.[63][64] Continental Portugal's 89,015 km2 (34,369 sq mi) territory is serviced by three international airports located near the principal cities of Lisbon, Porto, Faro and Beja. Lisbon's geographical position makes it a stopover for many foreign airlines at several airports within the country. The primary flag-carrier is TAP Portugal, although many other domestic airlines provide services within and without the country. The government decided to build a new airport outside Lisbon, in Alcochete, to replace Lisbon Portela Airport. Currently, the most important airports are in Lisbon, Porto, Faro, Funchal (Madeira), and Ponta Delgada (Azores), managed by the national airport authority group ANA Aeroportos de Portugal.

25 April Bridge across the Tagus River. A national railway system that extends throughout the continent and into Spain, is supported and administered by Comboios de Portugal. Rail transport of passengers and goods is derived using the 2,791 km (1,734 mi) of railway lines currently in service, of which 1,430 km (889 mi) are electrified and about 900 km (559 mi) allow

train speeds greater than 120 km/h (75 mph). The railway network is managed by the REFER while the transport of passengers and goods are the responsibility of Caminhos de Ferro Portugueses (CP), both public companies. In 2006 the CP carried 133 million passengers and 9,750,000 t (9,600,000 long tons; 10,700,000 short tons) of goods. The major seaports are located in Leixes, Aveiro, Figueira da Foz, Lisbon, Setbal, Sines and Faro. The two largest metropolitan areas have subway systems: Lisbon Metro and Metro Sul do Tejo in the Lisbon Metropolitan Area and Porto Metro in the Porto Metropolitan Area, each with more than 35 km (22 mi) of lines. In Portugal, Lisbon tram services have been supplied by the Companhia de Carris de Ferro de Lisboa (Carris), for over a century. In Porto, a tram network, of which only a tourist line on the shores of the Douro remain, began construction on 12 September 1895 (a first for the Iberian Peninsula). All major cities and towns have their own local urban transport network, as well as taxi services.

[edit] Science and technology

Main article: Science and technology in Portugal Scientific and technological research activities in Portugal are mainly conducted within a network of R&D units belonging to public universities and state-managed autonomous research institutions like the INETI Instituto Nacional de Engenharia, Tecnologia e Inovao and the INRB Instituto Nacional dos Recursos Biolgicos. The funding and management of this research system is mainly conducted under the authority of the Ministry of Science, Technology and Higher Education (MCTES) itself and the MCTES's Fundao para a Cincia e Tecnologia (FCT). The largest R&D units of the public universities by volume of research grants and peer-reviewed publications, include biosciences research institutions like the Instituto de Medicina Molecular, the Centre for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, the IPATIMUP, the Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular and the Abel Salazar Biomedical Sciences Institute.

Antnio Egas Moniz was a Portuguese neurologist awarded with the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1949. Among the largest non-state-run research institutions in Portugal are the Instituto Gulbenkian de Cincia and the Champalimaud Foundation, a neuroscience and oncology research centre, which in addition awards every year one of the highest monetary prizes of any science prize in the world. A number of both national and multinational high-tech and industrial companies, are also responsible for research and development projects. One of the oldest learned societies of Portugal is the Sciences Academy of Lisbon, founded in 1779. Iberian bilateral state-supported research efforts include the International Iberian Nanotechnology Laboratory and the Ibercivis distributed computing platform, which are joint research programmes of both Portugal and Spain. Portugal is a member of several pan-European scientific organizations. These include the European Space Agency (ESA), the European Laboratory for Particle Physics (CERN), ITER, and the European Southern Observatory (ESO).

The Lisbon Oceanarium by the time of its opening, it was among the largest aquariums in the world. Portugal has the largest aquarium in Europe, the Lisbon Oceanarium, and the Portuguese have several other notable organizations focused on science-related exhibits and divulgation, like the state agency Cincia Viva, a programme of the Portuguese Ministry of Science and Technology to the promotion of a scientific and technological culture among the Portuguese population,[65] the Science Museum of the University of Coimbra, the National Museum of Natural History at the University of Lisbon, and the Visionarium. With the emergence and growth of several science parks throughout the world that helped create many thousands of scientific, technological and knowledge-based businesses, Portugal started to develop several[66] science parks across the country. These include the Taguspark (in Oeiras), the Coimbra iParque (in Coimbra), the biocant (in Cantanhede), the Madeira Tecnopolo[67] (in Funchal), Sines Tecnopolo[68] (in Sines), Tecmaia[69] (in Maia) and Parkurbis[70] (in Covilh). Companies locate in the Portuguese science parks to take advantage of a variety of services ranging from financial and legal advice through to marketing and technological support.

Egas Moniz, a Portuguese physician who developed the cerebral angiography and leucotomy, received in 1949 the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine he is the first Portuguese recipient of a Nobel Prize and the only in the sciences. The European Innovation Scoreboard 2011, placed Portugal-based innovation in the 15th position, with an impressive increase in innovation expenditure and output.[71]

[edit] Energy
Main articles: Energy in Portugal, Nuclear energy in Portugal, and Renewable energy in Portugal

Alqueva Dam, in the Alentejo; the Alqueva project, an irrigation and hydroelectric power generation system, created the largest artificial lake in Western Europe. Portugal has considerable resources of wind and river power, the two most costeffective renewable sources. Since the turn of the 21st century, there has been a trend towards the development of a renewable resource industry and reduction of both consumption and use of fossil fuel resources. In 2006, the world's largest solar power plant at that date, the Moura Photovoltaic Power Station, began operating near Moura, in the south, while the world's first commercial wave power farm, the Aguadoura Wave Farm, opened in the Norte region (2008). By the end of 2006, 66% of the country's electrical production was from coal and fuel power plants, while 29% were derived from hydroelectric dams, and 6% by wind energy.[72] In 2008, renewable energy resource methods began to produce 43% of the nation's consumption of electricity, even as hydroelectric production decreased due to severe droughts.[73] As of June 2010, electricity exports had outnumbered imports. In the period between January and May 2010, 70% of the national production of energy came from renewable sources.[74] Portugals national energy transmission company, Redes Energticas Nacionais (REN), uses sophisticated modeling to predict weather, especially wind patterns, and computer programs to calculate energy from the various renewable-energy plants. Before the solar/wind revolution, Portugal had generated electricity from hydropower plants on its rivers for decades. But new programs combine wind and water: winddriven turbines pump water uphill at night, the most blustery period; then the water flows downhill by day, generating electricity, when consumer demand is highest. Portugals distribution system is also now a two-way street. Instead of just delivering electricity, it draws electricity from even the smallest generators, like rooftop solar

panels. The government aggressively encouraged such contributions by setting a premium price for those who buy rooftop-generated solar electricity.

[edit] Demographics
Main articles: Demographics of Portugal, Immigration to Portugal, and Portuguese people The Instituto Nacional de Estatstica (Portuguese: National Institute of Statistics) estimates that, according to the 2011 census, the population was 10,561,614 (of which 52% was female, 48% was male). This population has been relatively homogeneous for most of its history: a single religion (Catholicism) and a single language have contributed to this ethnic and national unity, namely after the expulsion of the Moors, Moriscos and Sephardi Jews.[75] Native Portuguese are an Iberian ethnic group, whose ancestry is very similar to other Western and Southern Europeans and Mediterranean peoples, in particular Spaniards, with whom they share a common ancestry, history and cultural proximity. The most important demographic influence in the modern Portuguese seems to be the oldest one; current interpretation of Y-chromosome and mtDNA data suggests that the Portuguese have their origin in Paleolithic peoples that began arriving to the European continent around 45,000 years ago. All subsequent migrations did leave an impact, genetically and culturally, but the main population source of the Portuguese is still Paleolithic. Studies of mitochondrial DNA suggest that 7% and 59% of modern Portuguese have some North- and Subsaharan-African ancestry, respectively.[76]

[edit] Urbanization
v t e

Largest cities or towns of Portugal

INE 2011 Census R an k 1 2 Ci ty na m e Re gio n P o p. 547,63 1 237,58 4 186,50 3 R an k 11 12 Ci ty na me Re gio n P o p. 75,179 66,912

Lisbon Lisbon Porto Vila Nova de Gaia Norte

Queluz Lisbon Guimar Norte es Viseu Centro

Norte

13

66,143 Vila Nova

Lisbon

4 5 6 7

Porto

8 9

175,13 5 143,53 Braga Norte 2 111,89 Funcha Madeira 2 l 102,45 Coimb Centro 5 ra Setbal Lisbon 90,640 Amado Lisbon ra Almad Lisbon a Agualv Lisbon aCacm 89,533

14 15 16 17 18 19

Rio Tinto

Norte

64,815 61,752 59,559 49,486 48,629 46,102

de Gaia

Aveiro Centro Odivela s Matosi nhos Amora Ponta Delgad a Lisbon Norte Lisbon Azores

Amadora

10

79,805

20

Portim Algarve 45,431 o

[edit] Metropolitan Areas

Main article: Metropolitan areas of Portugal

Map of Portugal with the representation of population density (no. of inhabitants / km ) by municipality. There are two Greater Metropolitan Areas (GAMs): Lisbon and Porto.[77]
ed

Rank City name

Metro Area

Population[78] Subregion

Population

1 Lisbon

Lisbon

2,821,699 Grande Lisboa

2,042,326

2 Porto

Porto

1,672,664 Grande Porto

1,397,805

3 Braga

Minho

814,083 Cvado

410,149

4 Aveiro

Aveiro

461,819 Baixo Vouga

390,840

5 Faro

Algarve

451,005 Algarve

451,005

6 Coimbra

Coimbra

422,708 Baixo Mondego

332,306

7 Viseu

Viseu

338,229 Do-Lafes

277,216

[edit] Immigration
Main article: Immigration to Portugal Portugal's colonial history has long since been a cornerstone of its national identity, as has its geographic position at the southwestern corner of Europe, looking out into the Atlantic Ocean. It was the last western colonial European powers to give up its overseas territories (among them Angola and Mozambique in 1975), turning over the administration of Macau to the People's Republic of China at the end of 1999. Consequently, it has both influenced and been influenced by cultures from former colonies or dependencies, resulting in immigration from these former territories for both economic and/or personal reasons. Portugal, long a country of emigration (the vast majority of Brazilians have some Portuguese ancestry),[79] has now become a country of net immigration,[80] and not just from the last Indian (Portuguese until 1961), African (Portuguese until 1975), and Far East Asian (Portuguese until 1999) overseas territories. An estimated 800,000 Portuguese returned to Portugal as the country's African possessions gained independence in 1975.[79] By 2007, Portugal had 10,617,575 inhabitants of whom about 332,137 were legal immigrants.[1] Since the 1990s, along with a boom in construction, several new waves of Ukrainian, Brazilian, people from the former Portuguese colonies in Africa and other Africans have settled in the country. Romanians, Moldovans and Chinese have also chosen Portugal as destination. Portugal's Romani population, estimated at about 40,000,[81] offers another element of ethnic diversity. Most Romanis congregate with similar ethnic groups in the southern parts of the country and sell clothing and handicrafts in rural markets. In addition, a number of EU citizens, mostly from the United Kingdom, northern European or Nordic countries, have become permanent residents in the country (with

the British community being mostly composed of retired pensioners and choosing to live in the Algarve and Madeira).[82]

[edit] Religion
Main article: Religion in Portugal

The Sanctuary of Our Lady of Ftima, one of the largest Marian shrines in the world. According to the CIA World Fact Book, 84.5% of the Portuguese population are Roman Catholic while 2.2% follow other Christian faiths.[83] Some 9% of the population are self-declared as non-religious (Zuckerman 2005). In addition, the country has small Protestant, Mormon, Muslim, Hindu, Sikh, Christian Orthodox, Jehovah's Witnesses, Baha'i, Buddhist and Jewish communities. Many Portuguese holidays, festivals and traditions have a Christian origin or connotation. Although relations between the Portuguese state and the Roman Catholic Church were generally amiable and stable since the earliest years of the Portuguese nation, their relative power fluctuated. In the 13th and 14th centuries, the church enjoyed both riches and power stemming from its role in the reconquest, its close identification with early Portuguese nationalism and the foundation of the Portuguese educational system, including the first university. The growth of the Portuguese overseas empire made its missionaries important agents of colonization, with important roles in the education and evangelization of people from all the inhabited continents. The growth of liberal and nascent republican movements during the eras leading to the formation of the First Portuguese Republic (191026) changed the role and importance of organized religion. Portugal is a secular state: church and state were formally separated during the Portuguese First Republic, and later reiterated in the 1976 Portuguese Constitution. Other than the Constitution, the two most important documents relating to religious freedom in Portugal are: the 1940 Concordata (later amended in 1971) between Portugal and the Holy See, and the 2001 Religious Freedom Act.

[edit] Languages
Main articles: Languages of Portugal, Portuguese language, Mirandese language, and Portuguese-based creole languages

Map of the Lusosphere, the Portuguese-speaking world Portuguese is the official language of Portugal. Portuguese is a Romance language that originated in what is now Galicia (Spain) and Northern Portugal, from the Galician-Portuguese language. It is derived from the Latin spoken by the romanized Pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula around 2000 years ago. In the 15th and 16th centuries, it spread worldwide as Portugal established a colonial and commercial empire (14151999). In the present day, Portuguese is spoken as a native language on 4 different continents, with Brazil accounting for the largest number of native Portuguese speakers in any country. As a result, nowadays the Portuguese language is also official and spoken in Brazil, Angola, Mozambique, Cape Verde, So Tom and Prncipe, Guinea-Bissau, and East Timor. These countries, plus Macau Special Administrative Region (People's Republic of China), make up the Lusosphere, term derived from the ancient Roman province of Lusitania, which currently matches the Portuguese territory south of the Douro river. Mirandese is also recognized as a co-official regional language in some municipalities of northeastern Portugal. It retains fewer than 5,000 speakers in Portugal (a number that can be up to 12,000 if counting second language speakers).[citation needed]

[edit] Education
Main articles: Education in Portugal and Higher education in Portugal

Headquarters of the New University of Lisbon. The educational system is divided into preschool (for those under age 6), basic education (9 years, in three stages, compulsory), secondary education (3 years, till the 12th grade), and higher education (university and polytechnic).

Total adult literacy rate is 99%. Portuguese primary school enrollments are close to 100%. According to the OECD's Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) 2009, the average Portuguese 15-year-old student, when rated in terms of reading literacy, mathematics and science knowledge, is placed at the same level as those students from the United States, Sweden, Germany, Ireland, France, Denmark, United Kingdom, Hungary and Taipei, with 489 points (493 is the average).[84] Over 35% of college-age citizens (20 years old) attend one of the country's higher education institutions[85] (compared with 50% in the United States and 35% in the OECD countries). In addition to being a key destination for international students, Portugal is also among the top places of origin for international students. All higher education students, both domestic and international, totaled 380,937 in 2005. Portuguese universities have existed since 1290. The oldest Portuguese university was first established in Lisbon before moving to Coimbra. Historically, within the scope of the Portuguese Empire, the Portuguese founded in 1792 the oldest engineering school of Latin America (the Real Academia de Artilharia, Fortificao e Desenho), as well as the oldest medical college of Asia (the Escola Mdico-Cirrgica de Goa) in 1842. The largest university in Portugal is the University of Porto. Universities are usually organized into faculties.

The University of Coimbra, built in 1290, is one of the oldest in continuous operation in the world. Institutes and schools are also common designations for autonomous subdivisions of Portuguese higher education institutions. The Bologna process has been adopted since 2006 by Portuguese universities and polytechnical institutes. Higher education in state-run educational establishments is provided on a competitive basis, a system of numerus clausus is enforced through a national database on student admissions. However, every higher education institution offers also a number of additional vacant places through other extraordinary admission processes for sportsmen, mature applicants (over 23 years old), international students, foreign students from the Lusosphere, degree owners from other institutions, students from other institutions (academic transfer), former students (readmission), and course change, which are subject to specific standards and regulations set by each institution or course department. Most student costs are supported with public money. However, with the increasing tuition fees a student has to pay to attend a Portuguese state-run higher education institution and the attraction of new types of students (many as part-time students or in evening classes) like employees, businessmen, parents, and pensioners, many departments make a substantial profit from every additional student enrolled in courses, with benefits for the college or university's gross tuition revenue and without loss of educational quality (teacher per student, computer per student, classroom size per student, etc.).

Portugal has entered into cooperation agreements with MIT (US) and other North American institutions to further develop and increase the effectiveness of Portuguese higher education and research.

[edit] Health
Main article: Health in Portugal

Hospital of Santa Maria, Lisbon. According to the latest Human Development Report, the average Life Expectancy in 2011 was 79.5 years. The Portuguese health system is characterized by three coexisting systems: the National Health Service (NHS), special social health insurance schemes for certain professions (health subsystems) and voluntary private health insurance. The NHS provides universal coverage. In addition, about 25% of the population is covered by the health subsystems, 10% by private insurance schemes and another 7% by mutual funds. The Ministry of Health is responsible for developing health policy as well as managing the NHS. Five regional health administrations are in charge of implementing the national health policy objectives, developing guidelines and protocols and supervising health care delivery. Decentralization efforts have aimed at shifting financial and management responsibility to the regional level. In practice, however, the autonomy of regional health administrations over budget setting and spending has been limited to primary care. The NHS is predominantly funded through general taxation. Employer (including the state) and employee contributions represent the main funding sources of the health subsystems. In addition, direct payments by the patient and voluntary health insurance premiums account for a large proportion of funding. Similar to the other Eur-A countries, most Portuguese die from noncommunicable diseases. Mortality from cardiovascular diseases (CVD) is higher than in the Eurozone, but its two main components, ischaemic heart disease and cerebrovascular disease, display inverse trends compared with the Eur-A, with cerebrovascular disease being the single biggest killer in Portugal (17%). Portuguese people die 12% less often from cancer than in the Eur-A, but mortality is not declining as rapidly as in the Eur-A. Cancer is more frequent among children as well as among women younger

than 44 years. Although lung cancer (slowly increasing among women) and breast cancer (decreasing rapidly) are scarcer, cancer of the cervix and the prostate are more frequent. Portugal has the highest mortality rate for diabetes in the Eur-A, with a sharp increase since the late 1980s. Portugal's infant mortality rate has dropped sharply since the 1980s, when 24 of 1000 newborns died in the first year of life. It is now around 3 deaths per a 1000 newborns. This improvement was mainly due to the decrease in neonatal mortality, from 15.5 to 3.4 per 1000 live births. People are usually well informed about their health status, the positive and negative effects of their behaviour on their health and their use of health care services. Yet their perceptions of their health can differ from what administrative and examinationbased data show about levels of illness within populations. Thus, survey results based on self-reporting at the household level complement other data on health status and the use of services. Only one third of adults rated their health as good or very good in Portugal (Kasmel et al., 2004). This is the lowest of the Eur-A countries reporting and reflects the relatively adverse situation of the country in terms of mortality and selected morbidity.[86]

[edit] Culture
Main article: Culture of Portugal

Belm Tower, Lisbon. A World Heritage Site and a typical example of Portugal's unique Manueline architecture. Portugal has developed a specific culture while being influenced by various civilizations that have crossed the Mediterranean and the European continent, or were introduced when it played an active role during the Age of Discovery. In the 1990s and 2000s (decade), Portugal modernized its public cultural facilities, in addition to the Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation established in 1956 in Lisbon. These include the Belm Cultural Center in Lisbon, Serralves Foundation and the Casa da Msica, both in Porto, as well as new public cultural facilities like municipal libraries and concert halls that were built or renovated in many municipalities across the country.

[edit] Architecture

Main article: Architecture of Portugal Traditional architecture is distinctive and include the Manueline, also known as Portuguese late Gothic, a sumptuous, composite Portuguese style of architectural ornamentation of the first decades of the 16th century, incorporating maritime elements and representations of the Portuguese Age of Discovery. Modern Portugal has given the world renowned architects like Eduardo Souto de Moura, lvaro Siza Vieira (both Pritzker Prize winners) and Gonalo Byrne. In Portugal Toms Taveira is also noteworthy, particularly due to stadium design.[87][88][89]

[edit] Cinema
Main article: Cinema of Portugal Portuguese cinema has a long tradition, reaching back to the birth of the medium in the late 19th century. Portuguese film directors such as Arthur Duarte, Antnio Lopes Ribeiro, Pedro Costa, Manoel de Oliveira, Antnio-Pedro Vasconcelos, Joo Csar Monteiro, Joo Botelho and Leonel Vieira, are among those that gained notability. Noted Portuguese film actors include Joaquim de Almeida, Daniela Ruah, Maria de Medeiros, Diogo Infante, Soraia Chaves, Vasco Santana, Ribeirinho, and Antnio Silva, among many others.

[edit] Literature
Main article: Portuguese literature

Lus de Cames, Portuguese poet of the 16th century. Portuguese literature, one of the earliest Western literatures, developed through text as well as song. Until 1350, the Portuguese-Galician troubadours spread their literary influence to most of the Iberian Peninsula.[90] Gil Vicente (ca. 1465 ca. 1536), was one of the founders of both Portuguese and Spanish dramatic traditions. Adventurer and poet Lus de Cames (ca. 15241580) wrote the epic poem "Os Lusadas" (The Lusiads), with Virgil's Aeneid as his main influence. Modern Portuguese poetry is rooted in neoclassic and contemporary styles, as exemplified by Fernando Pessoa (18881935). Modern Portuguese literature is represented by authors

such as Almeida Garrett, Camilo Castelo Branco, Ea de Queiroz, Sophia de Mello Breyner Andresen, Antnio Lobo Antunes and Miguel Torga. Particularly popular and distinguished is Jos Saramago, recipient of the 1998 Nobel Prize in Literature.

[edit] Cuisine
Main articles: Portuguese cuisine and Portuguese wine Portuguese cuisine is diverse. The Portuguese consume a lot of dry cod (bacalhau in Portuguese), for which there are hundreds of recipes. There are more than enough bacalhau dishes for each day of the year. Two other popular fish recipes are grilled sardines and caldeirada, a potato-based stew that can be made from several types of fish. Typical Portuguese meat recipes, that may be made out of beef, pork, lamb, or chicken, include cozido portuguesa, feijoada, frango de churrasco, leito (roast suckling pig) and carne de porco alentejana, a very popular northern dish is the arroz de sarrabulho (rice stewed in pigs blood) or the arroz de cabidela (Rice and chickens meat stewed in chickens blood). Typical fast food dishes include the francesinha from Porto, and bifanas (grilled pork) or prego (grilled beef) sandwiches, which are well known around the country. The Portuguese art of pastry has its origins in Middle-Ages Catholic monasteries widely spread across the country. These monasteries, using very few ingredients (mostly almonds, flour, eggs and some liquor), managed to create a spectacular wide range of different pastries, of which pastis de Belm (or pastis de nata) originally from Lisbon, and ovos moles from Aveiro are examples. Portuguese cuisine is very diverse, with different regions having their own traditional dishes. The Portuguese have a culture of good food and throughout the country there are myriad good restaurants and small typical tascas. Portuguese wines have deserved international recognition since the times of the Roman Empire, which associated Portugal with their god Bacchus. Today the country is known by wine lovers and its wines have won several international prizes. Some of the best Portuguese wines are: Vinho Verde, Vinho Alvarinho, Vinho do Douro, Vinho do Alentejo, Vinho do Do, Vinho da Bairrada and the sweet: Port Wine, Madeira Wine and the Moscatel from Setbal and Favaios. Port Wine is well known around the world and the most widely known wine type in the world[citation needed]. The Douro wine region is the oldest in the world[citation needed].

[edit] Music
Main article: Music of Portugal

Mariza, a fado singer Portuguese music encompasses a wide variety of genres. The most renowned is fado, a melancholy urban music, usually associated with the Portuguese guitar and saudade, or longing. Coimbra fado, a unique type of fado, is also noteworthy. Internationally notable performers include Amlia Rodrigues, Carlos Paredes, Jos Afonso, Mariza, Carlos do Carmo, Antnio Chainho, Msia, and Madredeus. In addition to fado and folk, the Portuguese listen to pop and other types of modern music, particularly from North America and the United Kingdom, as well as a wide range of Portuguese and Brazilian artists and bands. Artists with international recognition include Moonspell, Buraka Som Sistema, Blasted Mechanism and The Gift, with the two latter being nominees for a MTV Europe Music Award.

Casa da Msica, a concert hall in Porto Portugal has several summer music festivals, such as Festival Sudoeste in Zambujeira do Mar, Festival de Paredes de Coura in Paredes de Coura, Festival Vilar de Mouros near Caminha, Boom Festival in Idanha-a-Nova Municipality, and Optimus Alive!, Rock in Rio Lisboa and Super Bock Super Rock in Greater Lisbon. Out of the summer season, Portugal has a large number of festivals, designed more to an urban audience, like Flowfest or Hip Hop Porto. Furthermore, one of the largest international Goa trance festivals takes place in central Portugal every two years, the Boom Festival, that is also the only festival in Portugal to win international awards: European Festival Award 2010 Green'n'Clean Festival of the Year and the Greener Festival Award Outstanding 2008 and 2010. There is also the student festivals of Queima das Fitas

are major events in a number of cities across Portugal. In 2005, Portugal held the MTV Europe Music Awards, in Pavilho Atlntico, Lisbon. Fandango is one of the most popular regional dances. In the Classical music domain, Portugal is represented by names as the pianist Artur Pizarro, Maria Joo Pires, Sequeira Costa, the violinist Gerardo Ribeiro, and in the past by the great cellist Guilhermina Suggia. Notable composers include Jos Vianna da Motta, Carlos Seixas, Joo Domingos Bomtempo, Joo de Sousa Carvalho, Lus de Freitas Branco and his student Joly Braga Santos, Fernando Lopes-Graa, Emmanuel Nunes and Srgio Azevedo. The indie and alternative rock movements are also popular in Portugal. For example, Finished With My Ex is a Portuguese independent music duo, whose genres variate from Alternative rock, garage rock to electronic rock, acoustic, industrial rock, formed in 2012 in Braga. The group consists of singer-songwriter Bruce Buckley (vocals, multi-instrumentalism) and guitarist Chris (guitar, multi-instrumentalism). The band is influenced by bands such as Marilyn Manson, The White Stripes, etc., of which the two members try to capture some "sounds" while remaining faithful to the bands "originality and visual image." The band also makes use of red and black colors in their visuals.[91][92][93]

[edit] Painting
It has also a rich history as far as painting is concerned. The first well-known painters date back to the 15th century like Nuno Gonalves were part of the Gothic painting period. Jos Malhoa, known for his work Fado, and Columbano Bordalo Pinheiro (who painted the portraits of Tefilo Braga and Antero de Quental) were both references in naturalist painting. The 20th century saw the arrival of Modernism, and along with it came the most prominent Portuguese painters: Amadeo de Souza-Cardoso, who was heavily influenced by French painters, particularly by the Delaunays. Among his best known works is Cano Popular a Russa e o Fgaro. Another great modernist painter/writer was Almada Negreiros, friend to the poet Fernando Pessoa, who painted his (Pessoa's) portrait. He was deeply influenced by both Cubist and Futurist trends. Prominent international figures in visual arts nowadays include painters Vieira da Silva, Jlio Pomar, Helena Almeida, Joana Vasconcelos, Julio Sarmento and Paula Rego.

[edit] Sport
Main article: Sport in Portugal

Opening ceremony of the UEFA Euro 2004, at Estdio do Drago, Porto.

Surfing and bodyboarding are very popular in Portugal. In the picture, the World Surfing Championships are being held on Madeira Island. Football is the most popular sport in Portugal. There are several football competitions ranging from local amateur to world-class professional level. The legendary Eusbio is still a major symbol of Portuguese football history. FIFA World Player of the Year winners Lus Figo and Cristiano Ronaldo, are among the numerous examples of other world-class football (soccer) players born in Portugal and noted worldwide. Portuguese football managers are also noteworthy, with Jos Mourinho, Andr VillasBoas, Fernando Santos, Carlos Queiroz and Manuel Jos among the most renowned. The Portuguese national football team has titles in the FIFA World Youth Championship and in the UEFA youth championships. The main national team Seleco Nacional finished second in Euro 2004 (held in Portugal), reached the third place in the 1966 FIFA World Cup, and reached the fourth place in the 2006 FIFA World Cup, their best results in major competitions to date. Sport Lisboa e Benfica, Futebol Clube do Porto, and Sporting Clube de Portugal are the largest sports clubs by popularity and by number of trophies won, often known as "os trs grandes" ("the big three"). They have 12 titles won in the European UEFA club competitions, were present in many finals and have been regular contenders in the last stages almost every season. Other than football, many Portuguese sports clubs, including the "big three", compete in several other sports events with a varying level of success and popularity, these may include roller hockey, basketball, futsal, handball, and volleyball. Portugal has a successful roller hockey team, with 15 world titles and 20 European titles, making it the country with the most wins in both competitions. The most successful Portuguese roller hockey clubs in the history of European championships

are Futebol Clube do Porto, Sporting Clube de Portugal, Sport Lisboa e Benfica and quei de Barcelos. The Portuguese national rugby union team made a dramatic qualification into the 2007 Rugby World Cup and became the first all amateur team to qualify for the World Cup since the dawn of the professional era. The Portuguese national rugby sevens team has performed well, becoming one of the strongest teams in Europe, and proved their status as European champions in several occasions. In athletics, the Portuguese have won a number of gold, silver and bronze medals in the European, World and Olympic Games competitions. Cycling, with Volta a Portugal being the most important race, is also a popular sports event and include professional cycling teams such as Sport Lisboa e Benfica, Boavista, Clube de Ciclismo de Tavira, and Unio Ciclista da Maia. The country has also achieved notable performances in sports like fencing, judo, kitesurf, rowing, sailing, surfing, shooting, triathlon and windsurf, owning several European and world titles. The paralympic athletes have also conquered many medals in sports like swimming, boccia and wrestling. In motorsport, Portugal is internationally noted for the Rally of Portugal, and the Estoril, Algarve Circuits and the revived Porto Street Circuit which holds a stage of the WTCC every two years, as well as for a number of internationally noted pilots in varied motorsports. In equestrian sports, Portugal won the only Horseball-Pato World Championship (in 2006), achieved the third position in the First Horseball World Cup (organized in Ponte de Lima, Portugal, in 2008), and has achieved several victories in the European Working Equitation Championship. In swimming sports, Portugal has two major sports: swimming and water polo. Northern Portugal has its own original martial art, Jogo do Pau, in which the fighters use staffs to confront one or several opponents. Other popular sport-related recreational outdoor activities with thousands of enthusiasts nationwide include airsoft, fishing, golf, hiking, hunting and orienteering.

[edit] See also

Portugal portal European Union portal NATO portal

Index of Portugal-related articles Outline of Portugal Wikipedia books: Portugal

[edit] References
Notes
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. ^ a b ITDS, Rui Campos, Pedro Senos. "Statistics Portugal". Ine.pt. http://www.ine.pt/xportal/xmain?xpid=INE&xpgid=ine_main. Retrieved 2011-07-02. ^ Pblico, "Portugal tem 92.212 quilmetros quadrados, por enquanto...". Accessed on July 02, 2012. ^ Pordata, "Base de Dados Portugal Contemporneo". Accessed on December 16, 2011. ^ Portugal. Censos 2011. ine.pt ^ a b c d "Portugal". International Monetary Fund. http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2012/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=50&pr.y=9&sy =2009&ey=2012&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=182&s=NGDPD%2CNGD PDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=. Retrieved 20 April 2012. ^ "Gini Index". Instituto Nacional de Estatstica. http://www.ine.pt/xportal/xmain?xpid=INE&xpgid=ine_destaques&DESTAQUESdest_boui= 107634627&DESTAQUESmodo=2&xlang=en. Retrieved 14 July 2011. ^ "Human Development Report 2010". United Nations. 2010. http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Table1.pdf. Retrieved 5 November 2010. ^ The Euromosaic study, Mirandese in Portugal, europa.eu European Commission website. Retrieved January 2007. Link updated December 2011 ^ "Leite de Vasconcelos, Jos. Cale e Portucale. Opsculos Vol. V Etnologia (Parte I) Lisboa, Imprensa Nacional, 1938" (in Portuguese). http://www.institutocamoes.pt/CVC/bdc/etnologia/opusculos/vol05/opusculos05_28_38.pdf. ^ Brian Jenkins, Spyros A. Sofos, "Nation and identity in contemporary Europe", p. 145, Routledge, 1996, ISBN 0-415-12313-5 ^ Melvin Eugene Page, Penny M. Sonnenburg, p. 481 ^ Global Peace Index. Institute for Economics and Peace. visionofhumanity.org (June 2012) ^ Milhazes, Jos. Os antepassados caucasianos dos portugueses Rdio e Televiso de Portugal in Portuguese. ^ Black Death, Great Moments in Science, ABC Science ^ The standard view of historians is that Cabral was blown off course as he was navigating the currents of the South Atlantic, sighted the coast of South America, thereby accidentally discovering Brazil. However, for an alternative account of the discovery of Brazil, see History of Brazil ^ Map proves Portuguese discovered Australia: new book, in Reuters (Wed 21 Mar 2007) (see Theory of Portuguese discovery of Australia) ^ Saint and Nation. Books.google.com. 2011-04-30. p. 10. http://books.google.com/books?id=rDlqrxan22AC&pg=PA10&dq=the+spains+%22las+espan as%22&hl=en&ei=m1yYTeLxIMSp8AOB5MyzCQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resn um=5&ved=0CEEQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&q=the%20spains%20%22las%20espanas%22&f= false. Retrieved 2012-08-18. ^ Pea,Lorenzo. Un puente jurdico entre Iberoamrica y Europa:la Constitucin espaola de 1812. Instituto de Filosofa del CSIC The first thing there is to understand is that in a good measure, the Courts of Cadiz created a new state, the Spanish state.[...]there had never been a proclamation of a Kingdom of Spain, so that difficulties always arose upon the legal value of the very frequent references to 'Spain' in the legal texts of the sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The Spanish sovereigns had always refused the advice [...] in the sense of establishing a United Kingdom of Spain, preferring to see themselves as vertices of converging scattered kingdoms, at least in theory. Even the Napoleonic Bayonne Constitution of 1808 did not proclaime a kingdom of Spain, but a 'Crown of Spain and the Indies'. On the other hand, 'Spain' was merely a geographical name, a simple romance version of 'Hispania',whereby its use, in principle, should not have to go beyond the designations Galia,Germania[...] 19. ^ "IBGE teen". Ibge.gov.br. http://www.ibge.gov.br/ibgeteen/povoamento/portugueses.html. Retrieved 2012-02-11.

6.

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16. 17.

18.

20. ^ Leslie Bethell (1986). "The Cambridge history of Latin America: Colonial Latin America". Cambridge University Press. p.47. ISBN 0-521-24516-8 21. ^ "Historical Depictions of the 1755 Lisbon Earthquake". Nisee.berkeley.edu. 1998-11-12. http://nisee.berkeley.edu/lisbon/index.html. Retrieved 2012-05-06. 22. ^ Kenneth Maxwell, Pombal, Paradox of the Enlightenment (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 83, 91108, 16062. 23. ^ P S Lele, Dadra and Nagar Haveli: past and present, Published by Usha P. Lele, 1987, 24. ^ "Portugal No Um Pas Pequeno". Purl.pt. http://purl.pt/11440/1/P1.html. Retrieved 201102-21. 25. ^ Flight from Angola, The Economist (16 August 1975). 26. ^ Dismantling the Portuguese Empire, Time Magazine (Monday, 7 July 1975). 27. ^ "Instituto de Meteorologia, IP Portugal". Meteo.pt. 2010-01-15. http://www.meteo.pt. Retrieved 27 January 2010. 28. ^ [1][dead link] 29. ^ "Instituto de Meteorologia, IP Portugal". Meteo.pt. http://www.meteo.pt/pt/oclima/extremos/. Retrieved 22 August 2010. 30. ^ Brian Vastag 5 Years After: Portugal's Drug Decriminalization Policy Shows Positive Results. Scientific American. April 7, 2009 31. ^ Maia Szalavitz, Drugs in Portugal: Did Decriminalization Work? , Time (April 26, 2009) 32. ^ Dirio da Repblica, 1. srie N. 105 31 de Maio de 2010. dre.pt (2010-05-31) 33. ^ "Districts of Portugal". Distritosdeportugal.com. http://www.distritosdeportugal.com/. Retrieved 22 August 2010. 34. ^ (Portuguese) Fundao da SEDES As primeiras motivaes, "Nos anos 60 e at 1973 teve lugar, provavelmente, o mais rpido perodo de crescimento econmico da nossa Histria, traduzido na industrializao, na expanso do turismo, no comrcio com a EFTA, no desenvolvimento dos sectores financeiros, investimento estrangeiro e grandes projectos de infra-estruturas. Em consequncia, os indicadores de rendimentos e consumo acompanham essa evoluo, reforados ainda pelas remessas de emigrantes.", SEDES 35. ^ Grande Enciclopdia Universal, p. 10543, "Portugal", para. 4 36. ^ Investing in Portugal Report, Financial Times 37. ^ Pessoa, M.F.; Mendes, B.; Oliveria, J.S.. "Culturas marinhas em Portugal" (in Portuguese). Archived from the original on 2008-10-29. http://web.archive.org/web/20081029054523/http://igbpportugal.org/cluster2006/comunicacoes/m_f_pessoa/cluster2006-zc06c-comun.pdf. "O consumo mdio anual em produtos do mar pela populao portuguesa, estima-se em cerca de 58,5 kg/ por habitante sendo, por isso, o maior consumidor em produtos marinhos da Europa e um dos quatro pases a nvel mundial com uma dieta base de produtos do mar." 38. ^ (Portuguese) Covilh: Aleia vai montar avio at agora vendido em kit e jactos portugueses em 2011, noticias.sapo.pt, 14 April 2008 39. ^ (Portuguese) vora aprova isenes fiscais aos projectos da Embraer, Dirio Digital (22 August 2008) 40. ^ "Travel and Tourism in Portugal". Euromonitor.com. http://www.euromonitor.com/Travel_and_Tourism_in_Portugal. Retrieved 2011-07-02. 41. ^ Portugal: Financial System Stability Assessment, including Reports on the Observance of Standards and Codes on the following topics: Banking Supervision, Securities Regulation, and Insurance Regulation, IMF, (October 2006) 42. ^ "The Global Competitiveness Index rankings". World Economic Forum. 2008. http://www.weforum.org/pdf/gcr/2008/rankings.pdf. Retrieved 20 March 2009. 43. ^ The Economist. http://www.economist.com/media/pdf/QUALITY_OF_LIFE.pdf. 44. ^ (Portuguese)"Portugueses perderam poder de compra entre 2005 e 2007 e esto na cauda da Zona Euro" (in Portuguese). Pblico. 2008-12-11. http://economia.publico.pt/Noticia/portugueses-perderam-poder-de-compra-entre-2005-e2007-e-estao-na-cauda-da-zona-euro_1352732. Retrieved 10 October 2010. 45. ^ "The Portuguese economy: A new sick man of Europe". The Economist. 2007-04-12. http://www.economist.com/world/europe/displaystory.cfm?story_id=9009032. Retrieved 2011-07-02. 46. ^ Luis Miguel Mota, Populao desempregada aumentou 65% em cinco anos, Destak.pt (6 June 2008) 47. ^ Standard and Poor's pessimistic on Portugal, Agence France-Presse (7 December 2009) 48. ^ As Portugal Default Risk Climbs, Europe Begins to Stabilize, (29 March 2011)

49. 50. 51. 52. 53.

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^ Eurojust chief embroiled in Portuguese corruption scandal, euobserver.com (13 May 2009) ^ People & Power, Al Jazeera, Al Jazeera (March 2008) ^ Transparency International report, Transparency International (2010) ^ (Portuguese) Grande investigao DN Conhea o verdadeiro peso do Estado, Dirio de Notcias (January 7, 2011) ^ "Portugal-European Union convergence: Some evidence 10.1016/S0176-2680(96)00015-8 : European Journal of Political Economy". ScienceDirect.com. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V97-3VWTCDS9&_user=499884&_coverDate=11%2F30%2F1996&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=gateway&_ origin=gateway&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_acct=C000024499&_version=1&_urlVer sion=0&_userid=499884&md5=d36edb1470dfd4db9b46db274f86c7a1&searchtype=a. Retrieved 2012-02-11. ^ a b Frank Barry European Union Regional Aid and Irish Economic Development. University College Dublin ^ UK financial firms downgraded by Moody's rating agency, BBC (October 7, 2011) ^ "Eurostat press release GDP per inhabitant 2009" (in Portuguese). http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY_PUBLIC/2-15122010-BP/EN/2-15122010-BPEN.PDF. Retrieved 3 January 2011. ^ "Wages and taxes for the Average Joe in the EU 27". http://www.langlophone.com/20100526_edition/20100526_EU27_data_table_flipped.pdf. Retrieved 14 May 2011. ^ "Taxa de desemprego desce para 7,3 por cento no segundo trimestre" (in Portuguese). Pblico. 14 August 2008. http://economia.publico.pt/Noticia/taxa-de-desemprego-desce-para73-por-cento-no-segundo-trimestre-1338969. ^ World's Top Tourism Destinations (absolute numbers). Data as collected by World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) for TMT 2005 Edition ^ DN Online, ed. (25 January 2007). "Cidades atraem mais turistas do que os destinos sol e mar" (in Portuguese). Lisbon, Portugal: Dirio das Noticias. http://www.dn.pt/inicio/interior.aspx?content_id=651813. Retrieved 30 April 2011. ^ "ListAfterList.com". ListAfterList.com. http://www.listafterlist.com/tabid/57/listid/7961/Travel++Places/Top+10+Longest+Bridges+i n+the+World.aspx. Retrieved 2010-08-22. ^ "Curious? Read". Curiousread.com. 2008-02. http://www.curiousread.com/2008/02/tenlongest-bridges-in-world.html. Retrieved 2010-08-22. ^ "ListAfterList.com". ListAfterList.com. http://www.listafterlist.com/tabid/57/listid/7961/Travel++Places/Top+10+Longest+Bridges+i n+the+World.aspx. Retrieved 22 August 2010. ^ "Curious? Read". Curiousread.com. 2008-02. http://www.curiousread.com/2008/02/tenlongest-bridges-in-world.html. Retrieved 22 August 2010. ^ "Cincia Viva". Cienciaviva.pt. http://www.cienciaviva.pt/cienciaviva/index.asp?accao=changelang&lang=en. Retrieved 22 August 2010. ^ "Tecparques Associao Portuguesa de Parques de Cincia e Tecnologia". Tecparques.pt. Archived from the original on 2011-04-28. http://web.archive.org/web/20110428203838/http://www.tecparques.pt/associados.htm. Retrieved 22 August 2010. ^ "Madeira Tecnopolo". Madeiratecnopolo.pt. http://www.madeiratecnopolo.pt/. Retrieved 22 August 2010. ^ "Sines Tecnopolo". Sines Tecnopolo. http://www.sinestecnopolo.org/. Retrieved 22 August 2010. ^ "TECMAIA Parque de Cincia e Tecnologia da Maia". Tecmaia.com.pt. http://www.tecmaia.com.pt. Retrieved 2011-07-02. ^ "Parque de Cincia e Tecnologia da Covilh (Parkurbis)". Parkurbis.pt. http://www.parkurbis.pt/. Retrieved 22 August 2010. ^ Portugal ganha terreno no ranking da inovao, Pblico (February 1, 2011) ^ "IEA Energy Statistics: Portugal". International Energy Agency. 2006. http://www.iea.org/Textbase/stats/electricitydata.asp?COUNTRY_CODE=PT. Retrieved 7 April 2009. ^ Staff (8 April 2009). "Fontes renovveis originaram 43% da electricidade consumida" (in Portuguese). Dirio Digital.

74.

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http://diariodigital.sapo.pt/news.asp?section_id=114&id_news=381941. Retrieved 17 April 2009. ^ Staff (8 June 2010). "Portugal j exportou mais electricidade este ano que em 2009" (in Portuguese). Agncia Financeira. http://www.agenciafinanceira.iol.pt/empresas/portugalagencia-financeira-ren-energia-electricidade/11685671728.html?utm_source=feedburner&utm_medium=feed&utm_campaign=Feed:+iol/agenciafi nanceira+(agenciafinanceira). Retrieved 8 June 2010. ^ "Portugal". Jewishvirtuallibrary.org. http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/vjw/Portugal.html. Retrieved 2012-05-06. ^ Pereria, L.; M. J Prata, A. Amorim (2000-11-01). "Diversity of mtDNA lineages in Portugal: not a genetic edge of European variation". Annals of Human Genetics 64 (6): 491 506. doi:10.1046/j.1469-1809.2000.6460491.x. PMID 11281213. ^ Censos 2011, (Instituto Nacional de Estatstica-19 July 2011) ^ Source of the city populations: INE census, 2011. ^ a b Portugal Emigration, Eric Solsten, ed. Portugal: A Country Study. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1993. ^ "Portugal sees integration progress", BBC News, 14 November 2005 ^ A mais discriminada, (Expresso-5 April 2008) ^ Brasileiros so a maior colnia estrangeira em Portugal Embaixada de Portugal No Brasil ^ "CIA The World Factbook Portugal". Cia.gov. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/po.html. Retrieved 201102-21. ^ "Alunos portugueses pela primeira vez "perto da mdia" relatrio PISA" (in Portuguese). Destak. http://www.destak.pt/artigo/82223-alunos-portugueses-pela-primeira-vez-perto-damedia-relatorio-pisa. ^ "Um Contrato de confiana no Ensino Superior para o futuro de Portugal" (in Portuguese). Government of Portugal, portugal.gov.pt. 2010-01-11. Archived from the original on 2011-0724. http://web.archive.org/web/20110724173015/http://www.portugal.gov.pt/pt/GC18/Governo/M inisterios/MCTES/Intervencoes/Pages/20100111_MCTES_Int_Contrato_Confianca_EnsSup.a spx. ^ Highlights on health in Portugal 2004. World Health Organization ^ (Portuguese) Estdios de Toms Taveira e Souto Moura premiados, Dirio de Notcias (July 8, 2005) ^ Toms Taveira, Geoffrey Broadbent (introduction), Publisher: St Martins Pr (February 1991) ^ (Portuguese) Toms Tveira desenha estdio do Palmeiras no Brasil, Diarioeconomico.com ^ Poesia e Prosa Medievais, p. 9, para. 4 ^ "Finished With My Ex's biography". Finished With My Ex. finishedwithmyex.com. http://finishedwithmyex.wix.com/finishedwithmyex#!__page-0/bio. Retrieved 2012-07-27. ^ "Finished With My Ex". phpbbserver.com. Vimaranes Metallvm. http://www.phpbbserver.com/nehebkau/viewtopic.php?t=3535&mforum=nehebkau&fb_sourc e=message. Retrieved 2012-07-27. ^ Melo, Rui. "Os motores j aquecem para mais um submarino". Submarino. Submarino. http://blogdosubmarino.blogspot.pt/2012/07/os-motores-ja-aquecem-para-mais-um.html. Retrieved 2012-07-27.

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Bliss, Jorge Braga de; Bliss, C.J. (1990). Unity with Diversity in the European Economy: the Community's Southern Frontier. London, England: Centre for Economic Policy Research. ISBN 978-0-521-39520-5. Juang, Noelle Anne (2008). Africa and the Americas: Culture, Politics, and History: A Multidisciplinary Encyclopedia. 2. ISBN 978-1-85109-441-7. Page, Penny M. (2003). Colonialism: An International, Social, Cultural, and Political Encyclopedia. 2. ISBN 978-1-57607-335-3. Brockey, Liam Matthew (2008). Portuguese Colonial Cities in the Early Modern World. ISBN 978-0-7546-6313-3.

Ribeiro, ngelo (2004) (in Portuguese). Histria de Portugal I A Formao do Territrio [History of Portugal: The Formation of the Territory]. QuidNovi. ISBN 989-554-106-6. Ribeiro, Jos Hermano (2004) (in Portuguese). Histria de Portugal II A Afirmao do Pas [History of Portugal II - A Affirmation of Nation]. QuidNovi. ISBN 989-554-107-4. de Macedo, Jos Hermano (2004) (in Portuguese). Histria de Portugal III A Epopeia dos Descobrimentos [History of Portugal III - The Epoch of Discoveries]. QuidNovi. ISBN 989-554-108-2. de Macedo, Jos Hermano (2004) (in Portuguese). Histria de Portugal IV Glria e Declnio do Imprio [History of Portugal IV - Glory and Decline of Empire]. QuidNovi. ISBN 989-554-109-0. de Macedo, Jos Hermano (2004) (in Portuguese). Histria de Portugal V A Restaurao da Indepndencia [History of Portugal IV - The Restoration of Independence]. QuidNovi. ISBN 989-554-110-4. Saraiva, Jos Hermano (2004) (in Portuguese). Histria de Portugal X A Terceira Repblica [History of Portugal X - The Third Republic]. QuidNovi. ISBN 989-554115-5. Louo, Paulo Alexandre (2000) (in Portuguese). Portugal, Terra de Mistrios [Portugal: Land of Mysteries] (3rd ed.). squilo. ISBN 972-8605-04-8. Muoz, Mauricio Pasto (2003) (in Portuguese). Viriato, A Luta pela Liberdade [Viriato: The Struggle for Liberty] (3rd ed.). squilo. ISBN 972-8605-23-4. Grande Enciclopdia Universal. Durclub. 2004. (in Portuguese) Constituio da Repblica Portuguesa [Constitution of the Portuguese Republic] (VI Reviso Constitucional ed.). 2004.

History of Portugal
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History of Portugal

Prehistoric[show] Roman rule[show] Germanic kingdoms[show] 7111139[show] Kingdom of Portugal[show] Portuguese Republic[show] Topics[show]

v t e

The history of Portugal, a European and an Atlantic nation, dates back to the Early Middle Ages. In the 15th and 16th centuries, it ascended to the status of a world power during Europe's "Age of Discovery" as it built up a vast empire including possessions in South America, Africa, Asia and Australasia. In the next two centuries, Portugal gradually lost much of its wealth and status as the Dutch, English and French took an increasing share of the spice and slave trades (the economic basis of its empire), by surrounding or conquering the widely-scattered Portuguese trading posts and territories, leaving it with ever fewer resources to defend its overseas interests. Signs of military decline began with two disastrous battles: the Battle of Alccer Quibir in Morocco in 1578 and Spain's abortive attempt to conquer England in 1588 Portugal was then in a dynastic union with Spain, and contributed ships to the Spanish invasion fleet. The country was further weakened by the destruction of much of its

capital city in a 1755 earthquake, occupation during the Napoleonic Wars and the loss of its largest colony, Brazil, in 1822. From the middle of the 19th century to the late 1950s, nearly two-million Portuguese left Europe to live in Brazil and the United States (U.S.).[1] In 1910, there was a revolution that deposed the monarchy. Amid corruption, repression of the church, and the near bankruptcy of the state, a military coup in 1926 installed a dictatorship that remained until another coup in 1974. The new government instituted sweeping democratic reforms and granted independence to all of Portugal's African colonies in 1975. Portugal is a founding member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), and the European Free Trade Association (EFTA). It entered the European Community (now the European Union) in 1986.

Contents
[hide]

1 Etymology 2 Neolithic 3 Roman Lusitania and Gallaecia 4 Germanic kingdoms (5th-7th centuries) 5 Moorish rule and the Reconquista (711-1249) o 5.1 Affirmation of Portugal 6 Naval exploration and Portuguese Empire (15th-16th centuries) o 6.1 The New World 7 1580 crisis, Iberian Union and decline of the Empire 8 Portuguese Restoration War (1640-1668) 9 Pombaline era o 9.1 Spanish invasion of Portugal (1762) 10 Crises of the nineteenth century 11 The First Republic (19101926) o 11.1 28 May 1926 coup d'tat 12 New State (Estado Novo) (19331974) 13 The Third Republic (1974-) 14 See also 15 Notes 16 External links

[edit] Etymology
Portugal's name derives from the Roman name Portus Cale. Cale was the name of an early settlement located at the mouth of the Douro River, which flows into the Atlantic Ocean in the north of what is now Portugal. Around 200 BC, the Romans took the Iberian Peninsula from the Carthaginians during the Second Punic War, and in the process conquered Cale and renamed it Portus Cale (Port of Cale). During the

Middle Ages, the region around Portus Cale became known by the Suevi and Visigoths as Portucale. The name Portucale evolved into Portugale during the 7th and 8th centuries, and by the 9th century, that term was used extensively to refer to the region between the rivers Douro and Minho, the Minho flowing along what would become the northern border between Portugal and Spain. By the 11th and 12th century, Portugale was already referred to as Portugal. The etymology of the name Cale is mysterious, as is the identity of the town's founders. Some historians have argued that Greeks were the first to settle Cale and that the name derives from the Greek word kallis (), 'beautiful', referring to the beauty of the Douro valley. Still others have claimed that Cale originated in the language of the Gallaeci people indigenous to the surrounding region (see below). Others argue that Cale[2] is a Celtic name like many others found in the region. The word cale or cala, would mean 'port', an 'inlet' or 'harbour,' and implied the existence of an older Celtic harbour.[3] Others argue it is the stem of Gallaecia. Another theory claims it derives from Caladunum.[4] In any case, the Portu part of the name Portucale became Porto, the modern name for the city located on the site of the ancient city of Cale at the mouth of the Douro River. And Port became the name in English of the wine from the Douro Valley region around Porto. The name Cale is today reflected in Gaia (Vila Nova de Gaia), a city on the left bank of the river.

[edit] Neolithic
Main article: Prehistoric Iberia

The main language areas in Iberia, circa 300 BC. The region of present-day Portugal was inhabited by Neanderthals and then by Homo sapiens, who roamed the border-less region of the northern Iberian peninsula.[5] These

were subsistence societies that, although they did not establish prosperous settlements, did establish organized societies. Neolithic Portugal experimented with domestication of herding animals, the raising of some cereal crops and pluvial or marine fishing.[5] Early in the first millennium BC, several waves of Celts invaded Portugal from central Europe and inter-married with the local populations, forming different ethnic groups, with many tribes. Chief among these tribes were the Calaicians or Gallaeci of northern Portugal, the Lusitanians of central Portugal, the Celtici of Alentejo, and the Cynetes or Conii of the Algarve. Among the lesser tribes or sub-divisions were the Bracari, Coelerni, Equaesi, Grovii, Interamici, Leuni, Luanqui, Limici, Narbasi, Nemetati, Paesuri, Quaquerni, Seurbi, Tamagani, Tapoli, Turduli, Turduli Veteres, Turdulorum Oppida, Turodi, and Zoelae. There were in the southern part the country, some small, semi-permanent commercial coastal settlements founded by Phoenicians-Carthaginians (such as Tavira, in the Algarve). According to John Koch,[6] Cunliffe, Karl, Wodtko and other scholars, Celtic culture may have developed first in far Southern Portugal and Southwestern Spain, approximately 500 years prior to anything recorded in Central Europe.[7][8] The Tartessian language from the southwest of the Iberian peninsula, which John T. Koch has claimed to be able to translate, is being accepted by a number of philologists and other linguists as the first attested Celtic language,[6][9][10] but the linguistic mainstream continues to treat Tartessian as an unclassified (Pre-Indo-European?) language,[11][12] and Koch's view of the evolution of Celtic is not generally accepted.

[edit] Roman Lusitania and Gallaecia

Main articles: Lusitania, Gallaecia, and Hispania

Ancient Roman mosaic in Conimbriga. The first Roman invasion of the Iberian Peninsula occurred in 219 BC. Within 200 years, almost the entire peninsula had been annexed to the Roman Republic. The Carthaginians, Rome's adversary in the Punic Wars, were expelled from their coastal colonies.

The Roman conquest of what is now part of modern day Portugal took several decades: it started from the south, where the Romans found friendly natives, the Conii. It suffered a severe setback in 194 BC, when a rebellion began in the north. The Lusitanians and other native tribes, under the leadership of Viriathus, wrested control of all of the Portuguese land. Rome sent numerous legions and its best generals to Lusitania to quell the rebellion, but to no avail the Lusitanians kept conquering territory. The Roman leaders decided to change their strategy. They bribed Viriathus's ambassador to kill his own leader. Viriathus was assassinated, and the resistance was soon over. Rome installed a colonial regime. During this period, Lusitania grew in prosperity and many of modern day Portugal's cities and towns were founded. The complete Romanization of Portugal, intensified during the rule of Augustus, took three centuries and was stronger in Southern Portugal, most of which were administrative dependencies of the Roman city of Pax Julia, currently known as Beja. The city was named Pax Julia in honour of Julius Caesar and to celebrate peace in Lusitania. Augustus renamed it Pax Augusta, but the early name prevailed. In 27 BC, Lusitania gained the status of Roman province. Later, a northern province of Lusitania was formed, known as Gallaecia, with capital in Bracara Augusta, today's Braga. Numerous Roman sites are scattered around present-day Portugal, some urban remains are quite large, like Conimbriga and Mirobriga. Several works of engineering, such as baths, temples, bridges, roads, circus, theatres and layman's homes are preserved throughout the country. Coins, some of which coined in Portuguese land, sarcophagus and ceramics are numerous. Contemporary historians include Paulus Orosius (c. 375-418)[13] and Hydatius (c. 400469), bishop of Aquae Flaviae, who reported on the final years of the roman rule and arrival of the Germanic tribes.

[edit] Germanic kingdoms (5th-7th centuries)

Main articles: Visigoths and Suevi

Germanic kingdoms in Iberia, 560.

In the early 5th century, Germanic tribes invaded the peninsula, namely the Suevi, the Vandals (Silingi and Hasdingi) and their allies, the Sarmatian Alans. Only the kingdom of the Suevi (Quadi and Marcomanni) endured after the arrival of another wave of Germanic invaders, the Visigoths, who conquered all of the Iberian Peninsula and expelled or partially integrated the Vandals and the Alans. The Visigoths eventually conquered the Suevi kingdom and its capital city Bracara in 584585. The Germanic tribe of the Buri also accompanied the Suevi in their invasion of the Iberian Peninsula and colonization of Gallaecia (modern northern Portugal and Galicia). The Buri settled in the region between the rivers Cvado and Homem, in the area known as thereafter as Terras de Boiro or Terras de Bouro (Lands of the Buri).[14] Other minor influences from this period include some 5th century vestiges of Alan settlement, which were found in Alenquer, Coimbra and even Lisbon.[15]

[edit] Moorish rule and the Reconquista (711-1249)

Main articles: Al-Andalus, Reconquista, and History of Portugal (11121279)

Mrtola's mosque was transformed into a Christian church in 1238. Landing near Algeciras in the spring of 711, the Islamic Moors (mainly Berbers with some Arabs) from North Africa invaded the Iberian Peninsula.,[16] destroying the Visigothic Kingdom. Many of the ousted Gothic nobles took refuge in the unconquered north Asturian highlands. From there they aimed to reconquer their lands from the Moors: this war of reconquest is known in Portuguese (and Spanish) as the Reconquista. In 868, Count Vmara Peres reconquered and governed the region between the rivers Minho and Douro. The county was then known as Portucale (i.e., Portugal). While it had its origins as a dependency of the Kingdom of Len, Portugal occasionally gained de facto independence during weak Leonese reigns. Portugal gained its first de jure independence (as the Kingdom of Galicia and Portugal) in 1065 under the rule of Garcia II. Because of feudal power struggles, Portuguese and Galician nobles rebelled. In 1072, the country rejoined Len under Garcia II's brother Alfonso VI of Len.

The Reconquista, 790-1300. In 1095, Portugal separated almost completely from the Kingdom of Galicia. Its territories consisting largely of mountain, moorland and forest were bounded on the north by the Minho, on the south by the Mondego River. At the end of the 11th century, the Burgundian knight Henry became count of Portugal and defended his independence, merging the County of Portucale and the County of Coimbra. Henry declared independence for Portugal while a civil war raged between Len and Castile. Henry died without achieving his aims. His son, Afonso Henriques, took control of the county. The city of Braga, the unofficial Catholic centre of the Iberian Peninsula, faced new competition from other regions. Lords of the cities of Coimbra and Porto (then Portucale) with Braga's clergy demanded the independence of the renewed county. Portugal traces its national origin to 24 June 1128, with the Battle of So Mamede. Afonso proclaimed himself first Prince of Portugal and in 1139 the first King of Portugal. By 1143, with the assistance of a representative of the Holy See at the conference of Zamora, Portugal was formally recognized as independent, with the prince recognized as Dux Portucalensis. In 1179 Afonso I was declared, by the Pope, as king. After the Battle of So Mamede, the first capital of Portugal was Guimares from which the first king ruled. Later, when Portugal was already officially independent, he ruled from Coimbra.

[edit] Affirmation of Portugal

Main article: History of Portugal (12791415) From 1249 to 1250 the Algarve, the southernmost region, was finally re-conquered by Portugal from the Moors. In 1255 the capital shifted to Lisbon.[17] Neighboring Spain would not complete their Reconquista until 1492 almost 250 years later.[18]

Portugal's land-based boundaries have been notably stable in history. The border with Spain has remained almost unchanged since the 13th century. The Treaty of Windsor (1386) created an alliance between Portugal and England that remains in effect to this day. Since early times, fishing and overseas commerce have been the main economic activities. Henry the Navigator's interest in exploration together with some technological developments in navigation made Portugal's expansion possible and led to great advances in geographic, mathematical, scientific knowledge and technology, more specifically naval technology.

[edit] Naval exploration and Portuguese Empire (15th-16th centuries)

Main articles: Portugal in the period of discoveries and Portuguese Empire

Portuguese discoveries and explorations: first arrival places and dates; main Portuguese spice trade routes in the Indian Ocean (blue); territories of the Portuguese empire under King John III rule (1521-1557) (green). The disputed discovery of Australia is not shown. During the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal was a leading European power, ranking with England, France and Spain in terms of economic, political, and cultural influence. Though not predominant in European affairs, Portugal did have an extensive colonial trading empire throughout the world backed by a powerful thalassocracy. July 25, 1415 marked the beginning of the Portuguese Empire, when the Portuguese Armada departed to the rich trade Islamic centre of Ceuta in North Africa with King John I and his wife Phillipa of Lancaster and their sons Prince Duarte (future king), Prince Pedro, Prince Henry the Navigator (born in Porto in 1394) and Prince Afonso, and legendary Portuguese hero Nuno lvares Pereira.[19] On August 21, 1415, Ceuta, the city on the coast of North Africa directly across from Gibraltar, was conquered by Portugal, and the long-lived Portuguese Empire was founded.[20] The conquest of Ceuta had been helped by the fact that a major civil war had been engaging the Muslims of the Magrib (North Africa) since 1411.[21] This same civil war between the Muslims prevented a re-capture of Ceuta from the Portuguese, when

Muhammad IX, the Left-Handed King of Granada, laid siege to Ceuta and attempted to coordinate the forces in Morocco and attempted to get aid and assistance for the effort from Tunis.[22] The Muslim attempt to retake Ceuta was ultimately unsuccessful and Ceuta remained the first part of the new Portuguese Empire.[23] However, further steps were taken that would soon expand the Portuguese Empire. In 1418 two of the captains of Prince Henry the Navigator, Joo Gonalves Zarco and Tristo Vaz Teixeira, were driven by a storm to an island which they called Porto Santo ("Holy Port") in gratitude for their rescue from the shipwreck. In 1419, Joo Gonalves Zarco disembarked on Madeira Island. Uninhabited Madeira Island was colonized by the Portuguese in 1420.[24] Between 1427 and 1431, most of the Azorean islands were discovered and these uninhabited islands were colonized by the Portuguese in 1445. A Portuguese expedition may have attempted to colonize the Canary Islands as early as 1336, but Castile objected to any claim by the Portuguese to the Canary Islands. Castile began its conquest of the Canaries in 1402. Castile expelled the last Portuguese from the Canary islands 1459. The Canary Islands would eventually be part of the Spanish Empire.[25] In 1434, Gil Eanes turned the Cape Bojador, south of Morocco. The trip marked the beginning of the Portuguese exploration of Africa. Before the turn, very little information was known in Europe about what lay around the cape. At the end of the 13th century and the beginning of the 14th, those who tried to venture there became lost, which gave birth to legends of sea monsters. Some setbacks occurred: in 1436 the Canaries were officially recognized as Castilian by the Pope; earlier they were recognized as Portuguese. Also, in 1438 in a military expedition to Tangier, the Portuguese were defeated. However, the Portuguese did not give up their exploratory efforts. In 1448, on a small island known as Arguim off the coast of Mauritania, an important castle was built, working as a feitoria, a trading post, for commerce with inland Africa. Some years before the first African gold was brought to Portugal, circumventing the Arab caravans that crossed the Sahara. Some time later, the caravels explored the Gulf of Guinea which lead to the discovery of several uninhabited islands: Cape Verde, Ferno Po, So Tom, Prncipe and Annobn.[26] On November 13, 1460, Prince Henry the Navigator died.[27] He had been the leading patron of all maritime exploration by Portugal up to that time. Immediately following Henry's death, there was a lapse of further exploration. Henry's patronage of explorations had shown that profits could be made in trade which followed the exploration of new lands. Accordingly when exploration was commenced again private merchants led the way in attempting to stretch trade routes further down the African coast.[28] In 1470s, Portuguese trading ships reached the Gold Coast.[29] In 1471, the Portuguese captured Tangier, after years of attempts. Eleven years later in 1482, the fortress of So Jorge da Mina in the town of Elmina on the Gold Coast in the Gulf of Guinea was built. (Setting sail aboard the fleet of ships taking the materials and building crews to

Elmina on this trip in December 1481 was Christopher Columbus.) In 1483, Diogo Co reached and explored the Congo River. [edit] The New World In 1484, Portugal officially rejected Christopher Columbus's idea of reaching India from the west, because it was seen as unreasonable. Some historians have claimed that the Portuguese had already performed fairly accurate calculations concerning the size of the world and therefore knew that sailing west to reach the Indies would require a far longer journey than navigating to the east. However, this continues to be debated. Thus began a long-lasting dispute which eventually resulted in the signing of the Treaty of Tordesillas with Spain in 1494. The treaty divided the (largely undiscovered) world equally between the Spanish and the Portuguese, along a northsouth meridian line 370 leagues (1770 km/1100 miles) west of the Cape Verde islands, with all lands to the east belonging to Portugal and all lands to the west to Spain.

Map of Brazil issued by the Portuguese explorers in 1519. A remarkable achievement was the turning of the Cape of Good Hope by Bartolomeu Dias in 1487.[30] The richness of India was now accessible. Indeed the name of the cape stems from this promise of rich trade with the east. In 1489, the King of Bemobi gave his realms to the Portuguese king and became Christian. Between 1491 and 1494, Pro de Barcelos and Joo Fernandes Lavrador explored North America. At the same time, Pro da Covilh reached Ethiopia by land. Vasco da Gama sailed for India, and arrived at Calicut on 20 May 1498, returning in glory to Portugal the next year.[31] The Monastery of Jernimos was built, dedicated to the discovery of the route to India. In the spring of 1500, Pedro lvares Cabral set sail from Cape Verde with 13 ships and crews and a list of nobles that included Nicolau Coelho, Bartolomeu Dias and his

brother Diogo, Duarte Pacheco Pereira (author of the Esmeraldo) along with various other nobles, nine chaplains and some 1,200 men.[32] From Cape Verde they sailed southwest across the Atlantic. On April 22, 1500, they caught sight of land in the distance.[33] They disembarked and claimed this new land for Portugal. This was the coast of what would later become the Portuguese colony of Brazil.[34] However, the real goal of the expedition was to open sea trade to the empires of the east. Trade with the east had effectively been cut off since the fall of Constantinople in 1453. Accordingly, Cabral turned from exploring the coasts of the new land of Brazil and sailed to the southeast back across the Atlantic and around the Cape of Good Hope. Cabral reached Sofala on the east coast of Africa in July 1500.[35] Later in 1505, a Portuguese fort would be established here and the land around the fort would become the Portuguese colony of Mozambique.[36] Then they sailed on to the east and landed in Calicut in India in September 1500.[37] Here they traded for pepper and, more significantly opened European sea trade with the empires of the east. No longer would the Islamic occupation of Constantinople form a barrier between Europe and the east.Ten years later in 1510, Afonso de Albuquerque after attempting and failing to capture and occupy Zamorin's Calicut militarily, conquered Goa on the west coast of India.[38] Joo da Nova discovered Ascension in 1501 and Saint Helena in 1502; Tristo da Cunha was the first to sight the archipelago still known by his name 1506. In 1505, Francisco de Almeida was engaged to improve the Portuguese trade with the far east. Accordingly, he sailed to East Africa. Several small Islamic states along the coast of Mozambique, Kilwa, Brava and Mombasa were destroyed or became subjects or allies of Portugal.[39] Almeida then sailed on to Cochin, made peace with the ruler and built a stone fort there.[40]

The arrival of the Portuguese in Japan, the first Europeans who managed to reach it, initiating the Nanban ("southern barbarian") period of active commercial and cultural exchange between Japan and the West. The two million Portuguese people ruled a vast empire with many millions of inhabitants in the Americas, Africa, the Middle East and Asia. From 1514, the Portuguese had reached China and Japan. In the Indian Ocean and Arabian Sea, one of Cabral's ships discovered Madagascar (1501), which was partly explored by Tristo da Cunha (1507); Mauritius was discovered in 1507, Socotra occupied in 1506, and in the same year Loureno de Almeida visited Ceylon. In the Red Sea, Massawa was the most northerly point frequented by the Portuguese until 1541, when a fleet under Estevo da Gama penetrated as far as Suez. Hormuz, in

the Persian Gulf, was seized by Afonso de Albuquerque in 1515, who also entered into diplomatic relations with Persia. In 1521, a force under Antonio Correia conquered Bahrain ushering in a period of almost 80 years of Portuguese rule of the Persian Gulf archipelago[41] (for further information see Bahrain as a Portuguese dominion). On the Asiatic mainland the first trading stations were established by Pedro lvares Cabral at Cochin and Calicut (1501); more important were the conquests of Goa (1510) and Malacca (1511) by Afonso de Albuquerque, and the acquisition of Diu (1535) by Martim Afonso de Sousa. East of Malacca Albuquerque sent Duarte Fernandes as envoy to Siam (now Thailand) in 1511, and dispatched to the Moluccas two expeditions (1512, 1514), which founded the Portuguese dominion in Maritime Southeast Asia.[42] The Portuguese established their base in the Spice Islands on the island of Ambon.[43] Ferno Pires de Andrade visited Canton in 1517 and opened up trade with China, where in 1557 the Portuguese were permitted to occupy Macau. Japan, accidentally reached by three Portuguese traders in 1542, soon attracted large numbers of merchants and missionaries. In 1522 one of the ships in the expedition that Ferdinand Magellan organized in the Spanish service completed the first voyage around the world. By the end of the 15th century, Portugal expelled some local Jews, along with those refugees that came from Castile and Aragon after 1492. In addition, many Jews were forcibly converted to Catholicism and remained as Conversos. Many Jews remained secretly Jewish, in danger of persecution by the Portuguese Inquisition. In 1506, 3,000 "New Christians" were massacred in Lisbon.[44]

[edit] 1580 crisis, Iberian Union and decline of the Empire

Main articles: 1580 Portuguese succession crisis, Iberian Union, and Dutch Portuguese War On August 4, 1578, while fighting in Morocco, young King Sebastian died in battle without an heir and his body was not found.[45] His death lead to a dynastic crisis. The late king's elderly granduncle, Cardinal Henry, became king.[46] Henry I died a mere two years later on January 31, 1580.[47] Portugal was worried about the maintenance of its independence and sought help to find a new king. Philip II of Spain was on his mother's side the grandson of King Manuel I, and on that basis claimed the Portuguese throne. He was opposed by Antnio, Prior of Crato, the illegitimate son of one of the younger sons of Manuel I. As a result, following Henry's death Spain invaded Portugal and the Spanish king became Philip I of Portugal in 1580. The Spanish and Portuguese Empires came under a single rule. This did not, however, end resistance to Spanish rule. The Prior of Crato held out in the Azores until 1583, and continued to actively seek to recover the throne until his death in 1595. Impostors claimed to be King Sebastian in 1584, 1585, 1595 and 1598.

"Sebastianism", the myth that the young king will return to Portugal on a foggy day, has prevailed until modern times. After the 16th century, Portugal gradually saw its wealth decreasing. Portugal was officially an autonomous state, but, in actuality, the country was under the rule of the Spanish from 1580 to 1640.[48] The Consejo de Portugal independent inasmuch as it was one of the key administrative units used by the Castilian monarchy, on legally equal terms with the Consejo de Indias.[49] The joining of the two crowns deprived Portugal of a separate foreign policy, and Spain's enemies became Portugal's. England had been an ally of Portugal since the Treaty of Windsor in 1386. War between Spain and England led to a deterioration of the relations with Portugal's oldest ally, and the loss of Hormuz. From 1595 to 1663 Dutch-Portuguese War led to invasions of many countries in Asia and commercial interests in Japan, Africa and South America. In 1624, the Dutch seized Salvador, the capital of Brazil.[50] In 1630, the Dutch seized Pernambuco in northern Brazil.[51] The Treaty of 1654 returned Pernambuco to Portuguese control.[52] Both the English and the Dutch continued to aspire to dominate both the Atlantic slave trade and the spice trade with the Far East. The Dutch intrusion into Brazil was long lasting and troublesome to Portugal. The Seven Provinces (the Dutch) captured a large portion of the Brazilian coast including the entire coasts except that of Bahia and much of the interior of most contemporary Northeastern states (Bahia, Sergipe, Alagoas, Pernambuco, Paraba, Rio Grande do Norte and Cear), while Dutch privateers sacked Portuguese ships in both the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. This was reversed, beginning with a major Spanish-Portuguese military operation in 1625. This laid the foundations for the recovery of remaining Dutch controlled areas. The other smaller, less developed areas were recovered in stages and relieved of Dutch piracy in the next two decades by local resistance and Portuguese expeditions. After the dissolution of the Iberian Union in 1640, Portugal would reestablish its authority over some lost territories of the Portuguese Empire.

[edit] Portuguese Restoration War (1640-1668)

Main article: Portuguese Restoration War At home, life was calm and serene with the first two Spanish kings; they maintained Portugal's status, gave excellent positions to Portuguese nobles in the Spanish courts, and Portugal maintained an independent law, currency and government. It was even proposed to move the Spanish capital to Lisbon. Later, Philip IV tried to make Portugal a Spanish province, and Portuguese nobles lost power. Because of this, as well as the general strain on the finances of the Spanish throne as a result of the Thirty Years War, on 1 December 1640, the Duke of Braganza, one of the great native noblemen and a descendant of King Manuel I, was proclaimed king as John IV, and a war of independence against Spain was launched. Ceuta governors did not accept the new king; they maintained their allegiance to Spain. Although Portugal

had substantially attained its independence in 1640, the Spanish continued to try to reassert their control for the next twenty-eight years, only accepting Portuguese independence in 1668. In the 17th century the Portuguese emigrated in large numbers to Brazil. By 1709, John V prohibited emigration, since Portugal had lost a sizable fraction of its population. Brazil was elevated to a vice-kingdom.

[edit] Pombaline era

Main articles: Portugal from the Restoration to the 1755 Earthquake and Sebastio de Melo, Marquis of Pombal

Sebastio Jos de Carvalho e Melo, Marquis of Pombal. In 1738, Sebastio de Melo, the talented son of a Lisbon squire, began a diplomatic career as the Portuguese Ambassador in London and later in Vienna. The Queen consort of Portugal, Archduchess Maria Anne Josefa of Austria, was fond of Melo; and after his first wife died, she arranged the widowed de Melo's second marriage to the daughter of the Austrian Field Marshal Leopold Josef, Count von Daun. King John V of Portugal, however, was not pleased and recalled Melo to Portugal in 1749. John V died the following year and his son, Joseph I of Portugal was crowned. In contrast to his father, Joseph I was fond of de Melo, and with the Queen Mother's approval, he appointed Melo as Minister of Foreign Affairs. As the King's confidence in de Melo increased, the King entrusted him with more control of the state. By 1755, Sebastio de Melo was made Prime Minister. Impressed by British economic success he had witnessed while Ambassador, he successfully implemented similar economic policies in Portugal. He abolished slavery in Portugal and in the Portuguese colonies in India; reorganized the army and the navy; restructured the University of Coimbra, and ended discrimination against different Christian sects in Portugal.

This 1755 copper engraving shows the ruins of Lisbon in flames and a tsunami overwhelming the ships in the harbor. But Sebastio de Melo's greatest reforms were economic and financial, with the creation of several companies and guilds to regulate every commercial activity. He demarcated the region for production of Port to ensure the wine's quality, and this was the first attempt to control wine quality and production in Europe. He ruled with a strong hand by imposing strict law upon all classes of Portuguese society from the high nobility to the poorest working class, along with a widespread review of the country's tax system. These reforms gained him enemies in the upper classes, especially among the high nobility, who despised him as a social upstart. Disaster fell upon Portugal in the morning of 1 November 1755, when Lisbon was struck by a violent earthquake with an estimated Richter scale magnitude of 9. The city was razed to the ground by the earthquake and the subsequent tsunami and ensuing fires. Sebastio de Melo survived by a stroke of luck and then immediately embarked on rebuilding the city, with his famous quote: "What now? We bury the dead and feed the living." Despite the calamity, Lisbon suffered no epidemics and within less than one year was already being rebuilt. The new downtown of Lisbon was designed to resist subsequent earthquakes. Architectural models were built for tests, and the effects of an earthquake were simulated by marching troops around the models. The buildings and big squares of the Pombaline Downtown of Lisbon still remain as one of Lisbon's tourist attractions: They represent the world's first quake-proof buildings.[citation needed] Sebastio de Melo also made an important contribution to the study of seismology by designing an inquiry that was sent to every parish in the country. Following the earthquake, Joseph I gave his Prime Minister even more power, and Sebastio de Melo became a powerful, progressive dictator. As his power grew, his enemies increased in number, and bitter disputes with the high nobility became frequent. In 1758 Joseph I was wounded in an attempted assassination. The Tvora family and the Duke of Aveiro were implicated and executed after a quick trial. The Jesuits were expelled from the country and their assets confiscated by the crown. Sebastio de Melo showed no mercy and prosecuted every person involved, even women and children. This was the final stroke that broke the power of the aristocracy and ensured the victory of the Minister against his enemies. Based upon his swift resolve, Joseph I made his loyal minister Count of Oeiras in 1759.

Following the Tvora affair, the new Count of Oeiras knew no opposition. Made "Marquis of Pombal" in 1770, he effectively ruled Portugal until Joseph I's death in 1779. However, historians also argue that Pombals "enlightenment," while farreaching, was primarily a mechanism for enhancing autocracy at the expense of individual liberty and especially an apparatus for crushing opposition, suppressing criticism, and furthering colonial economic exploitation as well as intensifying book censorship and consolidating personal control and profit.[53] The new ruler, Queen Maria I of Portugal, disliked the Marquis (See Tvora affair), and forbade him from coming within 20 miles of her, thus curtailing his influence. [edit] Spanish invasion of Portugal (1762) Main article: Spanish Invasion of Portugal (1762) In 1762 France and Spain tried to force Portugal to join the Bourbon Family Compact, by asserting that Britain had become too powerful. Joseph refused to accept this and protested that his 1704 alliance with Britain was no threat. In spring 1762 Spanish troops invaded Portugal from the north as far as the Douro, while a second column captured Almeida and threatened to advance on Lisbon. The arrival of a force of British troops helped Portugal, blocking the Spanish advance and driving them back across the border following the Battle of Valencia de Alcntara. At the Treaty of Paris in 1763 Spain agreed to hand back Almeida to Portugal.

[edit] Crises of the nineteenth century

Main articles: History of Portugal (1777-1834) and History of Portugal (1834-1910) In 1807 Portugal refused Napoleon Bonaparte's demand to accede to the Continental System of embargo against the United Kingdom; a French invasion under General Junot followed, and Lisbon was captured on 8 December 1807. British intervention in the Peninsular War restored Portuguese independence, the last French troops being expelled in 1812. The war cost Portugal the province of Olivena,[54] now governed by Spain. Rio de Janeiro in Brazil, was the Portuguese capital between 1808 and 1821. In 1820 constitutionalist insurrections took place at Oporto (24 August) and Lisbon (15 September). Lisbon regained its status as the capital of Portugal when Brazil declared its independence from Portugal in 1822. The death of John VI in 1826 led to a crisis of royal succession. His eldest son, Pedro I of Brazil, briefly became Pedro IV of Portugal, but neither the Portuguese nor the Brazilians wanted a unified monarchy; consequently, Pedro abdicated the Portuguese crown in favor of his 7-year-old daughter, Maria da Glria, on the condition that when of age she would marry his brother, Miguel. Dissatisfaction at Pedro's constitutional reforms led the "absolutist" faction of landowners and the church to proclaim Miguel as king in February 1828. This led to the Liberal Wars in which Pedro, eventually forced Miguel to abdicate and go into exile in 1834, and placed his daughter on throne as Queen Maria II.

In 1890 the British government made an ultimatum delivered on 11 January 1890, to Portugal, forcing the retreat of Portuguese military forces in the land between the Portuguese colonies of Mozambique and Angola (most of present-day Zimbabwe and Zambia). The area had been claimed by Portugal, which had included it in its "Pink Map", but this clashed with British aspirations to create a railroad link between Cairo and Cape Town, thereby linking its colonies from the north of Africa to the very south. This diplomatic clash leading to several waves of protest, prompted the downfall of the Portuguese government. The 1890 British Ultimatum was considered by Portuguese historians and politics at that time, the most outrageous and infamous action of the British against her oldest ally.[55]

[edit] The First Republic (19101926)

Main article: Portuguese First Republic The First Republic has, over the course of a recent past, lost many historians to the New State. As a result, it is difficult to attempt a global synthesis of the republican period in view of the important gaps that still persist in our knowledge of its political history. As far as the October 1910 Revolution is concerned, a number of valuable studies have been made,[56] first among which ranks Vasco Pulido Valentes polemical thesis. This historian posited the Jacobin and urban nature of the revolution carried out by the Portuguese Republican Party (PRP) and claimed that the PRP had turned the republican regime into a de facto dictatorship.[57] This vision clashes with an older interpretation of the First Republic as a progressive and increasingly democratic regime that presented a clear contrast to Salazars ensuing dictatorship.[58] The revolution immediately targeted the Catholic Church: churches were plundered, convents were attacked and religious (priests and nuns) were harassed. Scarcely had the provisional government been installed when it began devoting its entire attention to an anti-religious policy, in spite of a disastrous economic situation. On 10 October five days after the inauguration of the Republic the new government decreed that all convents, monasteries and all religious orders were to be suppressed. All religious were expelled and their goods confiscated. The Jesuits were forced to forfeit their Portuguese citizenship. A series of anti-Catholic laws and decrees followed each other in rapid succession. On 3 November, a law legalizing divorce was passed; then laws recognizing the legitimacy of children born outside wedlock, authorizing cremation, secularizing cemeteries, suppressing religious teaching in the schools and prohibiting the wearing of the cassock, were passed. In addition, the ringing of church bells and times of worship were subjected to certain restraints, and the public celebration of religious feasts was suppressed. The government even interfered with the seminaries, reserving the right to name the professors and determine the programs. This whole series of laws authored by Afonso Costa culminated in the law of Separation of Church and State, which was passed on 20 April 1911. A republican constitution was approved in 1911, inaugurating a parliamentary regime with reduced presidential powers and two chambers of parliament.[59] The Republic provoked important fractures within Portuguese society, notably among the

essentially monarchist rural population, in the trade unions, and in the Church. Even the PRP had to endure the secession of its more moderate elements, who formed conservative republican parties like the Evolutionist party and the Republican Union. In spite of these splits, the PRP, led by Afonso Costa, preserved its dominance, largely due to a brand of clientelist politics inherited from the monarchy.[60] In view of these tactics, a number of opposition forces were forced to resort to violence in order to enjoy the fruits of power. There are few recent studies of this period of the Republics existence, known as the old Republic. Nevertheless, an essay by Vasco Pulido Valente should be consulted (1997a), as should the attempt to establish the political, social, and economic context made by M. Villaverde Cabral (1988). The PRP viewed the outbreak of the First World War as a unique opportunity to achieve a number of goals: putting an end to the twin threats of a Spanish invasion of Portugal and of foreign occupation of the African colonies and, at the internal level, creating a national consensus around the regime and even around the party.[61] These domestic objectives were not met, since participation in the conflict was not the subject of a national consensus and since it did not therefore serve to mobilise the population. Quite the opposite occurred: existing lines of political and ideological fracture were deepened by Portugals intervention in the First World War.[62] The lack of consensus around Portugals intervention in turn made possible the appearance of two dictatorships, led by General Pimenta de Castro (JanuaryMay 1915) and Sidnio Pais (December 1917-December 1918). Sidonismo, also known as Dezembrismo (English "Decemberism"), aroused a strong interest among historians, largely as a result of the elements of modernity that it contained.[63] Antnio Jos Telo has made clear the way in which this regime predated some of the political solutions invented by the totalitarian and fascist dictatorships of the 1920s and 1930s.[64] Sidnio Pais undertook the rescue of traditional values, notably the Ptria (English: "Homeland"), and attempted to rule in a charismatic fashion. A move was made to abolish traditional political parties and to alter the existing mode of national representation in parliament (which, it was claimed, exacerbated divisions within the Ptria) through the creation of a corporative Senate, the founding of a single-party (the National Republican Party), and the attribution of a mobilising function to the leader. The state carved out an economically interventionist role for itself while, at the same time, repressing working-class movements and leftist republicans. Sidnio Pais also attempted to restore public order and to overcome some of the rifts of the recent past, making the republic more acceptable to monarchists and Catholics. The vacuum of power created by Sidnio Pais murder[65] on 14 December 1918, led the country to a brief civil war. The monarchys restoration was proclaimed in the north of Portugal on 19 January 1919, and four days later a monarchist insurrection broke out in Lisbon. A republican coalition government, led by Jos Relvas, coordinated the struggle against the monarchists by loyal army units and armed civilians. After a series of clashes the monarchists were definitively chased from Oporto on 13 February 1919. This military victory allowed the PRP to return to government and to emerge triumphant from the elections held later that year, having won the usual absolute majority.

Official portrait of President Antnio Jos de Almeida, by Henrique Medina. It was during this restoration of the old republic that an attempted reform was carried out in order to provide the regime with greater stability. In August 1919 a conservative president was elected Antnio Jos de Almeida (whose Evolutionist party had come together in wartime with the PRP to form a flawed, because incomplete, Sacred Union) and his office was given the power to dissolve parliament. Relations with the Holy See, restored by Sidnio Pais, were preserved. The president used his new power to resolve a crisis of government in May 1921, naming a liberal[disambiguation needed] government (the Liberal party being the result of the postwar fusion of Evolutionists and Unionists) to prepare the forthcoming elections. These were held on 10 July 1921, with victory going, as was usually the case, to the party in power. However, liberal government did not last long. On 19 October a military pronunciamento was carried out during which and apparently against the wishes of the coups leaders a number of prominent conservative figures, including Prime Minister Antnio Granjo, were assassinated. This event, known as the night of blood[66] left a deep wound among political elites and public opinion. There could be no greater demonstration of the essential fragility of the Republics institutions and proof that the regime was democratic in name only, since it did not even admit the possibility of the rotation in power characteristic of the elitist regimes of the nineteenth century. A new round of elections on 29 January 1922 inaugurated a fresh period of stability: the PRP once again emerged from the contest with an absolute majority. Discontent with this situation had not, however, disappeared. Numerous accusations of corruption, and the manifest failure to resolve pressing social concerns wore down the more visible PRP leaders while making the oppositions attacks more deadly. At the same time, moreover, all political parties suffered from growing internal factionalism, especially the PRP itself. The party system was fractured and discredited.[67] This is clearly shown by the fact that regular PRP victories at the ballot box did not lead to stable government. Between 1910 and 1926 there were forty-five governments. The opposition of presidents to single-party governments, internal

dissent within the PRP, the partys almost non-existent internal discipline, and its desire to group together and lead all republican forces made any governments task practically impossible. Many different formulas were attempted, including singleparty governments, coalitions, and presidential executives, but none succeeded. Force was clearly the sole means open to the opposition if the PRP wanted to enjoy the fruits of power.[68] [edit] 28 May 1926 coup d'tat Main article: 28 May 1926 coup d'tat

Gomes da Costa and his troops march victorious into Lisbon on 6 June 1926. By the mid-1920s the domestic and international scenes began to favour another authoritarian solution, wherein a strengthened executive might restore political and social order. Since the oppositions constitutional route to power was blocked by the various means deployed by the PRP to protect itself, it turned to the army for support. The political awareness of the armed forces had grown during the war, and many of whose leaders had not forgiven the PRP for sending it to a war it did not want to fight.[69] They seemed to represent, to conservative forces, the last bastion of order against the chaos that was taking over the country. Links were established between conservative figures and military officers, who added their own political and corporative demands to the already complex equation. The pronunciamento of 28 May 1926 enjoyed the support of most army units and even of most political parties. As had been the case in December 1917, the population of Lisbon did not rise to defend the Republic, leaving it at the mercy of the army.[69] There are few global and up-to-date studies of this turbulent third phase of the Republics existence.[70] Nevertheless, much has been written about the crisis and fall of the regime and the 28 May movement.[71] The First Republic continues to be the subject of an intense debate. A recent historiographical balance sheet, elaborated by Armando Malheiro da Silva (2000,) is a good introduction into this debate. Three main interpretations can be identified. For some historians the First Republic was a progressive and increasingly democratic regime. For others it was essentially a prolongation of the liberal and elitist regimes of the 19th century. A third group chooses to highlight the regimes revolutionary, Jacobin and dictatorial nature.

[edit] New State (Estado Novo) (19331974)

Main article: Estado Novo (Portugal)

Portuguese colonies in Africa by the time of the Colonial War. Political chaos, several strikes, harsh relations with the church, and considerable economic problems aggravated by a disastrous military intervention in the First World War led to the military 28 May 1926 coup d'tat. This coup installed the "Second Republic" that would become the Estado Novo in 1933, led by Antnio de Oliveira Salazar, which transformed Portugal into a proto-Fascist Axis-leaning state. This later evolved into some mixture of single-party corporative regime. In 1961 the Portuguese army was involved in armed action in its colony in Goa against an Indian invasion (See Operation Vijay). The operations resulted in a humiliating Portuguese defeat and the loss of the colonies in India. Independence movements also became active in Portuguese Angola, Portuguese Mozambique and Portuguese Guinea; the Portuguese Colonial War started. Portugal, during this period, was never an outcast, and was a founding member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) and the European Free Trade Association (EFTA). After the death of Salazar in 1970, his replacement by Marcelo Caetano offered a certain hope that the regime would open up, the primavera marcelista (Marcelist spring). However the colonial wars in Africa continued, political prisoners remained incarcerated, freedom of association was not restored, censorship was only slightly eased and the elections remained tightly controlled. The regime retained its characteristic traits: censorship, corporativeness, with a market economy dominated by a handful of economical groups, continuous surveillance and intimidation of several sectors of society through the use of a political police and techniques instilling fear (such as arbitrary imprisonment, systematic political persecution and even assassination of anti-regime insurgents).

[edit] The Third Republic (1974-)

Main articles: History of Portugal (1974-1986), History of Portugal (1986-2000), and Portugal in the 2000s

The "Carnation Revolution" of 1974, an effectively bloodless left-wing military coup, installed the "Third Republic". Broad democratic reforms were implemented. In 1975, Portugal granted independence to its Overseas Provinces (Provncias Ultramarinas in Portuguese) in Africa (Mozambique, Angola, Guinea-Bissau, Cape Verde and So Tom and Prncipe). Nearly 1 million Portuguese or persons of Portuguese descent left these former colonies as refugees.[72] In that same year, Indonesia invaded and annexed the Portuguese province of Portuguese Timor (East Timor) in Asia before independence could be granted. The massive exodus of the Portuguese military and citizens from Portuguese Angola and Mozambique, would prompt an era of chaos and severe destruction in those territories after independence from Portugal in 1975. From May 1974 to the end of the 1970s, over a million Portuguese citizens from Portugal's African territories (mostly from Portuguese Angola and Mozambique) left those territories as destitute refugees - the retornados.[73][74] The newly-independent countries were ravaged by brutal civil wars in the following decades - the Angolan Civil War (19752002) and Mozambican Civil War (1977 1992) - responsible for millions of deaths and refugees. The Asian dependency of Macau, after an agreement in 1986, was returned to Chinese sovereignty in 1999. Portugal applied international pressure to secure East Timor's independence from Indonesia, as East Timor was still legally a Portuguese dependency, and recognized as such by the United Nations. After a referendum in 1999, East Timor voted for independence and Portugal recognized its independence in 2002. With the 197576 independence of its colonies, other than Macau, the 560 year old Portuguese Empire effectively ended. Simultaneously 15 years of war effort also came to an end; many Portuguese returned from the colonies (the retornados) and came to comprise a sizeable number of the population: approximately 580,000 of Portugal's 9,8 million citizens in 1981.[75] This opened new paths for the country's future just as others closed. In 1986, Portugal entered the European Economic Community and left the European Free Trade Association which was founded by Portugal and its partners in 1960. The country joined the Euro in 1999. The Portuguese empire ended de facto in 1999 when Macau was returned to China, and de jure in 2002 when East Timor was independent.

[edit] See also

Portugal portal

Economic history of Portugal History of Europe History of European Union History of Morocco History of Portugal (7111112) History of Spain List of Portuguese Cortes List of Portuguese monarchs List of Prime Ministers of Portugal

Monuments of Portugal Presidents of Portugal Timeline of Portuguese history

[edit] Notes
Constructs such as ibid., loc. cit. and idem are discouraged by Wikipedia's style guide for footnotes, as they are easily broken. Please improve this article by replacing them with named references (quick guide), or an abbreviated title. (May 2010)
1. 2. ^ "Portugal Seeks Balance of Emigration, Immigration". Migrationinformation.org. 2002-0809. http://www.migrationinformation.org/Profiles/display.cfm?ID=77. Retrieved 2010-08-22. ^ Local etymology: a derivative ... - Google Books. Books.google.com. http://books.google.com/books?id=apcmAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA160&dq=lisbon+etymology&l r=#PPA55,M1. Retrieved 2010-08-22. ^ Celtic Linguistics. Books.google.com. http://books.google.com/books?id=POGEbFpGHigC&pg=RA1PA270&dq=celtic+cale+harbour&lr=&sig=RIIpretXAIvSW54ICvMH82IDcrw. Retrieved 2010-08-22. ^ Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography. Books.google.com. http://books.google.com/books?id=_sYPAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA477&dq=Cale,++name++Porto +greek&lr=. Retrieved 2010-08-22. ^ a b David Birmingham (2003), p.11 ^ a b Koch, John (2009). Tartessian: Celtic from the Southwest at the Dawn of History in Acta Palaeohispanica X Palaeohispanica 9 (2009). Palaeohispanica. pp. 339351. ISSN 15785386. http://ifc.dpz.es/recursos/publicaciones/29/54/26koch.pdf. Retrieved 2010-05-17. ^ Cunliffe, Karl, Guerra, McEvoy, Bradley; Oppenheimer, Rrvik, Isaac, Parsons, Koch, Freeman and Wodtko (2010). Celtic from the West: Alternative Perspectives from Archaeology, Genetics, Language and Literature. Oxbow Books and Celtic Studies Publications. pp. 384. ISBN 978-1-84217-410-4. http://www.oxbowbooks.com/bookinfo.cfm/ID/88298//Location/DBBC. ^ "Rethinking the Bronze Age and the Arrival of Indo-European in Atlantic Europe". University of Wales Centre for Advanced Welsh and Celtic Studies and Institute of Archaeology, University of Oxford. http://www.oxbowbooks.com/pdfs/books/Celtic%20West%20conf.pdf. Retrieved 24 May 2010. ^ "O'Donnell Lecture 2008 Appendix". http://www.wales.ac.uk/Resources/Documents/Research/ODonnell.pdf. ^ http://www.aber.ac.uk/aberonline/en/archive/2008/05/au7608/ ^ Broderick, George (2010). "Die vorrmischen Sprachen auf der iberischen Halbinsel". In Hinrichs, Uwe (in German). Das Handbuch der Eurolinguistik (1st ed.). Wiesbaden, Germany: Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 304305. ISBN 3-447-05928-1. http://books.google.com.au/books?id=3VDH7oKtViYC&pg=PA305. ^ http://multitree.org/codes/txr ^ David Rohrbacher, "Orosius," in The Historians of Late Antiquity (Routledge, 2002), pp. 135137. Rohrbacher bases the date of birth on Augustine's description of Orosius as a "young priest" and a "son by age" in the period 414418, which would place his age at 30 or younger. ^ Domingos Maria da Silva, Os Brios, Terras de Bouro, Cmara Municipal de Terras de Bouro, 2006. (in Portuguese) ^ Milhazes, Jos. Os antepassados caucasianos dos portugueses - Rdio e Televiso de Portugal in Portuguese. ^ H. V. Livermore, A New History of Portugal (Cambridge University Press: London, 1969) pp. 32-33. ^ H. V. Livermore, A New History of Portugal (Cambridge University Press: London, 1969) p. 76.

3.

4.

5. 6.

7.

8.

9. 10. 11.

12. 13.

14. 15. 16. 17.

18. ^ Robin Hallett, Africa to 1875: A Modern History (University of Michigan Press: Ann Arbor, 1970) pp. 47-48 19. ^ H. V. Livermore, A New History of Portugal (Cambridge University Press: London, 1969) pp. 106-107. 20. ^ Ibid., 108. 21. ^ Ibid. 22. ^ Ibid., p. 109. 23. ^ Ibid. 24. ^ Ibid., p. 109. 25. ^ Robin Hallett, Africa to 1875: A Modern History, p. 249. 26. ^ Robin Hallett, Africa to 1875: A Modern History, p. 248. 27. ^ Ibid., p. 164. 28. ^ Ibid. 29. ^ Ibid. 30. ^ H. V. Livermore, A New History of Portugal, p. 129. 31. ^ Robin Hallett, Africa to 1875: A Modern History, p. 164. 32. ^ H.V. Livermore, A New History of Portugal, p. 138-139. 33. ^ Ibid. 34. ^ Ibid. 35. ^ Ibid. 36. ^ Robin Hallett, Africa to 1875: A Modern History, p. 217. 37. ^ H.V. Livermore, A New History of Portugal, p.139. 38. ^ Percival Spear, India: A Modern History (University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, 1961) pp. 162-163. 39. ^ H. V. Livermore, A New History of Portugal, p. 140. 40. ^ Ibid. 41. ^ Juan Cole, Sacred Space and Holy War, IB Tauris, 2007 p37 42. ^ H. V. Livermore, A New History of Portugal, p. 142. 43. ^ Colin Brown, A Short History of Indonesia: The Unlikely Nation, (Allen & Unwin Pub.: Crows Nest, New South Wales, Australia, 2003) p. 33. 44. ^ Rebecca Weiner,The Virtual Jewish History Tour Portugal 45. ^ H. V. Livermore, A New History of Portugal, pp. 157-158. 46. ^ Ibid., p. 158. 47. ^ Ibid., 161. 48. ^ Ibid., pp. 163-172. 49. ^ Elliott, J.H. (2002). Imperial Spain 1469-1716 (Repr. ed.). London [u.a.]: Penguin Books. pp. 274. ISBN 0-14-100703-6. 50. ^ Ibid., p. 170. 51. ^ Ibid. 52. ^ Ibid., p. 184. 53. ^ Kenneth Maxwell, Pombal, Paradox of the Enlightenment (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 83, 91108, 16062. 54. ^ Ertl, Alan W. (2008). Toward an Understanding of Europe: A Political Economic Precis of Continental Integration. Dissertation.com. p. 303. ISBN 978-1-59942-983-0. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=X9PGRaZtzcC&pg=PA303&dq=province+Oliven%C3%A7a+peninsular+war&hl=en&ei=oAaVTOCOI pCQjAe7q_CtBw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAQ#v=o nepage&q=province%20Oliven%C3%A7a%20peninsular%20war&f=false. 55. ^ Joo Ferreira Duarte, The Politics of Non-Translation: A Case Study in Anglo-Portuguese Relations 56. ^ Wheeler, 1972 57. ^ Pulido Valente, 1982 58. ^ Oliveira Marques, 1991 59. ^ Miranda, 2001 60. ^ Lopes, 1994 61. ^ Teixeira, 1996a 62. ^ Ribeiro de Meneses, 2000 63. ^ Jos Brando, 1990; Ramalho, 1998; Ribeiro de Meneses, 1998, Armando Silva, 1999; Samara, 2003 and Santos, 2003 64. ^ Teixeira, 2000, pp. 11-24

65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72.

^ Medina, 1994 ^ Brando, 1991 ^ Lopes, 1994; Joo Silva, 1997 ^ Schwartzman, 1989; Pinto, 2000 ^ a b Ferreira, 1992a ^ Marques, 1973; Telo, 1980 & 1984 ^ Cruz, 1986; Cabral, 1993; Rosas, 1997; Martins, 1998; Pinto, 2000; Afonso, 2001 ^ Portugal - Emigration, Eric Solsten, ed. Portugal: A Country Study. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1993. 73. ^ Flight from Angola, The Economist (August 16, 1975). 74. ^ Dismantling the Portuguese Empire, Time Magazine (Monday, July 07, 1975). 75. ^ Andrea L. Smith (August 1, 2002). Europe's Invisible Migrants. http://books.google.com/books?id=6i_LwPYW0oC&pg=PA86&lpg=PA86&dq=retornados+population+of+portugal&source=bl&ots=F3 li3LecHd&sig=bhvTUvvG_uEOowhaQaU5ZmD0sA&hl=en&sa=X&ei=EaCFT4yzNOLc0QG6nOzpBw&ved=0CDMQ6AEwAg#v= onepage&q=retornados%20population%20of%20portugal&f=false. "Thus among the 580,000 Portuguese enumerated in the 1981 census who had lived in the African colonies prior to 1975, 60 percent had been born in Portugal."

Economic history of Portugal

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History of Portugal

Prehistoric[show] Roman rule[show] Germanic kingdoms[show] 7111139[show] Kingdom of Portugal[show] Portuguese Republic[show] Topics[show]

t e

The economic history of Portugal covers the development of the economy throughout the course of Portuguese history. It has its roots prior to nationality, when Roman occupation developed a thriving economy in Hispania, in the provinces of Lusitania and Gallaecia, as producers and exporters to the Roman Empire. This continued under the Visigoths and then Al-Andalus Moorish rule, until the Kingdom of Portugal was established in 1139. With the end of Portuguese reconquista and integration in the European Middle Age economy, the Portuguese were at the forefront of maritime exploration of the age of discovery, expanding to become the first global empire. Portugal then became the world's main economic power during the Renaissance, introducing most of Africa and the East to European society, and establishing a multi-continental trading system extending from Japan to Brazil.[1] In 1822, Portugal lost its main colony, Brazil. Portuguese territorial claims in Africa were challenged during the Scramble for Africa. Political chaos and economic problems endured from the last years of the monarchy to the first Republic of 1910 1926, which led to the installing of a national dictatorship in 1926. While Finance Minister Antnio de Oliveira Salazar managed to discipline the Portuguese economy, it evolved into a single party corporative regime in 1933the Estado Novo. The country underwent a regime change in 1974, the Carnation Revolution, a leftist military coup, culminating with the end of one of its most notable periods of economic growth, which had started in the 1960s.[2] From 1974 to the end of the 1970s, over a million Portuguese citizens arrived from the former African overseas colonies, most as destitute refugeesthe retornados.[3][4] In 1986, Portugal entered the European Economic Community and left the EFTA. The European Union's structural and cohesion funds and the growth of many of Portugal's main exporting companies were leading forces in the development of the Portuguese economy, and the resultant increase in the standard of living and quality of life. Similarly, for several years Portuguese subsidiaries of large multinational companies ranked among the most productive in the world.[5][6][7] Tourism accounts for about 5% of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP), while fisheries and agriculture each account for about 4%. The country adopted the euro in 1999. Despite being both a developed country and a high income country, Portugal's GDP per capita was of about 80% of the EU27 average.[8] The Global Competitiveness Report of 20082009 ranked Portugal 43rd out of 134 countries and territories.[9] Research by the Economist Intelligence Unit's (EIU) Quality of Life survey in 2005[10] ranked Portugal 19th in the world. As far as to companies is concerned, the country is home to a number of world players with international reputation, like Grupo Portucel Soporcel, a major world player in the international paper market, Sonae Indstria, the largest producer of wood-based panels in the world, Corticeira Amorim, the world leader in cork production, and Conservas Ramirez, the oldest canned fish producer in continuous operation.

Contents
[hide]

1 Pre-nationality o 1.1 Roman province o 1.2 Germanic rule o 1.3 Al-Andalus 2 Kingdom of Portugal o 2.1 Middle ages o 2.2 Expansion of the Portuguese empire (15th and 16th centuries) o 2.3 Atlantic Islands' sugar trade o 2.4 Guinean gold o 2.5 Spice trade o 2.6 Triangular trade between China, Japan, and Europe o 2.7 Expansion in South America o 2.8 Expansion in sub-Saharan Africa o 2.9 Decline: 17th to 19th century 3 The Portuguese Republic o 3.1 The economy under the "Estado Novo" regime 3.1.1 Retrospective analysis o 3.2 Revolutionary change, 1974 3.2.1 Nationalization 3.2.2 Land reform 3.2.3 The brain drain 3.2.4 Role of the new public sector 3.2.5 The non-financial public enterprises 3.2.6 General government 3.2.7 Macroeconomic disequilibria and public debt 3.2.8 Changing structure of the economy 3.2.9 Economic growth, 196073 and 198190 o 3.3 European Union integration: the 1990s and 2000s 3.3.1 The BPN and BPP bailouts o 3.4 Economic crisis: the 2010s 4 See also 5 References 6 Bibliography

[edit] Pre-nationality
Before the arrival of Romans in Iberia, the peninsula had a rural-based subsistence economy with very limited trade, with the exception of large cities on the Mediterranean coast, which had contact with Greek and Phoenician traders. Iberians and Celts were some of the first groups present in the territory, with the Celtic economy centered on cattle raising, agriculture, and metal working.

[edit] Roman province

See also: Economy of Hispania

Roman fish preserving plant, Setbal. The territory's mineral wealth made it an important strategic region during the early metal ages, and one of the first objectives of the Romans when invading the peninsula was to access the mines and other resources. After the Second Punic War, from 29 BC to 411 AD, Rome governed the Iberian peninsula, expanding and diversifying the economy, and extending trade with the Roman Empire. Indigenous peoples paid tribute to Rome through an intricate web of alliances and allegiances. The economy experienced a major production expansion, profiting from some of the best agricultural lands under Roman hegemony and fueled by roads, trade routes, and the minting of coins, which eased commercial transactions. Lusitania developed, driven by an intensive mining industry; fields explored included the Aljustrel mines (Vipasca), So Domingos, and Riotinto in the Iberian Pyrite Belt, which extended to Seville, and contained copper, silver, and gold. All mines belonged to the Roman Senate, and were operated by slaves. Subsistence agriculture was replaced by large farming units (Roman villas) producing olive oil, cereals, and wine, and rearing livestock. This farming activity was located mainly in the region to the south of the Tagus River, the third largest grain-producing area in the Roman Empire. There was also development in fishing activity, producing the valued garum or liquamen, a condiment obtained from the maceration of fish, preferably tuna and mackerel, exported throughout the entire empire. The largest producer of the entire Roman Empire was in Tria Peninsula, near modern Setbal, south of Lisbon. Remains of garum manufacturing plants show a sharp growth of the canning industry in Portugal, mainly on the coast of Algarve, but also in Pvoa de Varzim, Angeiras (Matosinhos), and the estuary of the Sado River, which made it one of the most important centers for canners in Hispania. At the same time, specialized industries also developed. The fish salting and canning in turn required the development of salt, shipbuilding, and ceramic industries, to facilitate the manufacture of amphorae and

other containers that allowed the storage and transport of commodities such as oil, wine, cereals, and preserves.

[edit] Germanic rule

A golden triente minted at Braga during the reign of Wittiza and bearing his rough effigy. With the decline of the Roman Empire, circa 410418, Suebi and Visigoths took over the power vacuum left by Roman administrators and established themselves as nobility, with some degree of centralized power at their capitals in Braga and Toledo. Although it suffered some decline, Roman law remained in the Visigothic Code, and infrastructure, such as roads, bridges, aqueducts, and irrigation systems, was maintained to varying degrees. While trade dwindled in most of the former Roman lands in Europe, it survived to some degree in Visigothic Hispania.

[edit] Al-Andalus
In 711, Moors occupied large parts of the Iberian Peninsula, establishing the AlAndalus. They maintained much of the Roman legacy; they repaired and extended Roman infrastructure, using it for irrigation, while introducing new agricultural practices and novel crops, such as sugar cane, rice, citrus fruit, apricots, and cotton. Trade flourished with effective systems of contract relied upon by merchants, who would buy and sell on commission, with money lent to them by wealthy investors, or a joint investment of several merchants, who were often Muslim, Christian, and Jewish. Little is directly known from the economic structures of the region due to the paucity of Arab sources. It is however possible to advance a few assertions. The constant warfare between Muslims and Christians and among Muslims certainly costed the region dearly and must have participated to the rampant problems of underpopulation experienced by the Gharb al-Andalus. As a matter of example, several attempts to repopulate the regions north of Coimbra to guarantee a line of defense against the Christian kingdom failed. The economy was heavily influenced both by structural Islamic habits (creation of cities) and the direction chosen by the dominating Muslim ruler of the Maghrib and al-Andalus. For instance, the great interest paid by the Almohad dynasty to the Atlantic helped develop the military and civilian (trade, fishery) activities of the western Iberian ports such as Sevilla, Lisbon, etc. Despite a general impression of sustained development, specially during the 10th and 11th centuries when the area witnessed a noticeable demographic expansion, the Gharb al-

Andalus also underwent some dramatic episodes such as the great famine of 740 which decimated the Berber colonists of the Douro region.[11] Business partnerships would be made for many commercial ventures, and bonds of kinship enabled trade networks to form over huge distances. Muslims were involved in trade extending into Asia, and Muslim merchants traveled long distances for commercial activities.[12] After 800 years of warfare, the Catholic kingdoms gradually became more powerful and eventually expelled the Moors from the peninsula. In the case of the Kingdom of Portugal it happened in the 13th century; in the Algarve. The combined forces of Portugal, Aragon and Castile defeated the last Iberian Muslim strongholds in the 15th century.

[edit] Kingdom of Portugal

King Afonso I of Portugal. In 1139, the Kingdom of Portugal achieved independence from the Kingdom of Len, having doubled its area through the Reconquista (the reconquest of former Christian lands to the Muslim rulers established in the Iberian Peninsula) under Afonso Henriques, first King of Portugal. His successor, Sancho I, accumulated the first national treasury, and supported new industries and the middle class of merchants. Moreover, he created several new towns, such as Guarda in 1199, and took great care in populating remote areas.

[edit] Middle ages

Starting in 1212, Afonso II of Portugal established the state's administration, designing the first set of Portuguese written laws. These were mainly concerned with private property, civil justice, and minting. He sent ambassadors to European kingdoms outside the Iberian Peninsula to begin commercial relations. The earliest references of commercial relations between Portugal and the County of Flanders document Portuguese attendance at Lille's fair in 1267.[13] In 1297, with the Reconquista completed, King Denis pursued policies on legislation and centralization

of power, adopting Portuguese as the official language. He ordered the exploration of mines of copper, silver, tin, and iron, and organized for the export of surplus production to other European countries. On 10 May 1293, King Denis instituted the Bolsa de Comrcio, a commercial fund for the defense of Portuguese traders in foreign ports,[14] such as the County of Flanders, which were to pay certain sums according to tonnage, accrued to them when necessary. In 1308, he signed Portugal's first commercial agreement with England.[15] He distributed land, promoted agriculture, organized communities of farmers and took a personal interest in the development of exports, founding and regulating regular markets in a number of towns. In 1317, he made a pact with the Genoese merchant sailor Manuel Pessanha (Pesagno), appointing him Admiral and giving him trade privileges with his homeland, in return for twenty warships and crews. The intention was the defense of the country against pirates, and it laid the basis for the Portuguese Navy and the establishment of a Genoese merchant community in Portugal.[16] Agriculture was Portugal's main activity, with produce mostly consumed internally. Wine and dried fruits from the Algarve (figs, grapes, and almonds) were sold in Flanders and England, salt from Setbal and Aveiro was a profitable export to northern Europe, and leather and kermes, a scarlet dye, were also exported. Industry was minimal, and Portugal imported armor and munitions, fine clothes, and several manufactured products from Flanders and Italy. Since the 13th century, a monetary economy had been stimulated, but barter still dominated trade, and coinage was limited; foreign currency was also used until the beginning of the 15th century.[17] In the second half of the 14th century, outbreaks of bubonic plague led to severe depopulation: the economy was extremely localized in a few towns, and migration from the country led to land being abandoned to agriculture and resulted in rises in rural unemployment. Only the sea offered alternatives, with most populations settling in fishing and trading coastal areas.[18] Between 1325 and 1357, Alfonso IV granted public funding to raise a proper commercial fleet and ordered the first maritime explorations, with the help of Genoese sailors under the command of admiral Manuel Pessanha. Forced to reduce their activities in the Black Sea, the Republic of Genoa had turned to the north African trade of wheat and olive oil (valued also as an energy source), and a search for gold, although they also visited the ports of Bruges (Flanders) and England. In 1341, the Canary Islands were officially discovered under the patronage of the Portuguese king, but in 1344 Castile disputed them, further propelling the development of the Portuguese navy.[19] To promote settlement, the Sesmarias law was issued in 1375, expropriating vacant lands and leasing it to unemployed cultivators, without great effect: by the end of the century, Portugal faced food shortages, having to import wheat from north Africa. After the 13831385 Crisiscombining a succession crisis, war with Castile, and Lisbon plagued by famine and anarchya newly elected Aviz dynasty, with strong links to England, marked an eclipse of the conservative land-oriented aristocracy.

[edit] Expansion of the Portuguese empire (15th and 16th centuries)

Henry the Navigator was an important figure in the early days of the Portuguese Empire, being responsible for the beginning of the European worldwide explorations and maritime trade. In 1415, Ceuta was occupied by the Portuguese with the aim of controlling navigation of the African coast, expanding Christianity with the avail of the papacy, and providing the nobility with war. The king's son, Henry the Navigator, then became aware of the profitability of the Saharan trade routes. Governor of the rich 'Order of Christ' and holding valuable monopolies on resources in the Algarve, he sponsored voyages down the coast of Mauritania, gathering a group of merchants, shipowners, and stakeholders interested in the sea lanes. Later, his brother Prince Pedro granted him a "Royal Flush" of all profits from trading within the discovered areas. Soon the Atlantic islands of Madeira (1420) and Azores (1427) were reached and began to be settled, producing wheat for export to Portugal. By the beginning of the reign of King Duarte I in 1433, the Real became the currency unit in Portugal,[20] and remained so up to the XX century. In January 1430, Princess Isabella of Portugal married Philip III, Duke of Burgundy, Count of Flanders. Around 2,000 Portuguese accompanied her, developing great activity in trade and finance in what was then the richest European court. With Portuguese support, Bruges shipyard was started, and in 1438 the Duke granted the Portuguese traders the opportunity to elect consuls with legal powers, thus giving full civil jurisdiction to the Portuguese community. In 1445, the Portuguese Feitoria of Bruges was built. In 1443, Prince Pedro, Henry's brother, granted him the monopoly of navigation, war, and trade in the lands south of Cape Bojador. Later, this monopoly would be enforced by the Papal bulls Dum Diversas (1452) and Romanus Pontifex (1455), granting Portugal the trade monopoly for the newly discovered lands.[21] When the Portuguese first sailed down the Atlantic, extending their influence on coastal Africa, they were interested in gold.[22] Trade in sub-Saharan Africa was controlled by Muslims, who controlled trans-Saharan trade routes for salt, kola, textiles, fish, and grain, and engaged in the Arab slave trade.[23]

To attract Muslim traders along the routes traveled in North Africa, the first factory trading post was built in 1445 on the island of Arguin, off the coast of Mauritania. Portuguese merchants accessed the interior via the Senegal and Gambia rivers, which bisected long-standing trans-Saharan routes. They brought in copperware, cloth, tools, wine, and horses, and later included arms and ammunition. In exchange, they received gold from the mines of Akan, Guinea pepper (a trade which lasted until Vasco da Gama reached India in 1498), and ivory. The expanding market opportunities in Europe and the Mediterranean resulted in increased trade across the Sahara.[24] There was a very small market for African slaves as domestic workers in Europe, and as workers on the sugar plantations of the Mediterranean and later Madeira. The Portuguese found they could make considerable amounts of gold by transporting slaves from one trading post to another, along the Atlantic coast of Africa: Muslim merchants had a high demand for slaves, which were used as porters on the transSaharan routes, and for sale in the Islamic Empire.

[edit] Atlantic Islands' sugar trade

Expansion of sugar cane agriculture in Madeira's captaincies started in 1455, using advisers from Sicily and (largely) the Genoese capital to produce the "sweet salt" rare in Europe. Already cultivated in Algarve, the accessibility of Madeira attracted Genoese and Flemish traders keen to bypass Venetian monopolies. Sugarcane production became a leading factor in the island's economy, and the establishment of plantations on Madeira, the Canary Islands, and the Cape Verde Islands increased the demand for labor. Rather than trading slaves back to Muslim merchants, there was an emerging market for agricultural workers on the plantations. By 1500, the Portuguese had transported approximately 81,000 slaves to these various markets,[25] and the proportion of imported slaves in Madeira reached 10% of the total population by the 16th century.[26] By 1480, Antwerp had some 70 ships engaged in the Madeira sugar trade, with refining and distribution concentrated in the city. By the 1490s, Madeira had overtaken Cyprus in the production of sugar,[27] and the success of sugar merchants such as Bartolomeo Marchionni would propel the investment in exploratory travel.

[edit] Guinean gold

Elmina Castle viewed from the sea in 1668.

Gold Cruzado minted during King Manuel I of Portugal's reign (14951521) In 1469, responding to meager returns from African explorations, King Afonso V granted monopoly of trade in part of the Gulf of Guinea to the merchant Ferno Gomes. For an annual rent of 200,000 reais, Gomes was to explore 100 leagues of the coast of Africa annually, for five years (later the agreement would be extended for another year).[28] He gained monopoly trading rights for a popular substitute of black pepper, then called "malagueta", the guinea pepper (Aframomum melegueta), for another yearly payment of 100,000 reais.[28] The Portuguese found Muslim merchants entrenched along the African coast as far as the Bight of Benin.[29] The slave coast, as the Bight of Benin was known, was reached by the Portuguese at the start of the 1470s. It was not until they reached the Kingdom of Kongo's coast in the 1480s that they exceeded Muslim trading territory. Under Gomes' sponsorship, the equator was crossed and the islands of the Gulf of Guinea were reached, including So Tom and Prncipe. On the coast, Gomes found a thriving alluvial gold trade among the natives and visiting Arab and Berber traders at the port then named Mina (meaning "the mine"), where he established a trading post. Trade between Elmina and Portugal grew over the next decade. The port became a major trading center for gold and slaves purchased from local African peoples along the slave rivers of Benin. Using his profits from African trade, Ferno Gomes assisted the Portuguese king in the conquests of Asilah, Alcacer Ceguer, and Tangier in Morocco. Given the large profits, in 1482 the newly crowned king John II ordered a factory to be built in Elmina, to manage the local gold industry: Elmina Castle.[30] So Jorge da Mina Factory centralized trade, which was held again as a royal monopoly. The Company of Guinea was founded in Lisbon as a government institution that was to deal with trade and fix the prices of the goods. 15th century Portuguese exploration of the African coast is commonly regarded as the harbinger of European colonialism, and marked the beginning of the Atlantic slave trade, Christian missionary evangelization, and the first globalization processes, which were to become a major element of European colonialism until the end of the 18th century. By the beginning of the colonial era there were forty forts operating along the coast. They acted mainly as trading posts and rarely saw military action, but the fortifications were important, as arms and ammunition were being stored prior to trade.[31]

[edit] Spice trade

16th century drawing of Lisbon's downtown showing Ribeira Palace where Casa da ndia (House of India) was located. See also: Casa da ndia and Portuguese India The profitable eastern spice trade was cornered by the Portuguese in the 16th century. In 1498, Vasco da Gama's pioneering voyage reached India by sea, opening the first European direct trade in the Indian Ocean. Up to this point, spice imports to Europe had been brought overland through India and Arabia, based on mixed land and sea routes through the Persian Gulf, Red Sea, and caravans, and then across the Mediterranean by the Venetians for distribution in Western Europe, which had a virtual monopoly on these valuable commodities. By establishing these trade routes, Portugal undercut the Venetian trade with its abundance of middlemen. The Republic of Venice had gained control over much of the trade routes between Europe and Asia. After traditional land routes to India had been closed by the Ottoman Turks, Portugal hoped to use the sea route pioneered by Gama to break the Venetian trading monopoly. Portugal aimed to control trade within the Indian Ocean and secure the sea routes linking Europe to Asia. This new sea route around the Cape of Good Hope was firmly secured for Portugal by the activities of Afonso de Albuquerque, who was appointed the Portuguese viceroy of India in 1508. Early Portuguese explorers established bases in Mozambique and Zanzibar and oversaw the construction of forts and factories (trading posts) along the African coast, in the Indian subcontinent, and other places in Asia, which solidified the Portuguese hegemony.

Portuguese discoveries, explorations, conquests and overseas settlements by the 16th century. At Lisbon the Casa da ndia (House of India) was the central organization that managed all Portuguese trade overseas under royal monopoly during the 15th and 16th centuries. Established around 1500, it was the successor of the House of Guinea, the House of Guinea and Mina, and the House of Mina (respectively, the Casa da Guin, Casa de Guin e Mina, and Casa da Mina in Portuguese). Casa da ndia maintained a royal monopoly on the trade in pepper, cloves, and cinnamon, and levied a 30 percent tax on the profits of other articles. The export and distribution to Europe was made by the Portuguese factory in Antwerp. For about thirty years, from 1503 to 1535, the Portuguese cut into the Venetian spice trade in the eastern Mediterranean. By 1510, King Manuel I of Portugal was pocketing a million cruzados yearly from the spice trade alone, and this led Franois I of France to dub Manuel I "le roi picier", meaning "the grocer king". In 1506, about 65% of the state income was produced by taxes on overseas activity. Income started to decline mid-century because of the costs of maintaining a presence in Morocco and domestic waste. Also, Portugal did not develop a substantial domestic infrastructure to support this activity, but relied on foreigners for many services supporting their trading enterprises, and therefore a lot of money was consumed in this way. In 1549, the Portuguese trade center in Antwerp went bankrupt and was closed. As the throne became more overextended in the 1550s, it increasingly relied on foreign financing. By about 1560, the income of the Casa da ndia was not able to cover its expenses. The Portuguese monarchy had become, in Garrett Mattingly's words, the owner of "a bankrupt wholesale grocery business".

[edit] Triangular trade between China, Japan, and Europe

A Portuguese carrack in Nagasaki, 17th century. Goa had functioned from the start as the capital of Portuguese India, the central shipping base of a commercial net linking Lisbon, Malacca, and as far as China and the Maluku Islands (Ternate) since 1513. The first official visit of Ferno Pires de Andrade to Guangzhou (1517-1518) was fairly successful, and the local Chinese authorities allowed the embassy led by Tom Pires, brought by de Andrade's flotilla, to proceed to Beijing. In 1542, Portuguese traders arrived in Japan. According to Ferno Mendes Pinto, who claimed to have been present in this first contact, they arrived at Tanegashima, where locals were impressed by firearms that would be immediately made by the Japanese on a large scale.[32] The arrival of the Portuguese in Japan in 1543 initiated the Nanban trade period, with the hosts adopting several technologies and cultural practices, such as the arquebus, European-style cuirasses, European ships, Christianity, decorative art, and language. In 1570, after an agreement between Jesuits and a local daimyo, the Portuguese were granted a Japanese port where they founded the city of Nagasaki,[33] thus creating a trading center which for many years was Japan's main gateway to the world. Soon after, in 1557, Portuguese merchants established a colony on the island of Macau. Chinese authorities allowed the Portuguese to settle through an annual payment, creating a warehouse. After the Chinese banned direct trade by Chinese merchants with Japan, the Portuguese filled this commercial vacuum as intermediaries.[34] Engaging in the triangular trade between China, Japan, and Europe, the Portuguese bought Chinese silk and sold it to the Japanese in return for Japanesemined silver; since silver was more highly valued in China, the Portuguese could then use their newly-acquired metal to buy even larger stocks of Chinese silk.[34] However, by 1573, after the Spanish established a trading base in Manila, the Portuguese intermediary trade was trumped by the prime source of incoming silver to China from the Spanish Americas.[35][36] As Portugal increased its presence along China's coast, they began trading in slaves. As slave trade was not outlawed in China, many Chinese slaves were sold to Portugal by Chinese slave traders.[37][38] Since the 16th century, Chinese slaves existed in Portugal, most of them Chinese children, and a large number were shipped to the Indies.[39] Chinese prisoners were sent to Portugal, where they were sold as slaves;

they were prized and regarded as better than Moorish and black slaves.[40] The first known visit of a Chinese person to Europe dates to 1540, when a Chinese scholar, enslaved during one of several Portuguese raids somewhere on the southern China coast, was brought to Portugal. Purchased by Joo de Barros, he worked with the Portuguese historian on translating Chinese texts into Portuguese.[41] Dona Maria de Vilhena, a Portuguese noble woman from vora, Portugal, owned a Chinese male slave in 1562.[42][43][44] In the 16th century, a small number of Chinese slaves, around 2934 people, were in southern Portugal, where they were used in agricultural labor.[45] Chinese boys were captured in China, and through Macau were brought to Portugal and sold as slaves in Lisbon. Some were then sold in Brazil, a Portuguese colony.[46][47][48] Due to hostility from the Chinese regarding the trafficking in Chinese slaves, in 1595 a law was passed by Portugal banning the selling and buying of Chinese slaves.[49] On 19 February 1624, the King of Portugal forbade the enslavement of Chinese people of either sex.[50][51] Guarding its trade from European and Asian competitors, Portugal dominated not only the trade between Asia and Europe, but also much of the trade between different regions of Asia, such as India, Indonesia, China, and Japan. Jesuit missionaries, such as the Basque Francis Xavier, followed the Portuguese to spread Roman Catholicism to Asia, with mixed results.

[edit] Expansion in South America

Portuguese map by Lopo Homem (c. 1519) showing the coast of Brazil and natives extracting brazilwood, as well as Portuguese ships. Main articles: Colonial Brazil and Economic history of Brazil During the 16th century, Portugal also started to colonize its newly discovered territory of Brazil. However, temporary trading posts were established earlier to collect Brazilwood, used as a dye, and with permanent settlements came the establishment of the sugar cane industry and its intensive labor. Several early settlements were founded, among them the colonial capital, Salvador, established in 1549 at the Bay of All Saints in the north, and the city of Rio de Janeiro in the south, in March 1567. The Portuguese colonists adopted an economy based on the production of agricultural goods that were exported to Europe. Sugar became by far the most important Brazilian colonial product until the early 18th century, when gold and other minerals assumed a higher importance.[52][53] The first attempt to establish a Portuguese presence in Brazil was made by John III in 1533. His solution was simplistic; he divided the coastline into fifteen sections, each

about 150 miles long, and granted these strips of land, on a hereditary basis, to fifteen courtiers, who become known as donatrios. Each courtier was told that he and his heirs could found cities, grant land, and levy taxes over as much territory as they could colonize inland from their stretch of coastline. Only two of the donatrios were to have any success in this venture. In the 1540s, John III was forced to change his policy. He placed Brazil under direct royal control (as in Spanish America) and appointed a governor general. The first governor general of Brazil arrived in 1549 and headquartered himself at Bahia (today known as Salvador). It remained the capital of Portuguese Brazil for more than two centuries, until replaced by Rio de Janeiro in 1763. The economic strength of Portuguese Brazil derived at first from sugar plantations in the north, established as early as the 1530s by one of the two successful donatrios. But from the late 17th century onward, Brazil benefited at last from the mineral wealth which underpinned Spanish America. Gold was found in 1693 in the southern inland region of Minas Gerais. The discovery set off the first great gold rush of the Americas, opening up the interior as prospectors swarmed westwards, and underpinning Brazil's economy for much of the 18th century. Diamonds were also discovered in large quantities in the same region in the 18th century. Colonists gradually moved west into the interior. Accompanying the first governor general in 1549 were members of the newly founded order of Jesuits. In their mission to convert the Indians, they were often the first European presence in new regions far from the coast. They frequently clashed with adventurers also pressing inland (in great expeditions known as bandeiras) to find silver and gold or to capture Indians as slaves. These two groups, with their very different motives, brought a Portuguese presence far beyond the Tordesillas Line. By the late 17th century, the territory of Brazil encompassed the entire basin of the Amazon as far west as the Andes. At the same time, Portuguese colonists had moved south along the coast beyond Rio de Janeiro. A Portuguese town was established on the River Plate in 1680, provoking a century of Spanish-Portuguese border conflicts in what is now Uruguay. Meanwhile, the use of the Portuguese language gradually gave the central region of South America an identity and a culture distinct from that of its Spanish neighbours.

[edit] Expansion in sub-Saharan Africa

Main articles: Economy of Angola and Economy of Mozambique

Flag of the Company of Guinea established in the 15th century. After initiating the European slave trade in Sub-Saharan Africa through its involvement in the African slave trade, Portugal played a decreasing role in it over the next few centuries. Although they were the first Europeans to establish trading settlements in Sub-Saharan Africa, they failed to press home their advantage.

Nevertheless, they retained a clear presence in the three regions which received their particular attention during the original age of exploration. The closest of these, on the sea journey from Portugal, was Portuguese Guinea, known also, from its main economic activity, as the Slave Coast. The local African rulers in Guinea, who prospered greatly from the slave trade, had no interest in allowing the Europeans to move any further inland than the fortified coastal settlements where the trading took place. In the 15th century, Portugal's Company of Guinea was one of the first chartered commercial companies established by Europeans in other continents during the Age of Discovery. The Company's task was to deal with the spices and to fix the prices of the goods. The Portuguese presence in Guinea was largely limited to the port of Bissau. For a brief period in the 1790s, the British attempted to establish a rival foothold on an offshore island, at Bolama. By the 19th century, however, the Portuguese were sufficiently secure in Bissau to regard the neighbouring coastline as their own special territory.

Queen Nzinga in peace negotiations with the Portuguese governor in Luanda, 1657. Thousands of miles down the coast, in Angola, the Portuguese found it harder to consolidate their early advantage against encroachments by Dutch, British, and French rivals. Nevertheless, the fortified Portuguese towns of Luanda (established in 1587 with 400 Portuguese settlers) and Benguela (a fort from 1587, a town from 1617) remained almost continuously in their hands. As in Guinea, the slave trade became the basis of the local economy, with raids carried ever further inland by local natives to gain captives. More than a million men, women, and children were shipped from this region across the Atlantic. In this region, unlike Guinea, the trade remained largely in Portuguese hands. Nearly all the slaves who came from this area were destined for Brazil. The deepest Portuguese penetration into the continent was from the east coast, up the Zambezi, with an early settlement as far inland as Tete. This was a region of powerful and rich African kingdoms. The eastern coastal area was also much visited by Arabs pressing south from Oman and Zanzibar. From the 16th to 19th centuries the Portuguese and their merchants were just one among many rival groups competing for the local trade in gold, ivory, and slaves. Even if the Portuguese hold on these three African regions was tenuous, they clearly remained the main European presence in Sub-Saharan Africa. It was natural to assert their claim, therefore, in all three regions when the scramble for Africa began later. Prolonged military campaigns were required to retain and impose Portuguese control over the Africans in these territories in the late 19th century. The boundaries of Portuguese Guinea were agreed upon in two stages in 1886 with France, the colonial

power in neighbouring Senegal and Guinea. No other nation presented a challenge for the vast and relatively unprofitable area of Angola. The most likely scene of conflict was Portuguese East Africa, where Portugal's hope of linking up with Angola clashed with Britain's plans for the Rhodesias. There was a diplomatic crisis in 1890, but the borders between British and Portuguese colonies were agreed upon by treaty in 1891.

[edit] Decline: 17th to 19th century

Ribeira Palace where Casa da ndia (House of India) was located, first half of the 18th century, Lisbon. During the 15th and 16th centuries, with its global empire that included possessions in Africa, Asia, and South America, Portugal remained one of the world's major economic, political, and cultural powers. English, Dutch, French, and Omani interests in and around Portugal's well-established overseas possessions and trading outposts tested Portuguese commercial and colonizing hegemony in Asia, Africa, and the New World. In the 17th century, the lengthy Portuguese Restoration War (16401668) between Portugal and Spain ended the sixty-year period of the Iberian Union (1580 1640).

This 1755 copper engraving shows the ruins of Lisbon in flames and a tsunami overwhelming the ships in the harbor. The 1755 Lisbon earthquake and, in the 19th century, armed conflicts with French and Spanish invading forces and the loss of its largest territorial possession abroad, Brazil, disrupted political stability and potential economic growth. The Scramble for Africa during the 19th century pressed the country to divert larger investments into the continent to secure its interests there. By the late 19th century, the country's resources were exhausted by its overstretched empire, which was now facing unprecedented competition. Portugal had one of the highest illiteracy rates in Western Europe, a lack of industrialization, and underdeveloped transportation systems. The Industrial Revolution, which had spread out across several other European countries, creating more advanced and wealthier societies, was almost forgotten in Portugal.

Under the rule of Carlos I, the penultimate King of Portugal, the country was twice declared bankrupton 14 June 1892, and 10 May 1902causing socioeconomic disturbances, socialist and republican antagonism, and press criticism of the monarchy. However, it was during this period that the predecessor of the Lisbon Stock Exchange was created in 1769 as the Assembleia dos Homens de Negcio in Praa do Comrcio Square, in Lisbon's city center. In 1891, the Bolsa de Valores do Porto (Porto Stock Exchange) in Porto was founded. The Portuguese colonies in Africa started a period of great economic development fuelled by ambitious Chartered Companies and a new wave of colonization. With the beginning of the French revolutionary and Napoleonic wars, Portugal entered a period exceeding five decades during which major issues were decided largely by the influence and pressures of foreign powers. Portugal continued faithful to its alliance with Britain during the French wars, and sheltered by geography, was able for a time to remain largely independent of French imperialism. In 1801, a petty border invasion by Spanish forces allied to France seized the Portuguese border district of Olivena in what was called the War of the Oranges. The first effects of modern economic development began to be felt by the beginning of the 19th century, not so much in terms of Portugal's domestic expansion but as a consequence of foreign competition and imports. Industrializing Britain had begun to produce so many goodsprimarily textilesso cheaply that they cut deeply into the domestic market in Portugal and into Portuguese exports to its colony of Brazil. Just as harsh in its effects as British competition was the closure of markets by war and the independence of Brazil in 1822, which during 17961806 had accounted for threequarters of all Portuguese commerce, re-exports from Brazil totaling 6080% of all Portuguese exports; most of this valuable trade was lost. Altogether, using the level of the year 1800 as 100, Portuguese manufactured exports, while never very extensive, declined to 66 in 1805 and 10 in 1810 and recovered to only 27 in 1820.[54] The period from 1808 to 1826 was a time of general price deflation, with a particularly sharp decline in prices and commerce between 1817 and 1820. These economic pressures were of great importance in encouraging the coastal bourgeoisie to support a revolt for representative government that might provide more stimulus for economic development.

Sebastio Jos de Carvalho e Melo, Marquis of Pombal, "The Expulsion of the Jesuits" by Louis-Michel van Loo and Claude-Joseph Vernet, 1766. Similarly, the loss of Brazil, coupled with the general problem of reviving commerce in a deflated market, encouraged the first real effort to increase Portuguese manufacturing since the Marquis of Pombal. The first two waves of Portuguese preindustrialization were the Ericeira program of 16751690 and the Pombaline efforts

of 17691778. The third occurred in the two years after the triumph of liberalism in 1820. 177 new manufacturing establishments were set up, an increase of 15 percent, bringing the total to 1,031 shops, most of them very small. In the following eighteen months, from mid-1822 to the end of 1823, the number rose by 20 percent, the main beneficiary being the Porto district. During the following decade of internal turmoil there was little advance in commerce, but a new wave of industrialization developed after 1835. The Septembrist movement of 1836 was to some extent an industrialists' movement, as some of its leaders were industrialists and small merchants, and it drew support from artisans and workers. Certain Septembrist leaders, especially S da Bandeira, were the first to conceive of the economic development of Portuguese Africa to complement the expanded commerce and industry of metropolitan Portugal. In general, the mechanization of Portuguese industry began around 1835, but its dependence on the importation of steam engines and other machinery made the process very slow. By 1845, only 30 of 634 manufacturing plants (only a few of which could be called factories) possessed steam power. In the post-1835 phase of mechanization, the Lisbon region progressed more rapidly than did Porto. The basis of the Portuguese economy, agriculture, began to change, but also very slowly. At the beginning of the 19th century, only about one-sixth of the land mass of Portugal was under cultivation; it is doubtful if the proportion had ever been any higher. The economic reforms of the liberal regimeselling church and some royal lands, beginning the breakup of aristocratic entailed estates, and abolishing many seigneurial obligationsgreatly enlarged the land market and the opportunities for agriculture. Though many foreiro and emphyteutic rights were swept away, the reforms rallied most of the wealthier elements to the liberal regime. The extent of land under cultivation increased, though not as dramatically as in Spain during the same period. Among the peasantry, subsistence cultivation of corn and potatoes also increased. Market production increased somewhat, and between 1839 and 1855 Portugal exported grain for the first time in centuries. It is not entirely clear, however, whether this was due to greatly increased production or due to a shift in commercial and transportation patterns, for considerable grain was also imported from Spain. There was no significant improvement in agricultural technique, which was scarcely as advanced as Spain's. Thus the changes in Portuguese landholding and agriculture between 1834 and 1855 were not in any drastic productive reform, but simply in the consolidation of a new class of middle and large landholders, drawn from the upper middle class and the aristocracy, which now controlled the primary sources of wealth. This class was able, together with major commercial and financial interests, to largely control Portuguese governance for nearly seventy years after the return of the Charter in 1842.

Minister Fontes Pereira de Melo. Fontes Pereira de Melo was the chief proponent of a policy of economic development that became known as fontismo, the Portuguese equivalent of the Spanish economic expansion and railroad building of 18551865. Fontes consolidated the national debt at 3% and created a new ministry of public works, building more roads, beginning telegraph construction, and encouraging railroad expansion. New credit was obtained, foreign investment was stimulated, and taxes were both increased and reorganized, while tariff duties were lowered. In general, the program was aimed at laying some of the foundations, particularly in communication and transportation, for a more modern economy. There was little attempt at direct industrialization, however, and the costs were borne mostly by the lower classes in the form of excise taxes. Property taxes, as in Spain, tended to be rigged in favor of the large holders to the detriment of small property owners. This general orientation characterized the economic policy of Portuguese government for the next generation. Bad economic conditions in 1855 1856, however, together with criticism for too-generous concessions to foreign investors, played a major role in the erosion of the Portuguese government's political support, leading to Fontes's resignation in 1856. Fontismo as practiced in the 1850s and 1860s stressed commerce, finance, and transportation. The first bona fide Portuguese bank, the Bank of Lisbon, was founded in 1821. The number of banks increased to three by 1858, thirteen by 1867, and fifty-one by 1875. Deposits increased eightfold between 1858 and 1875. The first Portuguese bankers came primarily from wholesale commerce, since this was the major source of profit and capital formation in the traditional Portuguese economy. Some large landowners also became involved, but 19th century Portuguese banking showed little interest in trying to finance industrial development. Its resources were limited, and it preferred easy, high-interest earnings through short-term loans, state bonds, transportation projects, and real estate mortgages. Portuguese railroad construction was begun soon after that of Spain and on much the same financial terms, but the rhythm of its development was considerably slower. Foreign capital, technology, and political favoritism played a major role. The first short railway out of Lisbon was built in 1856, and the kilometers of track increased. By the 1860s, the center of attention in public affairs was taken by the financial situation, which bedeviled Portuguese government to the end of the monarchy in 1910 and throughout the history of the parliamentary

republic that followed. Government debt mounted rapidly, nearly doubling between 1854 and 1869, when it hit a level of almost fifty dollars per capita, a crushing burden for so poor a country. The royal jewels were sold and the royal estates mortgaged, but the main problem was poor government management, waste and corruption, and above all, extremely low revenue from an unproductive economy. All entailment of estates was abolished in 1863, opening up the market for agricultural production, but the effects of this were slow in arriving; fontismo relied mainly on foreign investment and the raising of loans, while encouraging free trade (to the detriment of homegrown manufacturing) and maintaining high excises. A new opposition movement among radical intellectuals began after 1865. In 1867, a small element of middle class progressives joined with the more liberal of the Historicals to form a loosely organized grouping known as the Popular or Reformist party. Protests among the lower classes over excises and among businessmen over foreign competition and taxes mounted steadily. An attempt by the government to raise excises further was blocked by a merchants' revolt in Porto and several other cities on the first day of 1868 (and hence termed the janeirinha). The Fusionist cabinet was forced to resign and was replaced with a Reformist ministry that hoped to reduce the budget and balance the tax structure. Lacking organized support, internal unity, and a clear-cut program, it accomplished little. The major development in the Portuguese economy of the late 19th century was the expansion of agriculture, which got underway around the middle of the century but accelerated only in the 1890s. There were at least three main factors involved. The population increased steadily, and despite emigration, the demand for food steadily mounted. Secondly, all morgados (entailment of estates) were finally abolished in 1863, completing the opening up of the land market. Third, the first tariff of the century that provided real protection for grain was adopted in 1889. Altogether, between 1874 and 1934 the extent of land under cultivation in Portugal increased by 70 percent. The new land inheritance law after 1863 provided for equal division of property among heirs, and the average size of Portuguese cultivation units remained uneconomically small. In 1868, five years after the final extinction of morgados, there were 5,678,385 agrarian properties averaging 1.55 hectares. In much of the Minho, minifundia were even more the rule than in Spanish Galicia. Some landlords owned many small properties and renting was still common, but there may have been a slightly higher percentage of small peasant proprietors than in Spain generally. Many renters retained long-term emphyteutic rights. Expansion of peasant agriculture was encouraged by the decline in fixed rental costs under the slow inflation of the later 19th century. The cultivation of corn was extended, and some improvement in technique was made possible by increased use of fertilizer, mainly manure, and new sources of water. The greatest extension of cultivation occurred not in the heavily populated, cultivated Minho, but in the southern two-thirds of Portugal, where the Alentejo was finally repopulated by the close of the century. In part because of the agricultural expansion, the 1890s were a decade of rapid growth in commerce. This occurred despite the tariff of 1892, which marked Portugal's swing, though to a lesser degree, toward the general trend of heavier protectionism in Europe during the late 19th century. There was also a new wave of industrialization around the turn of the 20th century, yet it was modest and hardly served to compensate for the extremely slow growth of domestic manufactures. Portugal still suffered from the main deficiencies of underdeveloped countries: lack of capital for productive investment, skilled labor, technological know-

how (there were only 150 qualified engineers in Portugal in 1870), and industrial raw materials. There was a notable increase in corporate investment during the second half of the century, but it was quite small by comparison with the industrialized countries. Even during the first decade of the 20th century, corporate investment in commerce exceeded that in industry. By the end of the 18th century, the weight of Portuguese society had begun to shift for the first time since the Middle Ages. Though the traditional peasant structure remained almost unchanged, a new upper middle class of wealth and potential influence was beginning to emerge. It was made up of elements of the commercial bourgeoisie in the coastal towns, an elite of educated bureaucrats and officeholders, and some of the non-aristocratic and petty noble landholders in central and southcentral Portugal. The traditional aristocracy was already in decline. However, the incipient shift in the weight of Portuguese elites had no immediate political consequences, for the preeminence of the virtually absolute Portuguese monarchy remained unquestioned. The reforms of an elitist enlightened despotism fulfilled nearly all the ambitions of the new upper middle class. The republican revolt was more a sign of changing times, rather than an immediate threat. The real problem was the national financial crisis precipitated by the diplomatic humiliation and political uncertainty. A banking moratorium had to be declared, and the state neared bankruptcy in 18911892. Foreign creditors demanded international control of Portuguese customs and the German government urged a naval demonstration off Lisbon similar to that recently brandished against Venezuela. The eminent cultural historian and political critic Oliveira Martins became minister of finance in a new nonparty government in 1892, but failed to win passage on effective financial reforms. Portugal was indeed twice declared bankrupt in the final decades of monarchy on 14 June 1892, and again on 10 May 1902 causing industrial disturbances, socialist, and republican antagonism and press criticism of the monarchy.

[edit] The Portuguese Republic

4 centavos 1917 after the Republican revolution a new currency was adopted: Portuguese escudo replaced the real at the rate of 1,000 ris to 1 escudo On 1 February 1908, King Carlos I was assassinated while travelling to Lisbon. Manuel II became the new king, but was eventually overthrown during the revolution on 5 October 1910, which abolished the monarchy and instated republicanism. Along with new national symbols, a new currency was adopted. The "Escudo" was introduced on 22 May 1911 to replace the Real (Portuguese for "royal"), at the rate of 1,000 ris to 1 escudo. The escudo's value was initially set at 4$50 escudos = 1 pound

sterling, but after 1914 it's value fell, being fixed in 1928 at 108$25 to the pound. This was altered to 110$00 escudos to the pound in 1931.[55] Portugal's First Republic (191026) became, in the words of historian Douglas L. Wheeler, "midwife to Europe's longest surviving authoritarian system". Under the sixteen-year parliamentary regime of the republic, with its forty-five governments, growing fiscal deficits, financed by money creation and foreign borrowing, climaxed in hyper-inflation and a moratorium on Portugal's external debt service. The cost of living around 1926 was thirty times higher than what it had been in 1914. Fiscal imprudence and accelerating inflation gave way to massive capital flight, crippling domestic investment. Burgeoning public sector employment during the First Republic was accompanied by a perverse shrinkage in the share of the industrial labor force in total employment. Although some headway was made toward increasing the level of literacy, 68.1 percent of Portugal's population was still classified as illiterate by the 1930 census.

[edit] The economy under the "Estado Novo" regime

This section does not cite any references or sources. (July 2012)

Salazar observing Edgar Cardoso's Santa Clara Bridge maquette in Coimbra. The First Republic was ended by a military coup in May 1926, but the newly installed government failed to fix the nation's precarious financial situation. Instead, President scar Fragoso Carmona invited Antnio de Oliveira Salazar to head the Ministry of Finance, and the latter agreed to accept the position provided he would have veto power over all fiscal expenditures. At the time of his appointment in 1928, Salazar held the Chair of Economics at the Law School of the University of Coimbra and was considered by his peers to be Portugal's most distinguished authority on inflation. For forty years, first as minister of finance (192832) and then as prime minister (1932 68), Salazar's political and economic doctrines shaped the progress of the country. From the perspective of the financial chaos of the republican period, it was not surprising that Salazar considered the principles of a balanced budget and monetary stability as categorical imperatives. By restoring equilibrium, both in the fiscal budget and in the balance of international payments, Salazar succeeded in restoring Portugal's credit worthiness at home and abroad. Because Portugal's fiscal accounts from the 1930s until the early 1960s almost always had a surplus in the current account, the

state had the wherewithal to finance public infrastructure projects without resorting either to inflationary financing or borrowing abroad. At the nadir of the Great Depression, Premier Salazar laid the foundations for his Estado Novo, the "New State". Neither capitalist nor communist, Portugal's economy was quasi-traditional. The corporative framework within which the Portuguese economy evolved combined two salient characteristics: extensive state regulation and predominantly private ownership of the means of production. Leading financiers and industrialists accepted extensive bureaucratic controls in return for assurances of minimal public ownership of economic enterprises and certain monopolistic (or restricted-competition) privileges. Within this framework, the state exercised extensive de facto authority regarding private investment decisions and the level of wages. A system of industrial licensing ('condicionamento' industrial), introduced by law in 1931, required prior authorization from the state for setting up or relocating an industrial plant. Investment in machinery and equipment, designed to increase the capacity of an existing firm, also required government approval. The political system was ostensibly corporatist, as political scientist Howard J. Wiarda makes clear: "In reality both labor and capitaland indeed the entire corporate institutional networkwere subordinate to the central state apparatus." Under the old regime, Portugal's private sector was dominated by some forty prominent families. These industrial dynasties were allied by marriage with the large, traditional landowning families of the nobility, who held most of the arable land in the southern part of the country in large estates. Many of these dynasties had business interests in Portuguese Africa. Within this elite group, the top ten families owned all the important commercial banks, which in turn controlled a disproportionate share of the economy. Because bank officials were often members of the boards of directors of borrowing firms in whose stock the banks participated, the influence of the large banks extended to a host of commercial, industrial, and service enterprises. Portugal's shift toward a moderately outward-looking trade and financial strategy, initiated in the late 1950s, gained momentum during the early 1960s. Until that time the country remained very poor and largely underdeveloped due to its disadvantaged starting position. However, by the late 1950s, a growing number of industrialists, as well as government technocrats, favored greater Portuguese integration with the industrial countries to the north, as a badly needed stimulus to Portugal's economy. The influence of the Europe-oriented technocrats was rising within Salazar's cabinet. This was confirmed by the substantial increase in the foreign investment component in projected capital formation between the first (195358) and second (195964) economic development plans; the first plan called for a foreign investment component of less than 6 percent, but the latter envisioned a 25 percent contribution.

EFTA member states since 1995. Former member states, now EU member states. Portugal joined the then EEC in 1986 (now the EU), leaving the EFTA where it was a founding member in 1960. The newly influential Europe-oriented industrial and technical groups persuaded Salazar that Portugal should become a charter member of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) when it was organized in 1959. In the following year, Portugal also became a member of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), the International Monetary Fund, and the World Bank. In 1958, when the Portuguese government announced the 195964 Six-Year Plan for National Development, a decision had been reached to accelerate the country's rate of economic growth, a decision whose urgency grew with the outbreak of guerrilla warfare in Angola in 1961 and in Portugal's other African territories thereafter. Salazar and his policy advisers recognized that additional military expenditure needs, as well as increased transfers of official investment to the "overseas provinces", could only be met by a sharp rise in the country's productive capacity. Salazar's commitment to preserving Portugal's "multiracial, pluricontinental" state led him reluctantly to seek external credits beginning in 1962, an action from which the Portuguese treasury had abstained for several decades.

Portuguese Military Expenses during the Portuguese Colonial War: OFMEU National Budget for Overseas Military Expenses; * conto popular expression for "1000 $ (PTE)". Beyond military measures, the official Portuguese response to the "winds of change" in the African colonies was to integrate them administratively and economically more closely with the mainland. This was accomplished through population and capital transfers, trade liberalization, and the creation of a common currency, the so-called Escudo Area. The integration program established in 1961 provided for the removal of Portugal's duties on imports from its overseas territories by January 1964. The

latter, on the other hand, were permitted to continue to levy duties on goods imported from Portugal but at a preferential rate, in most cases 50 percent of the normal duties levied by the territories on goods originating outside the Escudo Area. The effect of this two-tier tariff system was to give Portugal's exports preferential access to its colonial markets. The economies of the overseas provinces, especially those of both the Overseas Province of Angola and Mozambique, boomed.

Portuguese overseas territories in Africa during the Estado Novo regime: Angola and Mozambique were by far the two largest of those territories. Despite the opposition to protectionist interests, the Portuguese government succeeded in bringing about some liberalization of the industrial licensing system, as well as in reducing trade barriers to conform with EFTA and GATT agreements. The last years of the Salazar era witnessed the creation of important privately organized ventures, including an integrated iron and steel mill, a modern ship repair and shipbuilding complex, vehicle assembly plants, oil refineries, petrochemical plants, pulp and paper mills, and electronic plants. As economist Valentim Xavier Pintado observed, "Behind the facade of an aged Salazar, Portugal knew deep and lasting changes during the 1960s."

Prime Minister Marcelo Caetano. The liberalization of the Portuguese economy continued under Salazar's successor, Prime Minister Marcello Jos das Neves Caetano (196874), whose administration abolished industrial licensing requirements for firms in most sectors and in 1972 signed a free trade agreement with the newly enlarged EC. Under the agreement, which took effect at the beginning of 1973, Portugal was given until 1980 to abolish its restrictions on most community goods and until 1985 on certain sensitive products amounting to some 10 percent of the EC's total exports to Portugal. EFTA membership and a growing foreign investor presence contributed to Portugal's industrial modernization and export diversification between 1960 and 1973. Notwithstanding the concentration of the means of production in the hands of a small number of family-based financial-industrial groups, Portuguese business culture permitted a surprising upward mobility of university-educated individuals with middle-class backgrounds into professional management careers. Before the revolution, the largest, most technologically advanced (and most recently organized) firms offered the greatest opportunity for management careers based on merit rather than birth. By the early 1970s, Portugal's fast economic growth with increasing consumption and purchase of new automobiles set the priority for improvements in transportation. Brisa Autoestradas de Portugal was founded in 1972, and the State granted the company a 30-year concession to design, build, manage, and maintain express motorways. [edit] Retrospective analysis In 1960, at the initiation of Salazar's more outward-looking economic policy, Portugal's per capita GDP was only 38 percent of the European Community (EC-12) average; by the end of the Salazar period, in 1968, it had risen to 48 percent, and by 1973, under the leadership of Marcelo Caetano, Portugal's per capita GDP had reached 56.4 percent of the EC-12 average.[56] On a long term analysis, after an extended period of economic divergence before 1914, and a period of chaos during the First Republic (19101926), the Portuguese economy recovered slightly until 1950, entering thereafter on a path of strong economic convergence until the Carnation Revolution in April 1974. Portuguese economic growth in the period 1950 1973 under the Estado Novo regime (and even with the effects of an expensive war effort in African territories against independence guerrilla groups from 1961 onwards) created an opportunity for real integration with the developed economies of Western Europe. Through emigration, trade, tourism, and foreign investment, individuals and firms changed their patterns of production and consumption, bringing about a structural transformation. Simultaneously, the increasing complexity of a growing economy brought new technical and organizational challenges, stimulating the formation of modern professional and management teams.[2][57] The economy of Portugal and its overseas territories on the eve of the Carnation Revolution (a military coup on 25 April 1974) was growing well above the European average. Average family purchasing power was rising together with new consumption patterns and trends and this was promoting both investment in new capital equipment and consumption expenditure for durable and nondurable consumer goods. The Estado

Novo regime economic policy encouraged and created conditions for the formation of large and successful business conglomerates. Economically, the Estado Novo regime maintained a policy of corporatism that resulted in the placement of a big part of the Portuguese economy in the hands of a number of strong conglomerates, including those founded by the families of Antnio Champalimaud (Banco Totta & Aores, Banco Pinto & Sotto Mayor, Secil, Cimpor), Jos Manuel de Mello (CUF Companhia Unio Fabril), Amrico Amorim (Corticeira Amorim) and the dos Santos family (Jernimo Martins). Those Portuguese conglomerates had a business model with similarities to South Korean chaebols and Japanese keiretsus and zaibatsus. The Companhia Unio Fabril (CUF) was one of the largest and most diversified Portuguese conglomerates with its core businesses (cement, chemicals, petrochemicals, agrochemicals, textiles, beer, beverages, metallurgy, naval engineering, electrical engineering, insurance, banking, paper, tourism, mining, etc.) and corporate headquarters located in mainland Portugal, but also with branches, plants and several developing business projects all around the Portuguese Empire, specially in the Portuguese territores of Angola and Mozambique. Other medium sized family companies specialized in textiles (for instance those located in the city of Covilh and the northwest), ceramics, porcelain, glass and crystal (like those of Alcobaa, Caldas da Ranha and Marinha Grande), engineered wood (like SONAE near Porto), canned fish (like those of Algarve and the northwest), fishing, food and beverages (alcoholic beverages, from liqueurs like Licor Beiro and Ginjinha, to beer like Sagres, were produced across the entire country, but Port Wine was one of its most reputed and exported alcoholic beverages), tourism (well established in Estoril/Cascais/Sintra and growing as an international attraction in the Algarve since the 1960s) and in agriculture (like the ones scattered around the Alentejo known as the breadbasket of Portugal) completed the panorama of the national economy by the early 1970s. In addition, rural areas' populations were committed to agrarianism that was of great importance for a majority of the total population, with many families living exclusively from agriculture or complementing their salaries with farming, husbandry and forestry yields. Besides that, the overseas territories were also displaying impressive economic growth and development rates from the 1920s onwards. Even during the Portuguese Colonial War (19611974), a counterinsurgency war against independentist guerrilla and terrorism, the overseas territories of Angola and Mozambique (Portuguese Overseas Provinces at the time) had continuous economic growth rates and several sectors of its local economies were booming. They were internationally notable centres of production of oil, coffee, cotton, cashew, coconut, timber, minerals (like diamonds), metals (like iron and aluminium), banana, citrus, tea, sisal, beer (Cuca and Laurentina were successful beer brands produced locally), cement, fish and other sea products, beef and textiles. Tourism was also a fast-developing activity in Portuguese Africa both by the growing development of and demand for beach resorts and wildlife reserves. Labour unions were not allowed and a minimum wage policy was not enforced. However, in a context of an expanding economy, bringing better living conditions for the Portuguese population in the 1960s, the outbreak of the colonial wars in Portuguese Africa set off significant social changes, among them the rapid incorporation of more and more women into the labour market. Marcelo Caetano moved on to foster economic growth and some social improvements, such as the

awarding of a monthly pension to rural workers who had never had the chance to pay social security. The objectives of Caetano's pension reform were threefold: enhancing equity, reducing fiscal and actuarial imbalance, and achieving more efficiency for the economy as a whole, for example, by establishing contributions less distortive to labour markets or by allowing the savings generated by pension funds to increase the investments in the economy. In 1969, with the replacement of Antnio de Oliveira Salazar by Marcelo Caetano, the Estado Novo-controlled nation got indeed a very slight taste of democracy and Caetano allowed the formation of the first democratic labour union movement since the 1920s. Caetano's Portuguese Government began also a military reform that gave the opportunity to militia officers who completed a brief training program and had served in the overseas territories' defensive campaigns, of being commissioned at the same rank as military academy graduates in order to increase the number of officials employed against the African insurgencies, and at the same time cut down military costs to alleviate an already overburdened government budget. Thus, a group of disgusted captains started to instigate their peers to conspire against the new laws proposed by the regime.[58] The protest of Portuguese Armed Forces captains against a decree law: the Dec. Lei n 353/73 of 1973.[59][60] would therefore lay behind a military coup in 25 April 1974 the Carnation Revolution.

[edit] Revolutionary change, 1974

Main article: Processo Revolucionrio Em Curso The anti-Estado Novo MFA-led Carnation Revolution had a devastating impact on the Portuguese economy and social structure. It prompted a mass exodus of Portuguese citizens from Portugal's African territories (mostly from the then overseas territories of Angola and Mozambique), creating over a million Portuguese destitute refugees the retornados.[3][4] Although the military-led coup returned democracy to Portugal, ending the unpopular Colonial War where thousands of Portuguese soldiers had been conscripted into military service, and replacing the authoritarian Estado Novo (New State) regime and its secret police which repressed elemental civil liberties and political freedoms, it also paved the way for the end of Portugal as an intercontinental empire and an intermediate emerging power. The Portuguese economy had changed significantly prior to the revolution, in comparison with its position in 1961total output (GDP at factor cost) had grown by 120 percent in real terms. The pre-revolutionary period was characterized by robust annual growth rates for GDP (6.9 percent), industrial production (9 percent), private consumption (6.5 percent), and gross fixed capital formation (7.8 percent). The post revolution period was, however, characterized by chaos and negative economic growth, as industries became nationalized and the effects of the decoupling of Portugal from its former overseas territories, especially Angola and Mozambique, were felt. Heavy industry came to an abrupt halt. All sectors of the economy, including manufacturing, mining, chemical, defence, finance, agriculture, and fishing, collapsed. Portugal quickly went from the country with the highest growth rate in Western Europe to the lowest, and experienced several years of negative growth. This was amplified by the mass emigration of skilled workers and entrepreneurs (among

them were Antnio Champalimaud and Jos Manuel de Mello) due to communisminspired political intimidation and economic stagnation. Only in 1991, 16 years later, did the GDP as a percentage of EC-12 average climb to 54.9 percent (nearly comparable with that which had existed by the time of the Carnation Revolution in 1974), mainly as a result of participation in the European Economic Community since 1985. Post revolution Portugal was not able to achieve the same growth rates as its predecessors.[2][57][61] [edit] Nationalization The reorganization of the MFA coordinating committee in March 1975 brought into prominence a group of Marxist-oriented officers. In league with the General Confederation of Portuguese Workers-National Intersindical (Confederao Geral dos Trabalhadores Portugueses-Intersindical NacionalCGTP-IN), the communistdominated trade union confederation known as Intersindical prior to 1977, they sought a radical transformation of the nation's social system and political economy. This change of direction from a purely pro-democracy coup to a communist-oriented one became known as the Processo Revolucionrio Em Curso (PREC). Abandoning its moderate-reformist posture, the MFA leadership set out on a course of sweeping nationalizations and land expropriations. During the balance of that year, the government nationalized all Portuguese-owned capital in the banking, insurance, petrochemical, fertilizer, tobacco, cement, and wood pulp sectors of the economy, as well as the Portuguese iron and steel company, major breweries, large shipping lines, most public transport, two of the three principal shipyards, core companies of the Companhia Unio Fabril (CUF) conglomerate, radio and TV networks (except that of the Roman Catholic Church), and important companies in the glass, mining, fishing, and agricultural sectors. Because of the key role of the domestic banks as holders of stock, the government indirectly acquired equity positions in hundreds of other firms. An Institute for State Participation was created to deal with the many disparate and often tiny enterprises in which the state had thus obtained a majority shareholding. Another 300 small to medium enterprises came under public management as the government "intervened" to rescue them from bankruptcy following their takeover by workers or abandonment by management. Although foreign direct investment was statutorily exempted from nationalization, many foreign-controlled enterprises curtailed or ceased operation because of costly forced labor settlements or worker takeovers. The combination of revolutionary policies and a negative business climate brought about a sharp reversal in the trend of direct investment inflows from abroad. After the coup, both the Lisbon and Porto stock exchanges were closed by the revolutionary National Salvation Junta; they would be reopened a couple of years later.[62] A study by the economists Maria Belmira Martins and Jos Chaves Rosa showed that a total of 244 private enterprises were directly nationalized during the 16 months from 14 March 1975, to 29 July 1976. Nationalization was followed by the consolidation of the several private firms in each industry into state monopolies. As an example, Quimigal, the chemical and fertilizer entity, represented a merger of five firms. Four

large companies were integrated to form the national oil company, Petrleos de Portugal (Petrogal). Portucel brought together five pulp and paper companies. The fourteen private electric power enterprises were joined into a single power generation and transmission monopoly, Electricidade de Portugal (EDP). With the nationalization and amalgamation of the three tobacco firms under Tabaqueira, the state gained complete control of this industry. The several breweries and beer distribution companies were integrated into two state firms, Central de Cervejas (Centralcer) and Unicer; and a single state enterprise, Rodoviria, was created by merging the 93 nationalized trucking and bus lines. The 47 cement plants, formerly controlled by the Champalimaud interests, were integrated into Cimentos de Portugal (Cimpor). The government also acquired a dominant position in the export-oriented shipbuilding and ship repair industry. Former private monopolies retained their company designations following nationalization. Included among these were the iron and steel company Siderurgia Nacional, the railway Caminhos de Ferro Portugueses (CP), and the national airline, Transportes Areos Portugueses (TAP). Unlike other sectors, where existing private firms were typically consolidated into state monopolies, the commercial banking system and insurance industry were left with a degree of competition. By 1979, the number of domestic commercial banks was reduced from 15 to 9. Notwithstanding their public status, the remaining banks competed with each other and retained their individual identities and policies. Before the revolution, private enterprise ownership dominated the Portuguese economy to a degree unmatched in other western European countries. Only a handful of wholly owned or majority owned state entities existed; these included the post office (CTT), two of three telecommunications companies (CTT and TLP), the armaments industry, and the ports, as well as the National Development Bank and Caixa Geral de Depsitos, the largest savings bank. The Portuguese government held minority interests in TAP, the national airline, in Siderurgia Nacional, the third telecommunications company Radio Marconi, and in oil refining and oil marketing firms. The railroads, two colonial banks (Banco de Angola and BNU), and the Bank of Portugal were majority privately owned but publicly administered. Finally, although privately owned, the tobacco companies were operated under government concessions. Two years after the military coup, the enlarged public sector accounted for 47 percent of the country's gross fixed capital formation (GFCF), 30 percent of total value added (VA), and 24 percent of employment. These compared with 10 percent of GFCF, 9 percent of VA, and 13 percent of employment for the traditional public sector of 1973. Expansion of the public sector since the revolution was particularly apparent in heavy manufacturing, in public services including electricity, gas, transport, and communications, and in banking and insurance. Further, according to the Institute for State Participation, these figures did not include private enterprises under temporary state intervention, with minority state participation (less than 50 percent of the common stock), or worker-managed firms and agricultural collectives. [edit] Land reform

This section does not cite any references or sources. (July 2012) In the agricultural sector, the collective farms set up in Alentejo after the 197475 expropriations due to the coup proved incapable of modernizing, and their efficiency declined. According to government estimates, about 900,000 hectares (2,200,000 acres) of agricultural land were occupied between April 1974 and December 1975 in the name of land reform (reforma agrria); around 32% of these were ruled illegal. In January 1976, the government pledged to restore the illegally occupied lands to their owners, and in 1977, it promulgated the Land Reform Review Law. Restoration began in 1978. [edit] The brain drain This section does not cite any references or sources. (July 2012) Compounding the problem of massive nationalizations was the brain drain of managerial and technical expertise away from public enterprises. The income-leveling measures of the MFA revolutionary regime, together with the "anti-fascist" purges in factories, offices, and large agricultural estates, induced an exodus of human capital, mainly to Brazil. This loss of managers, technicians, and businesspeople inspired a popular Lisbon saying: "Portugal used to send its legs to Brazil, but now we are sending our heads."[citation needed] A detailed analysis of Portugal's loss of managerial resources is contained in Harry M. Makler's follow-up surveys of 306 enterprises, conducted in July 1976, and again in June 1977. His study makes clear that nationalization was greater in the modern, large, and technically advanced industries than in the traditional ones such as textiles, apparel, and construction. In small enterprises (5099 employees), only 15 percent of the industrialists left as compared with 43 percent in the larger organizations. In the largest firms (1,000 or more employees), more than half left. Makler's calculations show that the higher the socioeconomic class of the person, the greater the likelihood that they had left the firm. He also notes that "the more upwardly mobile also were more likely to have quit than those who were downwardly socially mobile." Significantly, a much larger percentage of professional managers (52 percent) compared with owners of production such as founders (18%), heirs (21%), and owner-managers (32%) had left their enterprises.[citation needed] The constitution of 1976 confirmed the large and interventionist role of the state in the economy. Its Marxist character, which lasted until the 1989 revisions, was revealed in a number of its articles, which pointed to a "classless society" and the "socialization of the means of production" and proclaimed all nationalizations made after 25 April 1974, as "irreversible conquests of the working classes". The constitution also defined new power relationships between labor and management, with a strong bias in favor of labor. All regulations with reference to layoffs, including collective redundancy, were circumscribed by Article 53.[citation needed]

[edit] Role of the new public sector This section does not cite any references or sources. (July 2012) After the revolution, the Portuguese economy experienced a rapid, and sometimes uncontrollable, expansion of public expendituresboth in the general government and in public enterprises. The lag in public sector receipts resulted in large public enterprise and government deficits. In 1982, the borrowing requirement of the consolidated public sector reached 24 percent of GDP, its peak level; it was reduced to 9 percent of GDP by 1990. To rein in domestic demand growth, the Portuguese government was obliged to pursue International Monetary Fund (IMF)-monitored stabilization programs in 1977 78 and 198385. The large negative savings of the public sector (including the stateowned enterprises) became a structural feature of Portugal's political economy after the revolution. Other official impediments to rapid economic growth after 1974 included all-pervasive price regulation, as well as heavy-handed intervention in factor markets and the distribution of income. In 1989, Prime Minister Anbal Cavaco Silva succeeded in mobilizing the required two-thirds vote in the National Assembly to amend the constitution, thereby permitting the denationalization of the state-owned banks and other public enterprises. Privatization, economic deregulation, and tax reform became the salient concerns of public policy as Portugal prepared itself for the challenges and opportunities of membership in the EC's single market in the 1990s. [edit] The non-financial public enterprises This section does not cite any references or sources. (July 2012) Following the sweeping nationalizations of the mid-1970s, public enterprises became a major component of Portugal's consolidated public sector. Portugal's nationalized sector in 1980 included a core of fifty non-financial enterprises, which were entirely government owned. This so-called public non-financial enterprise group included the Institute of State Participation, a holding company with investments in some seventy subsidiary enterprises; a number of state-owned entities manufacturing or selling goods and services grouped with nationalized enterprises for national accounts purposes (arms, agriculture, and public infrastructure such as ports); and a large number of over 50 percent EPNF-owned subsidiaries operating under private law. Altogether, these public enterprises accounted for 25 percent of VA in GDP, 52 percent of GFCF, and 12 percent of Portugal's total employment. In terms of VA and GFCF, the relative scale of Portugal's public entities exceeded that of the other western European economies, including the EC member countries. Although the nationalizations broke up the concentration of economic power that had been held by financial-industrial groups, the subsequent merger of several private

firms into single publicly owned enterprises left domestic markets even more monopolized. Apart from special cases, as in iron and steel, where the economies of scale are optimal for very large firms, there was some question as to the desirability of establishing national monopolies. The elimination of competition following the official takeover of industries such as cement, chemicals, and trucking probably reduced managerial incentives for cost reduction and technical advance. It was not surprising that numerous nationalized enterprises experienced severe operating and financial difficulties. State operations faced considerable uncertainty as to the goals of public enterprises, with negative implications for decision making, often at odds with market criteria. In many instances, managers of public firms were less able than their private-sector counterparts to resist strong wage demands from militant unions. Further, public firm managers were required for political expediency to maintain a redundant labor force and freeze prices or utility rates for long periods in the face of rising costs. Overstaffing was particularly flagrant at Petrogal, the national petroleum monopoly, and Estaleiros Navais de Setbal (Setenave), the wholly state-owned shipbuilding and repairing enterprise. The failure of the public transportation firms to raise fares during a time of accelerating inflation resulted in substantial operating losses and obsolescence of the sector's capital stock. As a group, the public enterprises performed poorly financially and relied excessively on debt financing from both domestic and foreign commercial banks. The operating and financial problems of the public enterprise sector were revealed in a study by the Bank of Portugal covering the years 197880. Based upon a survey of fifty-one enterprises, which represented 92 percent of the sector's VA, the analysis confirmed the debilitated financial condition of the public enterprises, as evidenced by their inadequate equity and liquidity ratios. The consolidated losses of the firms included in the survey increased from 18.3 to 40.3 million contos from 1978 to 1980, or 4.6 percent to 6.1 percent of net worth, respectively. Losses were concentrated in transportation and to a lesser extent transport equipment and materials (principally shipbuilding and ship repair). The budgetary burden of the public enterprises was substantial: enterprise transfers to the Portuguese government (mainly taxes) fell short of government receipts in the forms of subsidies and capital transfers. The largest nonfinancial state enterprises recorded (inflation-discounted) losses in the seven-year period from 1977 to 1983 equivalent to 11 percent on capital employed. Notwithstanding their substantial operating losses and weak capital structure, these large enterprises financed 86 percent of their capital investments from 1977 to 1983 through increased debt, of which two-thirds was foreign. The rapid buildup of Portugal's external debt from 1978 to 1985 was largely associated with the public enterprises. [edit] General government This section does not cite any references or sources. (July 2012) The share of general government expenditure (including capital outlays) in GDP rose from 23 percent in 1973 to 46 percent in 1990. On the revenue side, the upward trend was less pronounced: the share increased from nearly 23 percent in 1973 to 39.2

percent in 1990. From a modest surplus before the revolution in 1973, the government balance swung to a wide deficit of 12 percent of GDP in 1984, declining thereafter to around 5.4 percent of GDP in 1990. Significantly, both current expenditures and capital expenditures roughly doubled their shares of GDP between 1973 and 1990: government current outlays rose from 19.5 percent to 40.2 percent, capital outlays from 3.2 percent to 5.7 percent. Apart from the growing investment effort, which included capital transfers to the public enterprises, government expenditure patterns since the revolution reflected rapid expansion in the number of civil servants and pressure to redistribute income, mainly through current transfers and subsidies, as well as burgeoning interest obligations. The category "current transfers" nearly tripled its share of GDP between 1973 and 1990, from under 5 percent to 13.4 percent, reflecting the explosive growth of the social security system, both with respect to the number of persons covered and the upgrading of benefits. Escalating interest payments on the public debt, from less than half a percent of GDP in 1973 to 8.2 percent of GDP in 1990, were the result of both a rise in the debt itself and higher real effective interest rates. The narrowing of the government deficit since the mid-1980s and the associated easing of the borrowing requirement was caused both by a small increase in the share of receipts (by two percentage points) and the relatively sharper contraction of current subsidies, from 7.6 percent of GDP in 1984 to 1.5 percent of GDP in 1990. This reduction was a direct consequence of the gradual abandonment by the government of its policy of curbs on rises in public utility rates and food prices, against which it paid subsidies to public enterprises. Tax reformcomprising both direct and indirect taxationwas a major element in a more comprehensive effort to modernize the economy in the late 1980s. The key objective of these reforms was to promote more efficient and market-oriented economic performance. Prior to the reform, about 90 percent of the personal tax base consisted of labor income. Statutory marginal tax rates on labor income were very high, even at relatively low income levels, especially after the revolution. The large number of tax exemptions and fiscal benefits, together with high marginal tax rates, entailed the progressive erosion of the tax base through tax avoidance. Furthermore, Portuguese membership in the EC created the imperative for a number of changes in the tax system, especially the introduction of the value-added tax. Reform proceeded in two major installments: the VAT was introduced in 1986; the income tax reform, for both personal and corporate income, became effective in 1989. The VAT, whose normal rate was 17%, replaced all indirect taxes, such as the transactions tax, railroad tax, and tourism tax. Marginal tax rates on both personal and corporate income were substantially cut, and in the case of individual taxes, the number of brackets was reduced to five. The basic rate of corporate tax was 36.5%, and the top marginal tax rate on personal income was cut from 80% to 40%. A 25% capital gains tax was levied on direct and portfolio investment. Business proceeds invested in development projects were exempt from capital gains tax if the assets were retained for at least two years.

Preliminary estimates indicated that part of the observed increase in direct tax revenue in 198990 was of a permanent nature, the consequence of a redefinition of taxable income, a reduction in allowed deductions, and the termination of most fiscal benefits for corporations. The resulting broadening of the income tax base permitted a lowering of marginal tax rates, greatly reducing the disincentive effects to labor and saving. [edit] Macroeconomic disequilibria and public debt This section does not cite any references or sources. (July 2012)

Mrio Soares of the Socialist Party (PS), served as Prime Minister of Portugal from 1976 to 1978 and from 1983 to 1985. Portugal's economic situation obliged the government to pursue International Monetary Fund (IMF)-monitored stabilization programs in 197778 and 198385. Between 1973 and 1988, the general government debt/GDP ratio quadrupled, reaching a peak of 74 percent in 1988. This growth in the absolute and relative debt was only partially attributable to the accumulation of government deficits. It also reflected the reorganization of various public funds and enterprises, the separation of their accounts from those of the government, and their fiscal consolidation. The rising trend of the general government debt/GDP ratio was reversed in 1989, as a surge in tax revenues linked to the tax reform and the shrinking public enterprise deficits reduced the public sector borrowing requirement (PSBR) relative to GDP. After falling to 67% in 1990, the general government debt/GDP ratio was expected to continue to decline, reflecting fiscal restraint and increased proceeds from privatization.

The financing structure of the public deficits had changed since the mid-1980s due to two factors. First, the easing of the PSBR and the government's determination to reduce the foreign debt/GDP ratio led to a sharp reduction in borrowing abroad. Second, since 1985 the share of nonmonetary financing had increased steeply, not only in the form of public issues of Treasury bills but also, since 198788, in the form of medium-term Treasury bonds. The magnitude of the public sector deficit (including that of the public enterprises) had a crowding-out effect on private investment. The nationalized banks were obliged by law to increase their holding of government paper bearing negative real interest rates. This massive absorption of funds by the public sector was largely at the expense of private enterprises whose financing was often constrained by quantitative credit controls. Portugal's membership in the EC resulted in substantial net transfers averaging 1.5 percent of annual GDP during 198790. The bulk of these transfers were "structural" funds that were used for infrastructure developments and professional training. Additional EC funds, also allocated through the public sector, were designed for the development of Portugal's agricultural and industrial sectors. After 1985, the PSBR began to show a substantial decline, largely as a result of the improved financial position of public enterprises. Favorable exogenous factors (lower oil prices, lower interest rates, and depreciation of the dollar) helped to moderate operating costs. More important, however, was the shift in government policy. Public enterprise managers were given greater autonomy in investment, labor, and product pricing. Significantly, the combined deficit of the nonfinancial public enterprises fell to below 2 percent of GDP on average in 198788 from 8 percent of GDP in 1985 86. In 1989 the borrowing requirements of those enterprises fell further to 1 percent of GDP. In April 1990, legislation concerning privatization was enacted following an amendment to the constitution in June 1989 that provided the basis for complete (100 percent) divestiture of nationalized enterprises. Among the stated objectives of privatization were to modernize economic units, increase their competitiveness, and contribute to sectoral restructuring; to reduce the role of the state in the economy; to contribute to the development of capital markets; and to widen the participation of Portuguese citizens in the ownership of enterprises, giving particular attention to the workers of the enterprises and to small shareholders. The government was concerned about the strength of foreign investment in privatizations and wanted to reserve the right to veto some transactions. But, as a member of the EC, Portugal would eventually have to accept investment from other member countries on parity with investment of its nationals. Significantly, government proceeds from privatization of nationalized enterprises would primarily be used to reduce public debt, and to the extent that profits would rise after privatization, tax revenues would expand. In 1991, proceeds from privatization were expected to amount to 2.5 percent of GDP. [edit] Changing structure of the economy

This section does not cite any references or sources. (July 2012) The Portuguese economy had changed significantly by 1973, compared with its position in 1961. Total output (GDP at factor cost) grew by 120 percent in real terms. The industrial sector was three times greater, and the services sector doubled; however, agriculture, forestry, and fishing advanced by only 16 percent. Manufacturing, the major component of the secondary sector, tripled during this time. Industrial expansion was concentrated in large-scale enterprises using modern technology. The composition of GDP also changed markedly from 1961 to 1973. The share of the primary sector (agriculture, forestry, and fishing) in GDP shrank from 23 to 16.8 percent, and the contribution of the secondary (or industrial) sector (manufacturing, construction, mining, electricity, gas, and water) increased from 37 to 44 percent. The services sector's share in GDP remained constant at 39.4 percent. Within the industrial sector, the contribution of manufacturing advanced from 30 to 35 percent and that of construction from 4.6 to 6.4 percent. The progressive "opening" of Portugal to the world economy was reflected in the growing shares of exports and imports (both visible and invisible) in national output and income. Further, the composition of Portugal's balance of international payments altered substantially. From 1960 to 1973, the merchandise trade deficit widened, but owing to a growing surplus on invisiblesincluding tourist receipts and emigrant worker remittancesthe deficit in the current account gave way to a surplus from 1965 onwards. Beginning with that year, the long-term capital account typically registered a deficit, the counterpart of the current account surplus. Even though the nation attracted a rising level of capital from abroad (both direct investments and loans), official and private Portuguese investments in the "overseas territories" were greater still, causing the net outflow on the long-term capital account. The growth rate of Portuguese merchandise exports during the period 1959 to 1973 was 11 percent per annum. In 1960 the bulk of exports was accounted for by a few products such as canned fish, raw and manufactured cork, cotton textiles, and wine. By contrast, in the early 1970s, Portugal's export list underwent diversification, including both consumer and capital goods. Several branches of Portuguese industry became export-oriented, and in 1973 over one-fifth of Portuguese manufactured output was exported. The radical nationalization-expropriation measures in the mid-1970s were initially accompanied by a policy-induced redistribution of national income from property owners, entrepreneurs, and private managers and professionals to industrial and agricultural workers. This wage explosion favoring workers with a high propensity to consume had a dramatic impact on the nation's economic growth and pattern of expenditures. Private and public consumption combined rose from 81 percent of domestic expenditure in 1973 to nearly 102 percent in 1975. The counterpart of overconsumption in the face of declining national output was a contraction in both savings and fixed capital formation, depletion of stocks, and a huge balance-ofpayments deficit. The rapid increase in production costs associated with the surge in

unit labor costs between 1973 and 1975 contributed significantly to the decline in Portugal's ability to compete in foreign markets. Real exports fell between 1973 and 1976, and their share in total expenditures declined from nearly 26 percent to 16.5 percent. The economic dislocations of metropolitan Portugal associated with the income leveling and nationalization-expropriation measures were exacerbated by the sudden loss of the nation's African colonies in 1974 and 1975 and the reabsorption of overseas settlers, the global recession, and the international energy crisis. Over the longer period, 197390, the composition of Portugal's GDP at factor cost changed significantly. The contribution of agriculture, forestry, and fishing as a share of total production continued its inexorable decline, to 6.1 percent from 12.2 percent in 1973. In contrast to the pre-revolutionary period, 196173, when the industrial sector grew by 9 percent annually and its contribution to GDP expanded, industry's share narrowed from 44 to 38.4 percent of GDP. Manufacturing, the major component of the industrial sector, contributed relatively less to GDP in 1990, falling from 35 to 28 percent. Most striking was the 16 percentage point increase in the participation of the services sector from 39 percent to 55.5 percent. Most of this growth reflected the proliferation of civil service employment and the associated cost of public administration, together with the dynamic contribution of tourism services during the 1980s. [edit] Economic growth, 196073 and 198190 There was a striking contrast between the economic growth and levels of capital formation in the 196073 period and in the 1980s. The pre-revolutionary period was characterized by robust annual growth rates for GDP (6.9 percent), industrial production (9 percent), private consumption (6.5 percent), and gross fixed capital formation (7.8 percent). By way of contrast, the 1980s exhibited slower annual growth rates for GDP (2.7 percent), industrial production (4.8 percent), private consumption (2.7 percent), and fixed capital formation (3.1 percent). As a result of worker emigration and the military draft, employment declined during the earlier period, but increased by 1.4 percent annually during the 1980s. Significantly, labor productivity (GDP growth/employment growth) grew by a sluggish rate of 1.3 percent annually in the more recent period compared with the extremely rapid annual growth rate of 7.4 percent earlier. Inflation, as measured by the GDP deflator, averaged a modest 4 percent a year before the revolution compared with nearly 18 percent annually during the 1980s.[2][57][61] In 1960, Portugal joined the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) as a founding member. Although the investment coefficients were roughly similar (24 percent of GDP allocated to fixed capital formation in the earlier period compared to 26.7 percent during the 1980s), the overall investment productivity or efficiency (GDP growth rate/investment coefficient) was nearly three times greater before the revolution (28.6 percent) than in the 1980s (10.1 percent). In 1960, at the initiation of Salazar's more outward-looking economic policy, Portugal's per capita GDP was only 38 percent of the EC-12 average; by the end of the Salazar period, in 1968, it had risen to 48 percent, and in 1973, on the eve of the

revolution, Portugal's per capita GDP had reached 56.4 percent of the EC-12 average. In 1975, when revolutionary turmoil peaked, Portugal's per capita GDP declined to 52.3 percent of the EC-12 average. Convergence of real GDP growth toward the EC average occurred as a result of Portugal's economic resurgence since 1985. In 1991 Portugal's GDP per capita climbed to 54.9 percent of the EC average, exceeding by a fraction the level attained during the worst revolutionary period.[63] In addition, the events of 1974 prompted a mass exodus of citizens from Portugal's African territories (mostly from Portuguese Angola and Mozambique), creating over a million Portuguese destitute refugees known as the retornados.[64] Portugal entered the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1986 and left the European Free Trade Association (EFTA), which it had helped found in 1960. An important external influx of structural and cohesion funds was managed by the country as the EEC evolved to the European Union (EU) and beyond.

[edit] European Union integration: the 1990s and 2000s

In the 1990s many motorways were opened. Shown is the A28 motorway in the Grande Porto subregion. Portugal experienced a strong recovery in a few decades after the leftist turmoil of 1974, the ultimate loss of its overseas empire in 1975, and the adhesion to the European Economic Community in 1986. The European Union's structural and cohesion funds, and the growth of many of Portugal's main exporting companies, which became leading world players in a number of economic sectors, such as engineered wood, injection molding, plastics, specialized software, ceramics, textiles, footwear, paper, cork, and fine wine, among others, was a major factor in the development of the Portuguese economy and improvements in the standard of living and quality of life. Similarly, for several years, the Portuguese subsidiaries of large multinational companies, such as Siemens Portugal, Volkswagen Autoeuropa, Qimonda Portugal, IKEA, Nestl Portugal, Microsoft Portugal,[5] Unilever/Jernimo Martins, and Danone Portugal, ranked among the best in the world for productivity.[65][66]

In 2002, Portugal introduced the single European currency, the euro. Together with other EU member states Portugal founded the Eurozone. Among the most notable Portugal-based global companies that expanded internationally in the 1990s and first decade of the 21st century were Sonae, Sonae Indstria, Amorim, Sogrape, EFACEC, Portugal Telecom, Jernimo Martins, Cimpor, Unicer, Millennium bcp, Lactogal, Sumol + Compal, Cerealis, Frulact, Ambar, Bial, Critical Software, Active Space Technologies, YDreams, Galp Energia, Energias de Portugal, Visabeira, Renova, Delta Cafs, Derovo, Teixeira Duarte, Soares da Costa, Portucel Soporcel, Salsa jeans, Grupo Jos de Mello, Valouro, Sovena Group, Simoldes, Iberomoldes, and Logoplaste.[citation needed] Although being both a developed and a high income country, Portugal had the lowest GDP per capita in western Europe, and the average income was one of the lowest in the European Union. According to the Eurostat it had the sixth-lowest purchasing power of the 27 member states of the European Union for the period 20052007.[67] However, research about quality of life by the Economist Intelligence Unit's (EIU) Quality-of-life Survey[10] placed Portugal 19th in the world for 2005, ahead of other economically and technologically advanced countries such as France, Germany, the United Kingdom, and South Korea, but nine places behind its only neighbour, Spain.

Several new stadiums were built for the UEFA Euro 2004,[68] but a number of these have remained underutilized since then. Shown is the Algarve Stadium. The Global Competitiveness Report for 2005, published by the World Economic Forum, placed Portugal 22nd, ahead of countries and territories such as Spain, Ireland, France, Belgium, and Hong Kong. On the Technology index, Portugal ranked 20th, on the Public Institutions Index, Portugal ranked 15th best, and on the Macroeconomic Index, Portugal was placed 37th.[69] The Global Competitiveness Index 20072008 placed Portugal 40th out of 131 countries and territories.[70]

However, the Global Competitiveness Report 20082009 edition placed Portugal 43rd out of 134.[9] Related to the notable economic development that was seen in Portugal from the 1960s to the early 21st century (with an abrupt but short-lived halt after 1974), the development of tourism, which allowed increased exposure for national cultural heritage, particularly in regards to architecture and local cuisine, improved further. The adoption of the euro and the organization of Expo 98 World Fair in Lisbon, the 2001 European Culture Capital in Porto, and the Euro 2004 football championship, were also important landmarks in the economic history of the country. GDP growth in 2006, at 1.3%, was the lowest in all of Europe. In the first decade of the 21st century, the Czech Republic, Greece, Malta, Slovakia, and Slovenia all overtook Portugal in terms of GDP (PPP) per head. Greece had been a regular comparison point for Portugal since EU adhesion as both countries were formerly ruled by authoritarian governments and share similar EU-membership history, number of inhabitants, market size and tastes, national economies, mediterranean culture, sunny weather, and tourist appeal; however, the Greek economic and financial wealth of the first five years of the 21st century was artificially boosted and was hampered by lack of sustainability, and they were caught out by a massive crisis by 2010.[71][72][73] Portuguese GDP per head has fallen from just over 80% of the EU 25 average in 1999 to just over 70% in 2007. This poor performance of the Portuguese economy was explored in April 2007 by The Economist, which described Portugal as "a new sick man of Europe".[74] From 2002 to 2007, the unemployment rate increased by 65%; the number of unemployed citizens grew from 270,500 in 2002 to 448,600 in 2007.[75] By December 2009, the unemployment rate had passed the 10% mark. Overall, the late 1990s and the first decade of the 21st century were marked by a lagging economy where Portugal not only failed to catch up to the EU average, but actually fell behind for a period. This is partly because the EU gave money to Portugal in return for enforcing a ban on agriculture in areas where agriculture had traditionally been done, ensuring that Portugal could not be self-sufficient. Public expenditure rose to unsustainable levels and the number of public servants, which had been on the rise since the 1974 Carnation Revolution, reached unprecedented proportions. State-funded and supported construction projects such as those related to the Expo 98 World Fair in Lisbon, the 2004 European Football Championship, and a number of new motorways, proved to have little positive effect in fostering sustainable growth. The short-term impact of these major investments was exhausted by the end of the first decade of the 21st century, and the aim of achieving faster economic growth and the improvement of the population's purchasing power in relation to the EU average did not materialize. To make matters worse, the late 2000s recession, when much of the industrialized world entered a deep recession, led to increased unemployment and a downturn. In December 2009, ratings agency Standard and Poor's lowered its long-term credit assessment of Portugal from "stable" to "negative", voicing pessimism on the country's structural economic weaknesses and poor competitiveness, which would hamper growth and the capacity to strengthen its public finances and reduce debt.[76] Lack of government regulation; easy lending in the housing market, including Spain's and US markets, meant anyone could qualify for a home loan with no government

regulations in place, and with key players, including bankers and politicians in several countries, making the wrong financial decisions, saw the world's biggest financial collapse. Portugal had to add a chronic public servant overcapacity problem, a severe sovereign debt crisis and a small, relatively weak, economy to the equation. Notwithstanding the bad macroeconomic environment, modern non-traditional technology-based industries like aerospace, biotechnology and information technology, were developed in several locations across the country. Alverca, Covilh,[77] vora,[78] and Ponte de Sor became the main centres of Portuguese aerospace industry, led by Brazil-based company Embraer and the Portuguese company OGMA. Since after the turn of the 21st century, many major biotechnology and information technology industries were founded and proliferated in the metropolitan areas of Lisbon, Porto, Braga, Coimbra and Aveiro. [edit] The BPN and BPP bailouts During the global economic crisis, it was known in 20082009 that two Portuguese banks (Banco Portugus de Negcios (BPN) and Banco Privado Portugus (BPP)) had been accumulating losses for years due to bad investiments, embezzlement and accounting fraud. In the grounds of avoiding a potentially serious financial crisis in the Portuguese economy, the Portuguese government decided to give them a bailout, eventually at a future loss to taxpayers. Because of that, the role of Banco de Portugal (BdP) (Portuguese Central Bank) in regulating and supervising the Portuguese banking system, when it was led by Vtor Constncio from 2000 to 2010, has been the subject of heated argument, particularly whether Vtor Constncio and the BdP had the means to do something or whether they revealed gross incompetence. In December 2010, Constncio was appointed vice president of the European Central Bank, for an eight-year mandate, being responsible for banking supervision.[79] Shortly after, in April 2011, the Portuguese Government would request international financial assistance as the State itself would be declared insolvent.[80]

[edit] Economic crisis: the 2010s

From 2005 to 2011, Jos Scrates of the Socialist Party (PS) was the Prime Minister and the leader of the Portuguese Government. His term in office would be remembered as one of the worst periods in the post-WWII economic history of Portugal due to record high unemployment, loss of family purchasing power, and economic downturn. The State went bankrupt. Income taxes in Portugal rose considerably to make inroads into its huge deficit. It was the third time that external

financial aid was requested to the IMF the first was in the late 1970s following the Carnation Revolution. Main articles: Late-2000s recession in Europe and European sovereign debt crisis In the opening weeks of 2010, renewed anxiety about the excessive levels of debt in some EU countries and, more generally, about the health of the Euro spread from Ireland and Greece to Portugal, Spain, and Italy. Some senior German policy makers went as far as to say that emergency bailouts to Greece and future EU aid recipients should bring with it harsh penalties.[81] In 2010, PIIGS and PIGS acronyms were widely used by international bond analysts, academics, and the international economic press when referring to the underperforming economies of Portugal, Italy, Ireland, Greece, and Spain. In the summer of 2010, Moody's Investors Service cut Portugal's sovereign bond rating down two notches from an Aa2 to an A1.[82] Due to spending on economic stimuli, Portugal's debt had increased sharply compared to the gross domestic product. Moody noted that the rising debt would weigh heavily on the government's short-term finances.[83] Earlier in the year, Portugal was one of the countries identified in the 2010 Euro Crisis as concern spread over increasing government deficit and debt levels in certain countries. Also in 2010, the country reached a record high unemployment rate of nearly 11%, a figure not seen for over two decades, while the number of public servants remained very high. International financial markets compelled the Portuguese Government led by Prime Minister Jos Scrates, to make radical changes in economic policy, like other European governments had done before. Thus, in September 2010, the Portuguese Government announced a fresh austerity package following other Eurozone partners, through a series of tax hikes and salary cuts for public servants. In 2009, the deficit had been 9.4 percent, one of the highest in the Eurozone and way above the European Union's Stability and Growth Pact three percent limit. In November 2010, risk premiums on Portuguese bonds hit euro lifetime highs as investors and creditors worried that the country would fail to reign in its budget deficit and debt. The yield on the country's 10-year government bonds reached 7 percent a level the Portuguese Finance Minister Fernando Teixeira dos Santos had previously said would require the country to seek financial help from international institutions.

Prime Ministers Pedro Passos Coelho, from Portugal (left) and Rodriguez Zapatero, from Spain (right), in October 2011 - with economic downturn and a rising unemployment rate (over 10% unemployment rate in Portugal and 20% in Spain by 2011), the two countries of the Iberian Peninsula were trapped right in the middle of the European sovereign debt crisis. A report published in January 2011 by the Dirio de Notcias, a leading Portuguese newspaper, demonstrated that in the period between the Carnation Revolution in 1974 and 2010, the democratic Portuguese Republic governments encouraged over expenditure and investment bubbles through unclear public-private partnerships. This has funded numerous ineffective and unnecessary external consultancy and advising committees and firms, allowed considerable slippage in state-managed public works, inflated top management and head officers' bonuses and wages, causing a persistent and lasting recruitment policy that has boosted the number of redundant public servants. The economy had also been damaged by risky credit, public debt creation and mismanaged European structural and cohesion funds for almost four decades. Apparently, the Prime Minister Scrates's cabinet was not able to forecast or prevent any of this when symptoms first appeared in 2005, and later was incapable of doing anything to ameliorate the situation when the country was on the verge of bankruptcy in 2011.[84] On 23 March 2011, Jos Scrates resigned following passage of a no confidence motion sponsored by all five opposition parties in parliament over spending cuts and tax increases.[85] On 6 April 2011, the resigning Prime Minister announced on the television that the country, facing a status of bankruptcy, would request financial assistance to the IMF (at the time managed by Dominique Strauss-Kahn) and the European Financial Stability Facility, like Greece and the Republic of Ireland had done before. In order to accomplish the European Union/IMF-led rescue plan for Portugal's sovereign debt crisis worth 78 billion euros, in July and August 2011 the new government led by Pedro Passos Coelho announced it was going to cut on state spending and increase austerity measures, including public servant wage cuts and additional tax increases. On June 7, 2012, Portugal's largest listed bank by assets Millennium bcp was rescued by the Portuguese Government headed by Passos Coelho, through 3 billion euros ($3.8 billion) in state funds it took from the country's bailout package.[86]

[edit] See also

Economic history Economy of Portugal Economic history of Brazil Economic history of Europe Economic history of Spain Economic history of the world Elmina Castle

Company of Guinea Fort Jesus Island of Mozambique Mozambique Company Macau Nagasaki Niassa Company Portuguese East India Company Portuguese East Africa Portuguese India Portuguese West Africa Portuguese real Portuguese escudo Slavery in Portugal

[edit] References

This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the Library of Congress Country Studies. Portugal
^ "Portuguese Empire," Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2009. Archived 31 October 2009. ^ a b c d (Portuguese) Fundao da SEDES As primeiras motivaes, "Nos anos 60 e at 1973 teve lugar, provavelmente, o mais rpido perodo de crescimento econmico da nossa Histria, traduzido na industrializao, na expanso do turismo, no comrcio com a EFTA, no desenvolvimento dos sectores financeiros, investimento estrangeiro e grandes projectos de infra-estruturas. Em consequncia, os indicadores de rendimentos e consumo acompanham essa evoluo, reforados ainda pelas remessas de emigrantes.", SEDES ^ a b Flight from Angola, The Economist (16 August 1975). ^ a b Dismantling the Portuguese Empire, Time Magazine (Monday, 7 July 1975). ^ a b Microsoft Portugal novamente eleita melhor Subsidiria mundial da Microsoft International em 2008 ^ A Siemens executive, Carlos de Melo Ribeiro, pointed to labor costs and productivity as major reasons why shipping semiconductors to Portugal for final production was more advantageous than retaining the work in Germany or Great Britain Siemens Builds on Long History in Portugal, to the Benefit of Both, By Karen E. Thuermer, October 1997, in Keller Publishing [1] ^ "The investment made in Portugal by the VW group has enabled "this plant to become one of the best in the VW Group and indeed in the whole automotive industry in terms of quality, productivity, absenteeism, safety, and many other decisive criteria", Gerd Heuss upon the manufacturing of car n 1 million in Palmela", June 2003., AICEP Business Development Agency ^ [2], GDP per capita PPP in the EU27. Eurostat ^ a b "The Global Competitiveness Index rankings". World Economic Forum. http://www.weforum.org/pdf/gcr/2008/rankings.pdf. Retrieved 20 March 2009. ^ a b Quality-of-life Survey ^ Picard, Christophe (2000). Le Portugal musulman (VIIIe-XIIIe sicle. L'Occident d'alAndalus sous domination islamique. Paris: Maisonneuve & Larose. ISBN 2-7068-1398-9. ^ Edson and Savage-Smith "Medieval Views of the Cosmos"(2004), pp. 1136 ^ Joel Serro, "O carcter social da revoluo de 1383", p. 95, Livros Horizonte, 1976 ^ E. Michael Gerli, Samuel G. Armistead, "Medieval Iberia: an encyclopedia, Volume 8 of Routledge encyclopedias of the Middle Ages", p.285, ISBN 0-415-93918-6, [3] ^ Pereira, John Felix, "Abridgement of the History of Portugal", p. 114, ISBN 1-110-33526-1 ^ Diffie, Bailey (1977), Foundations of the Portuguese Empire, 14151580, p. 210, University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 0-8166-0782-6

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17. ^ A. R. de Oliveira Marques, Vitor Andre, "Daily Life in Portugal in the Late Middle Ages", p.9, Univ of Wisconsin Press, 1971, ISBN 0-299-05584-1 18. ^ M. D. D. Newitt, "A history of Portuguese overseas expansion, 14001668", p.9, Routledge, 2005 ISBN 0-415-23979-6 19. ^ Butel, Paul, "The Atlantic", p. 36, Seas in history, Routledge, 1999 ISBN 0-415-10690-7 20. ^ Banco de Portugal. "Servios ao pblico > Museu". Exposio permanente|O Dinheiro no Ocidente Peninsular Nos Descobrimentos e Conquistas. Banco de Portugal. http://www.bportugal.pt/ptPT/ServicosaoPublico/Museu/Exposicaopermanente/Paginas/Descobrimentos.aspx. Retrieved 2 May 2011. 21. ^ Daus, p. 33 22. ^ Ever since Mansa Musa, ruler of the Mali Empire, made his pilgrimage to Mecca in 1325 with 500 slaves and 100 camels (each carrying gold), the region had become synonymous with such wealth. 23. ^ A.L. Epstein, Urban Communities in Africa Closed Systems and Open Minds, 1964 24. ^ B.W. Hodder, Some Comments on the Origins of Traditional Markets in Africa South of the Sahara Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, 1965 JSTOR 25. ^ Transformations in Slavery by Paul E. Lovejoy Cambridge University Press, 2000 26. ^ Godinho, V. M. Os Descobrimentos e a Economia Mundial, Arcdia, 1965, Vol 1 and 2, Lisboa 27. ^ Ponting, Clive (2000) [2000]. World history: a new perspective. London: Chatto & Windus. pp. 482. ISBN 0-7011-6834-X. 28. ^ a b Thorn, Rob. "Discoveries After Prince Henry". http://www.thornr.demon.co.uk/kchrist/discpde.html. Retrieved 24 December 2006. 29. ^ H. Miner, The City in Modern Africa 1967 30. ^ "Elmina Castle". Government of Ghana. Archived from the original on 9 October 2006. http://web.archive.org/web/20061009012322/http://www.ghanatourism.gov.gh/regions/highlig ht_detail.asp?id=&rdid=116#. Retrieved 24 December 2006. 31. ^ H. Kuper, Urbanization and Migration in West Africa 1965 Berkeley, Calif., U. of California 32. ^ Arnold Pacey, "Technology in world civilization: a thousand-year history", ISBN 0-26266072-5 33. ^ Yosabur Takekoshi, "The Economic Aspects of the History of the Civilization of Japan", ISBN 0-415-32379-7. 34. ^ a b Spence (1999), 1920. 35. ^ Spence (1999), 20. 36. ^ Brook (1998), 205. 37. ^ Jos Yamashiro (1989). Chque luso no Japo dos sculos XVI e XVII. IBRASA. p. 103. ISBN 85-348-1068-0. http://books.google.com/books?id=l2qSNQnlQGcC&pg=PA103&dq=sul+portugal+chineses+ escravos&hl=en&ei=UtcOTaO7HYOB8ga54uXUDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&res num=10&ved=0CE8Q6AEwCQ#v=onepage&q=sul%20portugal%20chineses%20escravos&f =false. Retrieved 14 July 2010. 38. ^ Maria do Rosrio Pimente (1995). Viagem ao fundo das conscincias: a escravatura na poca moderna. Edies Colibri. p. 49. ISBN 972-8047-75-4. http://books.google.com/books?ei=6M8OTdz6OcP48Ab0l4m8Dg&ct=result&id=DrlIAAAA YAAJ&dq=escravo+Ant%C3%B3nio%2C+china+azamel&q=residente+em+Portugal+entre+ 1578+e+1583%2C+se+referiu+aos+escravos+como+oriundos+da+%C3%81frica%2C+da+% C3%ADndia%2C+do+Jap%C3%A3o+e+da+China. Retrieved 14 July 2010. 39. ^ Julita Scarano. "MIGRAO SOB CONTRATO: A OPINIO DE EA DE QUEIROZ". Unesp- Ceru. p. 4. http://bibliotecavirtual.clacso.org.ar/ar/libros/anpocs00/gt09/00gt0934.doc. Retrieved 14 July 2010. 40. ^ Paul Finkelman, Joseph Calder Miller (1998). Macmillan encyclopedia of world slavery, Volume 2. Macmillan Reference USA, Simon & Schuster Macmillan. p. 737. ISBN 0-02864781-5. http://books.google.com/books?ei=Z_fpTMm6OsX_lgfKnOT6Cw&ct=result&id=5s0YAAA AIAAJ&dq=chinese+slaves+southern+portugal&q=chinese+japanese. Retrieved 14 October 2010. 41. ^ David E. Mungello (2009). The great encounter of China and the West, 15001800. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 81. ISBN 0-7425-5798-7.

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http://books.google.com/books?id=9x3vE0UMPkMC&pg=PA81&dq=first+visit+chinese+in+ europe+england+london&hl=en&ei=MeQOTfiYBYG88ga43nTDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=6&ved=0CEoQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q= first%20visit%20chinese%20in%20europe%20england%20london&f=false. Retrieved 14 October 2010. ^ Alberto da Costa e Silva (2002). A manilha e o libambo: a frica e a escravido, de 1500 a 1700. Editora Nova Fronteira. p. 849. ISBN 85-209-1262-1. http://books.google.com/books?ei=dT7rTJreHcGAlAejxeBh&ct=result&id=Lw65AAAAIAA J&dq=escravo+chin%C3%AAs+maria+de+vilhena&q=chin%C3%AAs. Retrieved 14 October 2010. ^ Hugh Thomas (1999). The slave trade: the story of the Atlantic slave trade, 14401870. Simon and Schuster. p. 119. ISBN 0-684-83565-7. http://books.google.com/books?id=lmPFnzXU7o0C&pg=PA119&dq=maria+de+vilhena+chi nese&hl=en&ei=4_7pTOnDC4OClAfwvIG6CQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum= 1&ved=0CCkQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=maria%20de%20vilhena%20chinese&f=false. Retrieved 14 October 2010. ^ Jorge Fonseca (1997). Os escravos em vora no sculo XVI. Cmara Municipal de vora. p. 21. ISBN 972-96965-3-5. http://books.google.com/books?ei=baZdTNepMYL78AbJzMW6DQ&ct=result&id=JrlIAAA AYAAJ&dq=maria+de+vilhena+Chin%C3%AAs&q=Chin%C3%AAs. Retrieved 14 July 2010. ^ Peter C. Mancall, Omohundro Institute of Early American History & Culture (2007). The Atlantic world and Virginia, 15501624. UNC Press Books. p. 228. ISBN 0-8078-5848-X. http://books.google.com/books?id=Vrj4gApIJz4C&pg=PA228&dq=chinese+slaves+southern +portugal&hl=en&ei=Z_fpTMm6OsX_lgfKnOT6Cw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&res num=1&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=chinese%20slaves%20southern%20portugal& f=false. Retrieved 14 October 2010. ^ Jos Roberto Teixeira Leite (1999). A China no Brasil: influncias, marcas, ecos e sobrevivncias chinesas na sociedade e na arte brasileiras. Editora da Unicamp. p. 20. ISBN 85-268-0436-7. http://books.google.com/books?ei=EqxdTI3uIMGB8gbZn_XEDQ&ct=result&id=wNZ6AAA AMAAJ&dq=escravo+Chin%C3%AAs&q=J%C3%A1+por+a%C3%AD+se+v%C3%AA+qu e+devem+ter+sido+numerosos+os+escravos+chineses+que+tomaram+o+caminho+de+Lisboa +%E2%80%94+e+por+extens%C3%A3o+o+do+Brasil. Retrieved 14 July 2010. ^ Jos Roberto Teixeira Leite (1999). A China no Brasil: influncias, marcas, ecos e sobrevivncias chinesas na sociedade e na arte brasileiras. Editora da Unicamp. p. 20. ISBN 85-268-0436-7. http://books.google.com/books?ei=ha5dTNqmNIH68AbomoG0DQ&ct=result&id=wNZ6AA AAMAAJ&dq=escravo+Chin%C3%AAs+lisboa&q=escravo+Chin%C3%AAs+lisboa+macau . Retrieved 14 July 2010. ^ Jos Yamashiro (1989). Chque luso no Japo dos sculos XVI e XVII. IBRASA. p. 101. ISBN 85-348-1068-0. http://books.google.com/books?id=l2qSNQnlQGcC&pg=PA101&dq=%C3%A1+na+d%C3% A9cada+de+1520,+os+portugueses+compravam+numerosos+chineses+(homens,+mulheres+e +crian%C3%A7as)+para+vend%C3%AAlos+como+escravos&hl=en&ei=Mq5dTIy2HYT48AaC6om4DQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct= result&resnum=1&ved=0CCUQ6AEwAA#v=snippet&q=chineses%20compravam%20de%20 1520%20portugueses&f=false. Retrieved 14 July 2010. ^ Maria Suzette Fernandes Dias (2007). Legacies of slavery: comparative perspectives. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 71. ISBN 1-84718-111-2. http://books.google.com/books?id=XHm4AAAAIAAJ&q=The+Japanese+and+the+Chinese+ showed+strong+reluctance+to+the+idea+of+their+people+being+taken+as+slaves+by+the+P ortuguese.&dq=The+Japanese+and+the+Chinese+showed+strong+reluctance+to+the+idea+of +their+people+being+taken+as+slaves+by+the+Portuguese.&hl=en&ei=PdgOTdDACsP58Aa IoLGXDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCMQ6AEwAA. Retrieved 14 July 2010. ^ Gary Joo de Pina-Cabral (2002). Between China and Europe: person, culture and emotion in Macao. Berg Publishers. p. 114. ISBN 0-8264-5749-5. http://books.google.com/books?id=SDvOJRO7qu8C&pg=PA115&dq=chinese+declared+that +they+cannot+and+should+not+be+made+captive&hl=en&ei=j7JdTPf4GYT58Abhw-

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S1DQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCUQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q =1624%20royal%20decree&f=false. Retrieved 14 July 2010. ^ Gary Joo de Pina-Cabral (2002). Between China and Europe: person, culture and emotion in Macao. Berg Publishers. p. 115. ISBN 0-8264-5749-5. http://books.google.com/books?id=SDvOJRO7qu8C&pg=PA115&dq=chinese+declared+that +they+cannot+and+should+not+be+made+captive&hl=en&ei=j7JdTPf4GYT58AbhwS1DQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCUQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q =chinese%20declared%20that%20they%20cannot%20and%20should%20not%20be%20made %20captive&f=false. Retrieved 14 July 2010. ^ JSTOR: Anglo-Portuguese Trade, 17001770. JSTOR. Retrieved on 16 August 2007. ^ Janick, Jules. Lecture 34. Retrieved on 16 August 2007 ^ THE LIBRARY OF IBERIAN RESOURCES ONLINE A History of Spain and Portugal Vol. 2 Stanley G. Payne ^ BBC. "Overview of the Portuguese escudo". BBC. http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/in_depth/business/2001/euro_cash/spent_currencies/esc udo.stm. Retrieved 2 May 2011. ^ [Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation, Juan Jos Linz http://books.google.com/books?id=TqRn1lAypsgC&pg=PA128&dq=Financial+crisis+1974+ Portugal#PPA129,M1] ^ a b c [4], Joaquim da Costa Leite (Aveiro University) Instituies, Gesto e Crescimento Econmico: Portugal, 19501973 ^ (Portuguese) Cronologia: Movimento dos capites, Centro de Documentao 25 de Abril, University of Coimbra ^ (Portuguese) A Guerra Colonial na Guine/Bissau (07 de 07), Otelo Saraiva de Carvalho on the Decree Law, RTP 2 television, youtube.com. ^ (Portuguese) Arquivo Electrnico: Otelo Saraiva de Carvalho, Centro de Documentao 25 de Abril, University of Coimbra ^ a b [5] Tiago Neves Sequeira (University of Beira Interior), CRESCIMENTO ECONMICO NO PS-GUERRA: OS CASOS DE ESPANHA, PORTUGAL E IRLANDA ^ (Portuguese) Histria da Bolsa de Valores de Lisboa, Millennium bcp ^ Economic Growth and Change, U.S. Library of Congress, countrystudies.us ^ Dismantling the Portuguese Empire, Time Magazine (Monday, 7 Jul. 1975) ^ A Siemens executive, Carlos de Melo Ribeiro, pointed to labor costs and productivity as major reasons why shipping semiconductors to Portugal for final production is more advantageous than retaining the work in Germany or Britain Siemens Builds on Long History in Portugal, to the Benefit of Both, By Karen E. Thuermer, October 1997, in Keller Publishing [6] ^ "The investment made in Portugal by the VW group has enabled "this plant to become one of the best in the VW Group and indeed in the whole automotive industry in terms of quality, productivity, absenteeism, safety, and many other decisive criteria", Gerd Heuss upon the manufacturing of car n 1 million in Palmela", June 2003., AICEP Business Development Agency ^ (Portuguese) Portugueses perderam poder de compra entre 2005 e 2007 e esto na cauda da Zona Euro, Pblico (11 December 2008) ^ Is Euro 2004 worth it for Portugal?, BBC News (2 June 2004) ^ [7] ^ Global Competitiveness Index 20072008 ^ Patrice Hill, Portugal's economy might mimic Greece's, The Washington Times (30 April 2010) ^ Anita Raghavan, After Greece, Forbes (22 April 2010) ^ Commission assesses stability programmes of Greece and Portugal, Europa (13 February 2007) ^ "A new sick man of Europe", The Economist, 14 April 2007. http://www.economist.com/world/europe/displaystory.cfm?story_id=9009032 ^ Luis Miguel Mota, Populao desempregada aumentou 65% em cinco anos, Destak.pt (6 June 2008) ^ Standard and Poor's pessimistic on Portugal, Agence France-Presse (7 December 2009) ^ (Portuguese) Aleia vai montar avio at agora vendido em kit e jactos portugueses em 2011, 14 April 2008

78. ^ (Portuguese) vora aprova isenes fiscais aos projectos da Embraer, Dirio Digital (22 August 2008) 79. ^ "2010". Dirio Econmico. 31 December 2010. http://213.13.186.1/clippingfileant/imprensa2/tif_targ_color/2010/12/33379675.pdf. 80. ^ "EU summit begins in the shadow of Portugal's crisis". The Guardian. UK. 24 March 2011. http://www.guardian.co.uk/business/2011/mar/24/summit-begins-portugal-crisis. Retrieved 24 March 2011. 81. ^ (English) 'Merkel Economy Adviser Says Greece Bailout Should Bring Penalty', http://www.businessweek.com/news/2010-02-15/merkel-economy-adviser-says-greecebailout-should-bring-penalty.html, retrieved 15 February 2010 82. ^ Bond credit ratings 83. ^ BBC News -Moody's downgrades Portugal debt 84. ^ (Portuguese) Grande investigao DN Conhea o verdadeiro peso do Estado, Dirio de Notcias (7 January 2011) 85. ^ "Portuguese parliament votes against austerity plan". France 24. 23 March 2011. http://www.france24.com/en/20110323-portuguese-parliament-votes-against-austerity-planjose-socrates-eurozone. Retrieved 23 March 2011. 86. ^ Portugal's BCP says to start repaying state funds early, Reuters (June 7, 2012)

Geography of Portugal
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search Geography of Portugal

Continent

Europe

Region

Iberian Peninsula, Southern Europe

Coordinates: 392213.65N

Coordinates

8825.13W39.3704583N 8.1403139W

Ranked 110 Area 92,391 km2 (35,672 sq mi) 99.52% land % water Borders Highest point Total land borders: Spain (1214 km) Mount Pico 2351 m

Lowest point Sea level (Atlantic Ocean Longest river Tagus (275 km within Portugal)

Largest lake Lake Alqueva

Portugal is a coastal nation in southwestern Europe, located at the western end of the Iberian Peninsula, bordering Spain (on its northern and eastern frontiers: a total of 1,214 km (754 mi)). Portuguese territory also includes a series of archipelagoes in the Atlantic Ocean (the Azores and Madeira), which are strategic islands along western sea approaches to the Strait of Gibraltar and the Mediterranean Sea. In total, the country occupies an area of 92,090 km2 (35,560 sq mi) of which 91,470 km2 (35,320 sq mi) is land and 620 km2 (240 sq mi) water.[1] Despite these definitions, Portugal's border with Spain remains a unresolved territorial dispute between the two countries. Portugal does not recognise the border between Caia and Cuncos River deltas, since the beginning of the 1801 occupation of Olivenza by Spain. This territory, though under de facto Spanish occupation, remains a de jure part of Portugal, consequently no border is henceforth recognised in this area.

Contents
[hide]

1 Physical o 1.1 Coastline o 1.2 Continent o 1.3 Archipelagos 2 Climate 3 Environment 4 See also 5 References 6 External links

[edit] Physical
Portugal is located on the western coast of the Iberian Peninsula and plateau, that divides the inland Mediterranean Sea from the Atlantic Ocean. It is located on the Atlantic coast of this plateau, and crossed by several rivers which have their origin in Spain. Most of these rivers flow from east to west disgorging in the Atlantic; from north to south, the primary rivers are the Minho, Douro, Tagus and the Guadiana.[2]

[edit] Coastline

Portuguese Exclusive Economic Zone The continental shelf has an area of 28,000 km2 (11,000 sq mi), although its width is variable from 150 km in the north to 25 km in the south.[2] Its strong relief is marked by deep submarine canyons and the continuation of the main rivers. The Estremadura Spur separates the Iberian Abyssal and Tagus Abyssal Plains, while the continental slope is flanked by sea-mounts and abuts against the prominent Goringe Bank in the south.[2] Currently, the Portuguese government claims a 200 metre depth, or to a depth of exploitation. The Portuguese coast is extensive; in addition to approximately 943 km (586 mi)) along the coast of continental Portugal, the archipelagos of the Azores (667 km) and Madeira (250 km) are primarily surrounded by rough cliff coastlines. Most of these landscapes alternate between rough cliffs and fine sand beaches; the region of the Algarve is recognized for its tourist-friendly sand beaches, while at the same time its steep coastlines around Cape St. Vincent is well known for steep and foreboding cliffs. An interesting feature of the Portuguese coast is Ria Formosa with some sandy islands and a mild and pleasant climate characterized by warm but not very hot summers and generally mild winters. Alternatively, the Ria de Aveiro coast (near Aveiro, referred to as "The Portuguese Venice"), is formed by a delta (approximately 45 km length and a maximum 11 km width) rich in fish and sea birds. Four main channels flow through several islands and islets at the mouth of the Vouga, Antu, Boco, and Fonto Rivers. Since the 16th century, this formation of narrow headlands formed a lagoon, that, due to its characteristics allowed the formation and production of salt. It was also recognized by the Romans, whose forces exported its salt to Rome (then seen as a precious resource). The Azores are also sprinkled with both alternating black sand and boulder-lined beaches, with only a rare exception is their a white sand beach (such as on the island of Santa Maria in Almagreira. The island of Porto Santo is one of the few extensive dune beaches in Portugal, located in the archipelago of Madeira. Tidal gauges along the Portuguese coast have identified a 1 to 1.5 mm rise in sea levels, causing large estuaries and inland deltas in some major rivers to overflow.[2]

As a result of its maritime possessions and coastline, Portugal has the third largest Exclusive Economic Zone of the European Union countries (and eleventh in the world). The sea-zone, over which Portugal exercises special territorial rights over the economic exploration and use of marine resources encircles an area of 1,727,408 km2 (divided as: Continental Portugal 327,667 km2, Azores Islands 953,633 km2, Madeira Islands 446,108 km2

[edit] Continent
Main article: Geology of the Iberian Peninsula

Tectonic structures of Europe, showing Iberia and the three "Portuguese" tectonic regions (far left)

Hot, dry conditions sparked dozens of devastating wildfires in southern and central Portugal and central Spain in the summer of 2003. By the time this image was taken on January 19, 2004, the scars had begun to fade in areas, though the scars in Central Portugal and across the border in Spain are still dark red in the false-color image. The Portuguese territory came into existence during the history of Godwana and became aligned with European landforms after the super-continent Pangea began its slow separation into several smaller plates. The Iberian plate was formed during the Cadomian Orogeny of the late Neoproterozoic (about 650-550 Ma), from the margins of the Gondwana continent. Through collisions and accretion a group of island arcs

(that included the Central Iberian Plate, Ossa-Morena Plate, South Portuguese Plate) began to disintegrate from Godwana (along with other European fragments). These plates never separated substantially from each other since this period (Lpez-Guijarro et al. 2008). By the Mesozoic, the three "Portuguese plates" were a part of the Northern France Armoric Plate until the Bay of Biscay began to separate. Following the separation of the Iberian Abyssal Plain, Iberia and Europe began to drift progressively from North America, as the Mid-Atlantic fracture zone pulled the three plates away from the larger continent. Eventually, Iberia collided with southern France attaching the region into a peninsula of Europe (during the Cenozoic). Since the late Oligocene, the Iberian plate has been moving as part of the Eurasian plate, with the boundary between Eurasia and Africa situated along the AzoresGibraltar fracture zone.[3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12] The Iberian peninsula, defined by is coastline, is due to a fragment of the Variscan tectonic fracture zone, the Iberian-Hesperian Massif, which occupies the west-central part of the plateau.[2] This formation is crossed by the Central Cordillera, along a eastnortheast to west-southwest alignment, parallel to the European Baetic Chain (an aspect of the Alpine Chain).[2] The Central Cordillera is itself divided into two blocks, while three main river systems drain the differing geomorphological terrains:[2]

the Northern Meseta (with a mean altitude of 800 meteres) is drained by the Douro River (running east to west); the Southern Meseta (within a range of 200 to 900 metres altitude) is drained by the Tagus River (running east to west) from Spain, and the Guadiana River (running north to south), comprising the Lower Tagus and Sado Basins.

To the north the landscape is mountainous in the interior areas with plateaus, cut by four breakings lines that allow the development of more fertile agricultural areas. The south down as far as the Algarve features mostly rolling plains with a climate somewhat warmer and drier than the cooler and rainier north. Other major rivers include the Douro, the Minho and the Guadiana, similar to the Tagus in that all originate in Spain. Another important river, the Mondego, originates in the Serra da Estrela (the highest mountains in mainland Portugal at 1,993 m). No large natural lakes exist in Continental Portugal, where the largest inland water surfaces are dam-originated reservoirs, (such as the Alqueva reservoir with 250 km2, the largest in Europe). However, there are several lagoons in Portugal with a river as origin:

in Serra da Estrela, the Comprida Lagoon (Lagoa Comprida) and the Escura Lagoon (Lagoa Escura) were formed from ancient glaciers. the Pateira de Fermentelos is a small natural lagoon near Aveiro

Some lagoons are near the Atlantic Ocean. For instance, the Albufeira Lagoon (in the Setbal Peninsula) and bidos Lagoon (near Foz do Arelho, bidos). In the Azores archipelago lagoons were formed in extinct volcanos. Lagoa do Fogo and Lagoa das Sete Cidades (two small lakes connected by a narrow passage) are the most famous lakes in So Miguel Island.

[edit] Archipelagos
In addition to continental Europe, Portugal consists of two Autonomous Regions in the Atlantic Ocean, consisting of the archipelagos of Madeira and Azores. Madeira is located on the African Tectonic Plate, and comprises the main island of Madeira, Porto Santo and the smaller Savage Islands. The Azores, which are located between the junction of the African, European and North American Plates, straddle the MidAtlantic Ridge. There are nine islands in this archipelago, usually divided into three groups (Western, Central and Eastern) and several smaller Formigas (rock outcroppings) located between So Miguel and Santa Maria Islands. Both island groups are volcanic in nature, with historic volcanology and seismic activity persisting to the present time. In addition, there are several submarine volcanos in the Azores (such as Dom Joo de Castro Bank), that have erupted historically (such as the Serrata eruption off the coast of Terceira Island). The last major volcanic event occurred in 1957-58 along the western coast of Faial Island, which formed the Capelinhos Volcano. Seismic events are common in the Azores. The Azores are occasionally subject to very strong earthquakes, as is the continental coast. Wildfires occur mostly in the summer in mainland Portugal and extreme weather in the form of strong winds and floods also occurs mainly in winter. The Azores are occasionally stricken by tropical cyclones such as Hurricane Jeanne (1998) and Hurricane Gordon (2006).

[edit] Climate
See also: Climate Most of Portugal has a Mediterranean climate according to the Kppen climate classification: Csa in the land south of Tagus River, inland Douro Valley in the North and Madeira Islands. Csb north of that river, Costa Vicentina in coastal Southern Portugal, and the eastern group of the Azores islands. Most of the Azores have an Oceanic climate or Cfb, while a small region in inland Alentejo has Bsk or semi-arid climate. The Savage Islands, that belong to the Madeira archipelago, also has an arid climate with an annual average rainfall of around 150 mm (5.9 in). The sea surface temperatures in these archipelagos vary from 1618 C (60.864.4 F) in winter to 2324 C (73.475.2 F) in the summer, occasionally reaching 26 C (78.8 F). The annual average temperature in mainland Portugal varies from 1213 C (53.6 55.4 F) in the mountainous interior north to 1718 C (62.664.4 F) in the south (in general the south is warmer and drier than the north). The Madeira and Azores archipelagos have a narrower temperature range with the annual average temperature sometimes exceeding 20 C (68 F) in the south coast of Madeira Island. Extreme temperatures occur in the mountains in the northeast of the country in winter, where they may fall to 15 C (5 F), and in southeastern parts in the summer, sometimes exceeding 45 C (113 F). The official absolute extreme temperatures are 16 C (3.2 F) in Penhas da Sade on 4 February 1954 and 47.4 C (117.3 F) in Amareleja in the Alentejo region, on 1 August 2003.[13] There are, however, unofficial records of 50.5 C (122.9 F) on 4 August 1881 in Riodades, So Joo da Pesqueira.[14] It's very plausible since this region is known for its microclimate. The annual average rainfall varies from a bit more than 3,000 mm (118.1 in) in the mountains in the north to less

than 600 mm (23.6 in) in southern parts of Alentejo. The country has around 2500 3200 hours of sunshine a year, an average of 4-6h in winter and 10-12h in the summer, with higher values in the southeast and lower in the northwest. The sea surface temperature is higher in the south coast where it varies from 1516 C (59 60.8 F) in January to 2223 C (71.673.4 F) in August, occasionally reaching 25 C (77 F); on the west coast the sea surface temperature is around 1415 C (57.259 F) in winter and 1820 C (6468 F) in the summer, with higher values as one goes southwards.

[edit] Environment
Main article: Conservation areas of Portugal

Serra da Estrela, the highest mountain range in continental Portugal and popular tourist winter destination The volcanic lake of Lagoa das Furnas, on the island of So Miguel

Praia da Marinha one of the dichtomous sand and cliff beaches of the Algarve (near Lagoa) Environment - current issues: soil erosion; air pollution caused by industrial and vehicle emissions; water pollution, especially in coastal areas Environment - international agreements: party to: Air Pollution, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands signed, but not ratified: Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, Air Pollution-

Volatile Organic Compounds, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Environmental Modification, Nuclear Test Ban Terrain: mountainous and hilly north of the Tagus River, rolling plains in south Elevation extremes: lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m highest point: Ponta do Pico (Pico or Pico Alto) on Ilha do Pico in the Azores 2,351 m Natural resources: fish, forests (cork), tungsten, iron ore, uranium ore, marble, arable land, hydroelectric power Land use: arable land: 26% permanent crops: 9% permanent pastures: 9% forests and woodland: 36% other: 20% (1993 est.) Irrigated land: 6,300 km2 (1993 est.)

[edit] References
Notes
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. ^ "Portugal". CIA - The World Factbook. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-worldfactbook/geos/po.html. Retrieved 2009-11-28. ^ a b c d e f g Eldridge M. Moores and Rhodes Whitmore Fairbridge (1997), p.612 ^ Srivastava, Schouten & Roest Klitgord1990. ^ Le Pichon & Sibuet 1971. ^ Le Pichon, Sibuet & Francheteau 1971. ^ Sclater, Hellinger & Tapscott 1977. ^ Grimaud, S.; Boillot, G.; Collette, B.J.; Mauffret, A.; Miles; P.R.; Roberts, D.B. (January 1982). "Western extension of the Iberian-European plate-boundary during early Cenozoic (Pyrenean) convergence: a new model". Marine Geology 45 (1-2): 6377. doi:10.1016/00253227(82)90180-3. ^ JL Olivet, JM Auzende, P Beuzart (September 1983). "Western extension of the IberianEuropean plate boundary during the Early Cenozoic (Pyrenean) convergence: A new model Comment". Marine Geology 53 (3): 237238. doi:10.1016/0025-3227(83)90078-6. ^ S. Grimaud, G. Boillot, B.J. Collette, A. Mauffret, P.R. Miles and D.B. Roberts (September 1983). "Western extension of the Iberian-European plate boundary during the Early Cenozoic (Pyrenean) convergence: A new model Reply". Marine Geology 53 (3): 238239. doi:10.1016/0025-3227(83)90079-8. ^ Olivet et al. 1984. ^ Schouten, Srivastava & Klitgord 1984. ^ Savostovin et al. 1986. ^ [1] ^ Dan dan the weatherman

8.

9.

10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

Sources

Central Intelligence Agency, ed. (2010). "Portugal: CIA World Factbook". Langley, Virginia: Central Intelligence Agency.

https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/po.html. Retrieved 27 December 2010. Symington, Martin (2003). "Portugal". Eyewitness Travel Guide series. Dorling Kindersley Publishing. ISBN 0-7894-9423-X. Moores, Eldridge M.; Fairbridge, Rhodes Whitmore, eds. (1997). Encyclopedia of European and Asian Regional Geology. London, England: Chapman & Hall. pp. 611619. http://books.google.ca/books?id=tFqpD3oVccC&pg=PA611&dq=%22Geography+of+Portugal%22&hl=en&ei=zMYTZ6SFMTE4ga7rKyGAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2& ved=0CCkQ6AEwATgU#v=onepage&q=%22Geography%20of%20Portugal %22&f=false. Le Pichon, X.; Sibuet, J.C. (September 1971). "Earth planet". Earth and Planetary Science Letters 12 (1): 8388. Bibcode 1971E&PSL..12...83L. doi:10.1016/0012-821X(71)90058-6. Le Pichon, X., Sibuet, J. C. & Francheteau, J. (23 March 1977). "The fit of the continents around the North Atlantic Ocean". Tectonophysics 38 (3-4): 169209. Bibcode 1977Tectp..38..169L. doi:10.1016/0040-1951(77)90210-4. Savostovin, L. A., Sibuet, J. C., Zonenshain, L. P., Le Pichon, X. & Roulet, M. J. (1986). "Kinematic evolution of the Tethys belt from the Atlantic ocean to the pamirs since the Triassic". Tectonophysics 123: 135. Bibcode 1986Tectp.123....1S. doi:10.1016/0040-1951(86)90192-7. Schouten, H., Srivastava, S. P. & Klitgord, K. (1984). Trans. Am. Geophys. Un. 65: 190. Sclater, J. G., Hellinger, S. & Tapscott, C. R. J. (1977). "Paleobathymetry Of Atlantic Ocean From Jurassic To Present". Journal of Geology 85 (5): 509552. Bibcode 1977JG.....85..509S. doi:10.1086/628336. ISSN 00221376. Seber, D.; Barazangi, M.; Ibenbrahim, A.; Demnati, A. (1996). "Geophysical evidence for lithospheric delamination beneath the Alboran Sea and Rif--Betic mountains". Nature 379 (6568): 785790. Bibcode 1996Natur.379..785S. doi:10.1038/379785a0. Srivastava, S.P.; Schouten, H.; Roest, W.R.; Klitgord, K.D.; Kovacs, L.C.; Verhoef, J.; Macnab, R. (19 April 1990). "Iberian Plate Kinematics: A Jumping Plate Boundary between Eurasia and Africa". Nature 344 (6268): 756. Bibcode 1990Natur.344..756S. doi:10.1038/344756a0.

Culture of Portugal
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A 19th century Portuguese couple with typical rural clothes from Minho province, in a Singer sewing machine advertisement card, distributed at World Columbian Exposition, Chicago, 1893. The cultura portuguesa is the result of a complex flow of different civilizations during the past Millennia. From prehistoric cultures, to its Pre-Roman civilizations (such as the Lusitanians, the Gallaeci, the Celtici, and the Cynetes, amongst others), passing through its contacts with the Phoenician-Carthaginian world, the Roman period (see Hispania, Lusitania and Gallaecia), the Germanic invasions and consequent settlement of the Suevi and Buri (see Suebic Kingdom of Galicia) and the Visigoth (see Visigothic Kingdom), and, finally, the Moorish Umayyad invasion of Hispania and the subsequent Reconquista, all have made an imprint on the country's culture and history. The name of Portugal itself reveals much of the country's early history, stemming from the Roman name Portus Cale, a Latin name meaning "Port of Cale" (some argue that Cale is a word of Celtic origin, which also means port or harbour), later transformed into Portucale, and finally into Portugal, who emerged as a county of the Kingdom of Len (see First County of Portugal and Second County of Portugal) and became an independent kingdom in 1139. During the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal was a major economic, political, and cultural power, its global empire stretching from Brazil to the Indies. Portugal, as a country with a long history, is home to several ancient architectural structures, as well as typical art, furniture and literary collections mirroring and chronicling the events that shaped the country and its peoples. It has a large number of cultural landmarks ranging from museums to ancient church buildings to medieval castles, which testify its rich national cultural heritage.

Contents
[hide]

1 Overview 2 Architecture 3 Dance 4 Cinema o 4.1 Comedy o 4.2 Recent films 5 Cuisine o 5.1 Food o 5.2 Alcoholic beverages 6 Literature 7 Music o 7.1 Fado o 7.2 Portuguese rock o 7.3 Traditional music o 7.4 Popular music o 7.5 Folk o 7.6 Philharmonic music o 7.7 Canes de interveno (political songs) o 7.8 Classical music o 7.9 Hip hop o 7.10 Students festivals o 7.11 Summer musical festivals 8 Painting 9 Theater 10 Festivities and holidays 11 National holidays 12 Sports and games 13 Stereotypes 14 See also

[edit] Overview

Rua Augusta (street) in the Pombaline Baixa (Lower Town), Lisbon.

The Portuguese participate in many cultural activities, indulging their appreciation of art, music, drama, and dance. Portugal has a rich traditional folklore (Ranchos Folclricos), with great regional variety. Many cities and towns have a museum and a collection of ancient monuments and buildings. Many towns have at least a cinema, some venues to listen to music and locations to see arts and crafts. In the larger cities visits to the theatre, concerts or galleries of modern exhibitions are popular, and Portugal can boast not only international-scale venues in Lisbon, Porto, Braga, Guimares and Coimbra but also many acclaimed artists from various disciplines. The importance of the arts is illustrated by the fact that on the death of Amlia Rodrigues, the "Queen of Fado" (fado is Portugal's national music) in October 1999, three days of national mourning was declared. In 1998, Jos Saramago, one of Portugal's wellknown writers, was awarded the Nobel Prize for literature. In 2001, Porto was European Capital of Culture, contributing to a current renaissance in artistic creation, and in 2004 Portugal hosted the European football finals in specially constructed stadiums. In smaller towns and villages, cultural activity may revolve around local folklore, with musical groups performing traditional dance and song. Local festivities are very popular during the summer season in all kinds of localities ranging from villages to cities, as well as beach holidays from July to September. Portuguese people in almost all major towns and the cities like to go shopping in malls which are generally well equipped with modern facilities and offer a wide variety of attractions ranging from shops and stores of the most renowned brands to cinemas, restaurants and hypermarkets. Caf culture is also regarded as an important cultural feature of the Portuguese. As the most popular sport, football events involving major Portuguese teams are always widely followed with great enthusiasm. There are a number of bullrings in Portugal, although the passion for bullfighting varies from region to region.

[edit] Architecture

Jeronimos Monastery is Portugal's best example of its Manueline architecture. Main article: Architecture of Portugal Since the second millennium BC, there has been important construction in the area where Portugal is situated today. Portugal boasts several scores of medieval castles, as well as the ruins of several villas and forts from the period of Roman occupation. Modern Portuguese architecture follow the most advanced trends seen in European mainstream architecture with no constraints, though preserving some of its singular characteristics. The azulejo and the Portuguese pavement are two typical elements of Portuguese-style architecture. Portugal is perhaps best known for its distinctive Manueline architecture with its rich, intricate designs attributed to Portugal's Age of Discoveries. Another type of architecture is Baroque Johanine. It has this name because it was developed during the reign of King John V, which lasted 44 years. Thanks to the gold of Brazil, hired foreign artists, such Nicolao Nasoni, King John V,

ordered to perform various works of art. The creations of Portuguese artists can be seen on the altars of gilded panels and tiles, blue and white, that adorn churches, halls, staircases and gardens. During this period were built in Portugal in the great works of art which are: Library of the Convent and Convent of Mafra, the Tower of the Clerics, the Baroque Library, the Church and stairs of Bom Jesus de Braga, the Shrine of Our Lady of Remedies in Lamego, the Palace and the Port of Ash Solar de Mateus in Vila Real.

[edit] Dance

A traditional dance Folk dances include: Circle dance, Fandango (of the Ribatejo region), Two Steps Waltz, Schottische (Chotia), Corridinho (of the Algarve and Estremadura regions), Vira (of the Minho region), Bailarico, Vareirinha, Malho, Vareira, Maneio, Vira de Cruz, Vira Solto, Vira de Macieira, Sapatinho, Tau-Tau, Ciranda, Z que Fumas, Regadinho, O Pedreiro and Ti Taritatu. There are also variations of these dances called the Chamarita in the Azores. Dance apparel is highly varied, ranging from work clothes to the Sunday best, with rich distinguished from the poor.

[edit] Cinema
Main article: Cinema of Portugal In the 1990s around 10 full-length fictional works were produced per annum, Portugal's filmmakers tending to be artisans. Financing of Portuguese cinema is by state grants and from television stations. The internal market is very small and Portuguese penetration of international markets is fairly precarious. A film is considered a success when it draws an audience of more than 150.000, which few Portuguese films manage to achieve.

Manoel de Oliveira Director Manoel de Oliveira is the oldest director in the world, and continues to make films at the age of 103. Since 1990 has made an average of one film per annum. He has received international recognition awards and won the respect of the cinematography community all over the world. Retrospectives of his works have been shown at the Los Angeles Film Festival (1992), the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C. (1993), the San Francisco Film Festival, and the Cleveland Museum of Art (1994). Despite his international recognition, the films of Oliveira (and that of other Portuguese directors) are neglected locally. Joo Csar Monteiro, a member of the generation that founded the "New Portuguese Cinema" in the 1960s which was influenced by the Nouvelle Vague, a provocative film maker in the 1990s made "O ltimo Mergulho" (1992), "A Comdia de Deus" (1995), "Le Bassin de John Wayne" (1997) and "As Bodas de Deus" (1998). "A Comdia de Deus" won the Jury's Special Prize at the Venice Film Festival in 1995. Teresa Villaverde is a younger filmmaker and in the 1990s she surfaced as a director, her film (Trs Irma's, 1994) won the best actress award at the Venice Film Festival.

[edit] Comedy
A Cano de Lisboa: (lit. The Song of Lisbon) is a Portuguese film comedy from 1933, directed by Jos Cottinelli Telmo, and starring Vasco Santana and Beatriz Costa. Manuel de Oliveira had a minor role in this film. It was the second Portuguese sound feature film (the first was A Severa, a 1931 documentary by Manoel de Oliveira, was originally filmed without soundtrack, which was added afterwards), and still is one of the best-loved films in Portugal. Several of its lines and songs are still quoted today! O Pai Tirano: (lit. The Tyrant Father) is a Portuguese film comedy from 1941, directed by Antnio Lopes Ribeiro, starring Vasco Santana, Francisco Ribeiro and Leonor Maia. It's one of the best-known comedies of the Golden Age of Portuguese Cinema. Still popular six decades after its release.

Ptio das Cantigas: (lit. The Courtyard of Songs) A comedy/ musical from 1942 directed by Francisco Ribeiro, with Vasco Santana (as Narciso), Antnio Silva (as Evaristo), Francisco Ribeiro (as Rufino) and others. It's a portrait of the relations between neighbours in a Lisbon courtyard. A story made of small episodes of humor, friendship, rivalry, and love.

[edit] Recent films

O Crime do Padre Amaro: (lit. The Crime of Father Amaro) is a Portuguese film (2005) adapted from a book of Ea de Queiroz, directed by Carlos Coelho da Silva. This was a low quality production sponsored by Sociedade Independente de Comunicao (television channel). Even so this film beat all the records of box- office of all the Portuguese film in Portugal. The main characters are Jorge Corrula as Padre Amaro and Soraia Chaves as Amlia, and the main ingredients of this film are the sex and the nudity. Zona J: is a Portuguese drama/romance film directed by Leonel Vieira in 1998, starring Slvia Alberto, Ana Bustorff, Nria Madruga, Milton Spencer and Flix Fontoura. Sorte Nula: (lit. The Trunk) directed by Fernando Fragata, starring Hlder Mendes, Antnio Feio, Adelaide de Sousa, Rui Unas, Isabel Figueira, Bruno Nogueira, Carla Matadinho, Tnia Miller and Z Pedro. Alice directed by Marco Martins and starring Beatriz Batarda, Nuno Lopes, Miguel Guilherme, Ana Bustorff, Laura Soveral, Ivo Canelas, Carla Maciel, Jos Wallenstein and Clara Andermatt is a multi-prize film from 2005. Have won prizes in Cannes film festival; Las Palmas Festival in Spain; Golden Globes in Portugal; Mar del Plata International Film Festival in Argentina, Raindance film Festival in United Kingdom and other prizes. Filme do Desassossego or Film of Disquiet directed by Joo Botelho, starring Cludio da Silva, Alexandra Lencastre, Rita Blanco, Catarina Wallenstein, Margarida Vila-Nova, Mnica Calle, Marcello Urgeghe and Ricardo Aibo in 2010. Inspired by a book of Fernando Pessoa. Meu Querido Ms de Agosto directed by Miguel Gomes is a hybrid fiction/documentary film from 2009 that achieved some visibility at the Cannes Film Festival. Tabu directed by Miguel Gomes starring Ana Moreira, Carloto Cotta, Ivo Mueller, Laura Soveral, Manuel Mesquita, Isabel Muoz Cardoso, Henrique Esprito Santo and Teresa Madruga. The film won two prizes in Berlin International Film Festival in 2012 and another two in Las Palmas Festival in Spain. Rafa, a short-film directed by Joo Salaviza, starring Rodrigo Perdigo and Joana de Verona.This film have win the best short film is Berlin International Film Festival in 2012.

Arena, directed by Joo Salaviza staring Carloto Cotta, won in 2009 Cannes film festival, the Golden Palm for best short film. Sangue do meu Sangue directed by Joo Canijo, starring Rita Blanco, Nuno Lopes, Cleia Almeida, Anabela Moreira, Rafael Morais and Fernando Lus. Is a multi-prized film from 2012 that won prizes in: International auteur cinema festival of Barcelona; Miami Festival, Pau Festival in France; New Vision Award in Crossing Europe Festival in Austria; San Sebastin Festival; Otra Mirada Prize by TVE channel in Spain; Faial Film Festival in Portugal; Golden Globes in Portugal; Auteur Portuguese Society in Portugal and Ways of Portuguese cinema in Coimbra, Portugal. O Baro directed by Edgar Pra, starring Nuno Melo, Lusa Costa Gomes, Leonor Keil, Edgar Pra, Marina Albuquerque, Miguel Sermo and Marcos Barbosa in 2010.

[edit] Cuisine
Main article: Portuguese cuisine

A dish of cozido portuguesa.

[edit] Food
Each region of Portugal has its own traditional dishes, including various kinds of meat, seafood, fresh fish, dried and salted cod (bacalhau), and the famous Cozido Portuguesa (a Portuguese stew).

[edit] Alcoholic beverages

Main article: Wines of Portugal Portugal is a country of wine lovers and winemakers, known since the Roman Empire-era; the Romans immediately associated Portugal with its God of Wine Bacchus. Today, many Portuguese wines are known as some of the world's best: Vinho do Douro, Vinho do Alentejo, Vinho do Do, Vinho Verde, and the sweet: Port Wine (Vinho do Porto, literally Porto's wine), Madeira wine, Muscatel of Setbal, and Moscatel of Favaios. Beer is also widely consumed, with the largest national beer brands being Sagres and Super Bock. Liqueurs, like Licor Beiro and ginjinha, are popular.

[edit] Literature

Main article: Portuguese literature

The Lusiads Portuguese literature has developed since the 12th century from the lyrical works of Joo Soares de Paiva, Paio Soares de Taveirs and King D.Dinis. They wrote mostly from Galician-Portuguese and oral traditions known as "Cantigas de amor e amigo" and "Cantigas de escrnio e maldizer", which were sung by Troubadours the first ones and the last ones by jograis. Following chroniclers such as Ferno Lopes after the 15th century, fiction has its roots in chronicles and histories with theatre, following Gil Vicente, the father of Portuguese theatre, whose works was critical of the society of his time. Classical lyrical texts include Os Lusadas, by Lus de Cames that is a epic book about the history of Portugal and have elements of Greek mythology if from the 16th century. Romanticism and Realism period authors from 19th century including Antero de Quental, Almeida Garrett, Camilo Pessanha, Camilo Castelo Branco, Ea de Queiroz, Alexandre Herculano, Ramalho Ortigo, Jlio Dinis and others. Portuguese modernism is found in the works of Fernando Pessoa, Jos Rgio, Miguel Torga, Mrio de S Carneiro and others. Following the Carnation Revolution in 1974, the Portuguese society, after several decades of repression, regained freedom of speech. Jos Saramago received the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1998. Herberto Hlder is a young poet highly considered in Portugal from the recent wave of writers such us Valter Hugo Me, Jos Lus Peixoto, Gonalo M. Tavares, Jorge Reis-S, Maria Antonieta Preto, Jos Ricardo Pedro and others.

[edit] Music
Main articles: Music of Portugal and Music history of Portugal

Portuguese Guitars Portuguese musical traditions are diverse and dynamic, they reflect multifarious historical, cultural, and political processes with influences from non-European cultures from both North and sub-Saharan Africa and Brazil. Polyphonic music, employing multiple vocal parts in harmony, was developed in the 15th century. The Renaissance fostered a rich output of compositions for solo instruments and ensembles as well as for the voice. The 1960s started a period of expansion and innovation with pop, rock and jazz introduced and evolving, political song developed, the fado of Lisbon and the Coimbra were revitalized. Music from the former African colonies and Brazil occupied an increasingly important place in the capital's musical life and local styles of rap and hip hop emerged. The modern revival of academic music was primarily work of Lus de Freitas Branco, and continued by Joly Braga Santos. Composers like Antnio Victorino d'Almeida, Jorge Peixinho, Miguel Azguime, Pedro Amaral, and Joo Pedro Oliveira are known internationally. Orchestras include the Orquestra Sinfnica Portuguesa and the Gulbenkian Orchestra. Oporto has had its own symphony orchestra since 1962, when the Chamber Orchestra was set up by the Gulbenkian Foundation. Lisbon also has a metropolitan orchestra, and the National Theatre of So Carlos in Lisbon, which was built in the late 18th century, has its own orchestra and ballet company. Among notable pianists, Maria Joo Pires has won worldwide acclaim. Cultural centres such as the Belm Cultural Centre and the Culturgest, both in Lisbon, have expanded opportunities for major concerts. Madredeus is among the most successful popular music groups. Singer Dulce Pontes is also widely admired, and Carlos Paredes is considered by many to be Portugal's finest guitarist. Folk music and dancing and the traditional fado remain the country's fundamental forms of musical expression.

[edit] Fado
Main article: Fado

Amlia Rodrigues, the "Queen of Fado" Fado (translated as destiny or fate) is a music genre which can be traced from the 1820s, but possibly with much earlier origins. It is characterized by mournful tunes and lyrics, often about the sea or the life of the poor. The music is usually linked to the Portuguese word saudade, a unique word with no accurate translation in any other language. (Home-sickness has an approximate meaning. It is a kind of longing, and conveys a complex mixture of mainly nostalgia, but also sadness, pain, happiness and love). Some enthusiasts claim that Fado's origins are a mixture of African slave rhythms with the traditional music of Portuguese sailors and Arabic influence. There are two main varieties of fado, namely those of the cities of Lisbon and Coimbra. The Lisbon style is the most popular, while Coimbra's is the more refined style. Modern fado is popular in Portugal, and has produced many renowned musicians. According to tradition, to applaud fado in Lisbon you clap your hands, in Coimbra you cough as if clearing your throat. Mainstream fado performances during the 20th century included only a singer, a Portuguese guitar player and a classical guitar player but more recent settings range from singer and string quartet to full orchestra. The ingredients of Fado are a shawl, a guitar, a voice and heartfelt emotion. Themes include: destiny, deep-seated feelings, disappointments in love, the sense of sadness and longing for someone who has gone away, misfortune, the ups and downs of life, the sea, the life of sailors and fishermen, and last but not least "Saudade" (one of the main themes used in fado, that means a kind of longing).

Fado is probably the oldest urban folk music in the world and represents the heart of the Portuguese soul, and for that matter fado performance is not successful if an audience is not moved to tears.

[edit] Portuguese rock

Main article: Portuguese rock The Portuguese rock started to be noted in 1980 with the release of Ar de Rock by Rui Veloso, which was the first popular Portuguese rock song, other Portuguese bands and singers such Stima Legio, Rdio Macau, Jafumega, Mo Morta, Taxi, Peste e Sida, were popular to. Before that, Portugal had a vibrant underground progressive rock scene in the 1970s like Tantra, Quarteto 1111, Jos Cid and others in 1950 and 1960 rock and roll scene with bands like Os Conchas and Os Sheiks. Among the numerous bands and artists which followed its genesis, are Xutos & Pontaps, GNR, UHF, and Moonspell.

[edit] Traditional music

See also: List of Portuguese traditional instruments In all the times and all places mankind always showed great ingenuity making sound and music from existing materials in its natural environment. The voice and the clapping of hands can certainly be considered the first instrumental forms used by man. The Iberian Peninsula was home to a lot of different peoples and cultures, so its normal to these cultures to influence the others but still retain a little of their aspects this happened with the Portuguese music. Even in the present one can find types of instruments from different places, such as the bagpipes and the Arab adufe, but they are now and forever a part of the Portuguese culture. From the Pauliteiros de Miranda in the Terra de Miranda to the Corridinho in the Algarve, the traditional music and songs transpire a poetic character that tells the history of a community to other people and generations to come.

[edit] Popular music

The 1980s and 1990s were marked by the search for a new musical discourse in urban popular music, the increase, commodification and industrialization of musical production, and the mediatization and expansion of music consumption. The boom in Portuguese musical production was accompanied by both the diversification of the musical domains and styles produced and consumed in Portugal and the emergence of new styles which are increasingly taking the global market into account. The denominated Pop music uses melodies easily to memorize, becoming very popular and commercial; it's also characterized by the amount of publicity made (through videos, magazines, appealing clothing, etc.). It is possible to note two stylistic tendencies in the popular music of the 1980s and 1990s:

A musical discourse created by Portuguese musicians that is integrated within the major international developments experienced by commercial popular music; A new musical style that vindicates its Portugueseness by both drawing upon various musical elements which musicians and audiences alike identify as Portuguese and emphasizing the Portuguese language.

[edit] Folk
Folk music is the joint of the traditional songs of a community that express through a poetic character their beliefs and tell their history to other people and generations. The danas do vira (Minho), Pauliteiros de Miranda (Miranda), Corridinho do Algarve or Bailinho (Madeira), are some examples of dances created by the sound of folk. Some of the typical instruments used are a guitar, mandolin, bagpipes, accordion, violin, drums, Portuguese guitar and an enormous variety of wind and percussion instruments.

[edit] Philharmonic music

In the popular culture the philharmonic bands represent each locality and play different types of music, from popular to classical. Lidia Costa, Carlos Marques, Alberto Madurai, Jos Caminos and Railcar Morays are some of the most important names in philharmonic music.

[edit] Canes de interveno (political songs)

Political songs (canes de interveno) played an important part in the protests against the totalitarian regime that ruled Portugal from 1926 up to the 1974 revolution. Once it was created as an object to criticize what was wrong, mainly in a political point of view. One of its main protagonists was Jos (Zeca) Afonso (1929 1987) but others also contributed to its development, for example Adriano Correia de Oliveira, Jos Mrio Branco, Lus Cilia, Francisco Fanhais, Jos Jorge Letria, Jos Barata Moura and Srgio Godinho. They traced a new course for urban popular music and influenced a further generation of musicians, some of whom also participated in the protest movement and are still active, including Fausto, Vitorino, Janita Salom and Jlio Pereira, among others. This musical style reflects a confluence of influences from traditional music, French urban popular songs of the 1960s, African music and Brazilian popular music. By the late 1970s the revolutionary climate had subsided and the need to express political militancy through song was no longer felt by poets, composers and singers, who subsequently redefined both their role and their creative contribution.

[edit] Classical music

Portugal has been an important centre of practice and production of music over the centuries, as the music history of Portugal expresses. In contemporary classical music, notable Portuguese musicians include the pianists Artur Pizarro, Maria Joo Pires and equeira Costa, and the composers: Fernando Lopes-Graa, Emmanuel Nunes, Joo

Pedro Oliveira, Jorge Peixinho, Constana Capdeville, Clotilde Rosa, Fernando Corra de Oliveira, Cludio Carneyro, Frederico de Freitas, Joly Braga Santos and Isabel Soveral.

[edit] Hip hop

Main article: Hip hop Tuga Hip hop has been important since the 1980s with areas like Chelas, Amadora, Cacm and the South Bank of the Tagus are considered to be the cradle of Hip Hop Tuga. The compilation called "Rapublica" released in 1994, which featured young rising artists and groups such as Black Company and Boss Ac, is responsible for establishing hip hop in Portugal. The refrain from a song called "No sabe nadar, yo" ("Can't swim, yo!") was used by the president of Portugal, Mrio Soares in a speech about the cave painting in Foz Ca saying that "As gravuras no sabem nadar, yo!" ("The paintings cant swim, yo!"). Apart from Lisbon, other urban centers also established vibrant hip hop scenes during the early nineties, especially Porto, that gave birth to important groups such as Mind Da Gap. More recently other local scenes have also developed on other urban centers, such as Coimbra and Faro. There are two major showcase events, Flowfest and Hip Hop Porto. Flowfest, in Coimbra, started in 2005. Hip Hop Porto is a free event held at Casa da Msica, in September. It features mainly the northern hip hop names as headliners, drawing a very local audience. Its first edition in 2005 carded Rodney P, NBC, Blackmastah, Bomberjack, Rui Miguel Abreu, etc. Usually the event is held outdoors, but in 2006 the heavy rains made the event relocate to the parking lot of the building, causing a really "underground" look.

[edit] Students festivals

Festivals organised by students of several higher education institutions, take place every year across the country, being the one held at Coimbra the oldest and most traditional of all, copied and adapted by other universities. These include the music festivals of Queima das Fitas and Semana Acadmica (Aveiro, Portugal|Aveiro, Braga: Enterro da Gata, Coimbra, Covilh, Faro, Portugal|Faro, Lisbon, Porto, etc.).

[edit] Summer musical festivals

Summer festivals include: Vilar de Mouros Festival, Festival Sudoeste, Rock in Rio Lisboa, Super Bock Super Rock, Festival de Paredes de Coura, Boom Festival, Ilha do Ermal Festival, etc.

[edit] Painting

Detail of the Saint Vincent Panels, by Nuno Gonalves. See also: List of Portuguese painters Portuguese art was very restricted in the early years of nationality, during the reconquista, to a few paintings in churches, convents and palaces. It was after the 15th century, with national borders established and with the discoveries, that Portuguese art expanded. Some kings, like John I already had royal painters. It is during this century that Gothic art was replaced by a more humanistic and Italian-like art. During the reign of King Alfonso V, an important Portuguese artist Nuno Gonalves shaped Portuguese art, leading it to gain local characteristics (Escola Nacional, National School). His influence on Portuguese art continued after his death. He was the royal painter for the famous Retbulo do Altar das Relquias de So Vicente in the Cathedral of Lisbon (S de Lisboa). The painting caught fire and was replaced by a Baroque structure. Parts of his work still exist and can be found in the Museu Nacional de Arte Antiga National (Museum of Ancient Art). During the Golden Age of Portugal, in the late 15th century and early 16th century, Portuguese artists were influenced by Flemish art, and were in turn influential on Flemish artists of the same period. During this period, Portuguese art became internationally well-known, mostly because of its very original and diverse characteristics, but little is known about the artists of this time due to the medieval culture that considered painters to be artisans. The anonymous artists in the Portuguese "escolas" produced art not only for metropolitan Portugal but also for its colonies, namely Malacca or Goa and even Africa, gratifying the desires of local aristrocatic clients and religious clients.

In the 19th century, naturalist and realist painters like Columbano, Henrique Pouso and Silva Porto revitalized painting against a decadent academic art. In the early 20th century, Portuguese art increased both in quality and quantity, mainly due to members of the Modernist movement like Amadeo de Souza Cardoso and Almada Negreiros. In the post-war years the abstractionist painter Vieira da Silva settled in Paris and gained widespread recognition, as did her contemporary Paula Rego.

[edit] Theater

Gil Vicente, 16th century Portuguese playwright. Portugal never developed a great Dramatic theatre tradition due primarily to the fact that the Portuguese were more passionate about lyric or humorous works than dramatic art. Gil Vicente is often seen as the father of Portuguese theatre - he was the leading Portuguese playwright in the 16th century. During the 20th century, theatre found a way to reach out to the people, specially the middle class, through what in Portugal is known as "Revista" - a form of humorous and cartoonish theatre designed to expose and criticize social (and political) issues, but in a way that entertains and amuses the audience. Gil Vicente (14351536) is considered the first great Portuguese playwright. Frequently called the father of Portuguese theatre, he portrays the society of the 16th century. Anticipating the seventeenth-century French writer Jean de Santeul's wellknown phrase "castigat ridendo mores", Gil Vicente became famous for his satirical plays such as the "Triologia das Barcas" ("Auto da Barca do Inferno" (1517), "Auto da Barca do Purgatrio" (1518); "Auto da Barca da Glria" (1518)). In these plays, he creates some characters who are representative of their social group. This results in not only comical, but also strong critical situations. Gil Vicente also wrote other

important plays such as "Auto da ndia" (1509), "Auto da Fama" (1510), and "Farsa de Ins Pereira" (1523). Another relevant playwright of the 16th century is Antnio Ferreira (15281569), who wrote "A Castro" (1587), a well-known tragedy about the forbidden love between D. Pedro I and D. Ins de Castro. Antnio Ferreira is considered the father of Renaissance culture in Portugal. One of the most famous playwrights of the 18th century is Antnio Jos da Silva (17051739), commonly known as "O Judeu" because of his Judaic origins. He wrote several plays such as "Os Encantos de Medeia" (1735), "As Variedades de Proteu" (1737) and "Precipcio de Faetonte" (1738). Almeida Garrett (17991854) was a turning point in Portuguese literature as far as the themes are concerned. His most outstanding play is "Frei Lus de Sousa" (1844), which became a classic of Portuguese theatre. Garrett also wrote "Um Auto de Gil Vicente" (1838), "Filipa de Vilhena" (1846) and "O Alfageme de Santarm" (1842). These three plays as well as "Frei Lus de Sousa" are somehow connected with Portuguese history. Furthermore, Garrett is also the founder of the "Conservatrio Geral de Arte Dramtica" as well as of the "Teatro Nacional D. Maria II". As far as the 20th century is concerned, it's worth noticing Bernardo Santareno's (19201980) work. His most famous play is "O Judeu", based upon the life of Antnio Jos da Silva, mentioned above. Santareno also wrote "A Promessa" (1957), "O Crime da Aldeia Velha" (1959) and "Anunciao" (1962). Most of his plays deal with universal questions such as liberty, oppression and discrimination. Born in 1926, Lus de Sttau Monteiro (19261993) wrote several plays, some of them portraying and criticising Portuguese society of his time. His most famous play is "Felizmente H Luar" (1961), which is a strong criticism of the political context of that time (dictatorship Estado Novo). "O Baro" (1965), "A Guerra Santa" (1967) and "Sua Excelncia" (1971) were also written by Sttau Monteiro. In the 20th century theatre in Portugal became more popular with the "Revista" a comical and satirical form of theatre. It is a creative way of expressing one's ideas as well as criticising political and social problems. The most important actors who performed this form of theatre in the 20th century were Vasco Santana (18981958), Beatriz Costa (19071996) and Ivone Silva (19351987). Nowadays it is worth mentioning Maria Joo Abreu, Jos Raposo and Fernando Mendes, who perform this form of theatre at the well known "Parque Mayer" (a theatre in Lisbon where the "Revista" used to be performed). Important Portuguese actors are Ruy de Carvalho, Eunice Muoz, Rui Mendes, Irene Cruz, Lus Miguel Cintra, just to name a few. In later years, theatre in Portugal has developed into many other forms as in any other European country. Almost every repertoire can be seen in Portugal. Many companies have the works of Shakespeare, Molire, Brecht, Becket or Chekhov, and Portuguese classic and modern authors on their repertoire. Other companies show more experimental projects. All this makes the theatre repertoire very varied. Some of the

most important professional theatre companies nowadays are: Teatro da Cornucpia, Teatro da Comuna, Teatro Aberto, Teatro Meridional, Teatro da Garagem, Companhia de Teatro de Almada, Companhia Teatral do Chiado, A Barraca, Teatro dos Alos, Teatro Praga, Artistas Unidos, Seiva Trupe, As boas raparigas, ACTA, among many others. Portugal hosts several festivals such as FITEI, ACERT and FIAR, and one of the most important is Festival Internacional de Teatro de Almada (International Theatre Festival of Almada), organized for 25 years by Companhia de Teatro de Almada (Almada Theatre Company), with directors Joaquim Benite and Vitor Gonalves.

[edit] Festivities and holidays

During the summer, in the month of June, festivities dedicated to three saints known as Santos Populares take place all over Portugal. Why the populace associated the saints to these pagan festivities is not known. But they are possibly related to Roman or local deities from the time before Christianity spread in the region. The three saints are Saint Anthony, Saint John and Saint Peter. Common fare in these festivities are wine, gua-p (mostly grape juice), and traditional bread along with sardines. During the festivities are many weddings, traditional street dances and fireworks. Saint Anthony is celebrated on the night of 12th-13 June, especially in Lisbon (where that saint was born and lived most of his life), with Marchas Populares (a street carnival) and other festivities. In the meantime, several marriages known as Casamentos de Santo Antnio (Marriages of Saint Anthony) are made. But the most popular saint is Saint John, he is celebrated in many cities and towns throughout the country on the night of the 23rd-24th, especially in Porto and Braga, where the sardines, caldo verde (traditional soup) and plastic hammers to hammer in another person's head for luck are indispensable. The final saint is Saint Peter, celebrated in the night of 28th-29th, especially in Pvoa de Varzim and Barcelos, the festivities are similar to the others, but more dedicated to the sea and with an extensive use of fire (fogueiras). In Pvoa de Varzim, there is the Rusgas in the night, another sort of street carnival. Each festivity is a municipal holiday in the cities and towns where it occurs.

Carnival in Portugal

Carnival is also widely celebrated in Portugal, some traditional carnivals date back several centuries. Loul, Alcobaa, Mealhada, Funchal, Torres Vedras, Ovar and Figueira da Foz, among several other localities, hold several days of festivities, with parades where social and political criticism abound, along with music and dancing in an environment of euphorya. There are some localities which preserve a more traditional carnival with typical elements of the ancient carnival traditions of Portugal and Europe. However, several parades in most localities have adopted many elements of the tropical Brazilian Carnival. On January 6, Epiphany is celebrated by some families, especially in the North and Center, where the family gathers to eat "Bolo-Rei" (literally, King Cake, a cake made with crystallized fruits); this is also the time for the traditional street songs - "As Janeiras" (The January ones). Saint Martin Day, is celebrated on November 11. This day is the peak of three days, often with very good weather, it is known as Vero de So Martinho ("Saint Martin summer"), the Portuguese celebrate it with jeropiga (a sweet liqueur wine) and roasted Portuguese chestnuts (castanhas assadas), and it is called Magusto.

[edit] National holidays

Date January 1 Name Ano Novo Remarks New Year's Day. Beginning of the year, marks the traditional end of "holiday season". Carnival. (Also called Mardi Gras). Not an official holiday, but declared by the government as a nonworking day. Very ancient festival celebrating the end of the winter. It gained Christian connotations, and now marks the first day of a period of 40 days before Easter Week (Semana Santa, Holy Week), thus also known as Entrudo. Good Friday.

Tuesday, Carnaval date varies

Friday, date Sexta-Feira Santa varies

Easter. Used for family gathering to eat Po-de-L and "Folar" (an Easter cake) and Easter eggs. In the North, a sort of church members processions (compasso) visits and blesses every home with an open door, thus Sunday, Pscoa meaning they are Catholics. Traditionally, this is the date varies second visit of children and non-married youngsters to their godparents, receiving an Easter gift. The first visit is on Palm Sunday, 7 days before, where children give flowers and palms to their godparents. Literally, "Freedom Day". Celebrates the Carnation April 25 Dia da Liberdade Revolution, marking the end of the dictatorial regime. Event of 1974. May 1 Dia do Trabalhador Labour Day. Thursday, Corpo de Deus Corpus Christi. Christian feast celebrating the Eucharist. date varies

Portugal Day. Marks the date of Cames death. Cames Dia de Portugal, de wrote The Lusiads, Portugal's national epic. Event of Cames e das June 10 1580. Celebrated in many of Portuguese communities in Comunidades the United States of America, such as the Ironbound in Portuguesas Newark, New Jersey August 15 Assuno Assumption of Mary. Implantao da Implantation of the Republic, or Republic Day. Event of October 5 Repblica 1910. November Todos os Santos All Saints Day. Day used for visiting deceased relatives. 1 December Restaurao da Restoration of Independence. Event of 1640. 1 Independncia December Imaculada Immaculate Conception. Patron Saint of Portugal since 8 Conceio 1646. Christmas Day. Celebrated in the 24th to the 25th as a December family gathering to eat codfish with potatoes and Natal 25 cabbage, roasted kid and turkey; seasonal sweets and dry fruits; drink Port wine; and share gifts.

Portuguese popular song: (English Translation)

"Santo Antnio j se acabou. (Saint Anthony is over) O So Pedro est-se a acabar. (Saint Peter is ending) So Joo, So Joo, So Joo, (Saint John, Saint John, Saint John) D c um balo para eu brincar." (Give me a balloon, for me to play)

[edit] Sports and games

Main article: Sport in Portugal See also: Football in Portugal

Portuguese football fans supporting the Portuguese national football team. Football is the most popular sport in Portugal. Football started to become well known in Portugal in the final decades of the 19th century, brought by Portuguese students who returned from England. The first person responsible for its implementation would have been Guilherme Pinto Basto (according to some people, his brothers Eduardo and Frederico would have

brought the first ball from England). It was he who had the initiative to organise an exhibition of the new game, which took place in October 1888, and it was also him who organized the first football match in January of the following year. The match, played where today the Campo Pequeno, involved opposing teams from Portugal and England. The Portuguese team won the game 2-1. Consequently, football started attracting the attention of the high society, being distinguished by the Luso-British rivalry. Later, the game spread, being practiced in colleges, and leading to the foundation of clubs all over the country. Until the end of the century, associations such as Clube Lisbonense, Carcavelos, Brao de Prata, the Real Ginsio Clube Portugus, the Estrela Futebol Clube, the Futebol Acadmico, the Campo de Ourique, the Oporto Cricket, and the Sport Clube Vianense were founded to practice this sport or created sections for competing. The first match, between Lisbon and Porto, took place in 1894, attended by King D. Carlos. The Clube Internacional de Futebol (founded in 1902) was the first Portuguese team to play abroad defeating, in 1907, the Madrid Futebol Clube in the Spanish capital. Currently, one of the most important teams in Portugal, the oldest being the Boavista Futebol Clube, was founded in 1903. The Futebol Clube do Porto, after an unsuccessful attempt in 1893, appeared in 1906, stimulated by Jos Monteiro da Costa, among others. The Sporting Clube de Portugal was founded in 1906 by the Viscount of Alvalade and his grandson Jos de Alvalade. Sport Lisboa e Benfica, was born in 1904 (the club maintained the foundation date of Sport Lisboa, founded in 1904, when in 1908 assimilated the Grupo Sport Benfica, founded in 1906). They are all clubs that traditionally have several sports activities but they give great distinction to football, making use of teams of professional players, which frequently participate in European competitions. In May 2006, the Portuguese national team was ranked 7th out of 205 countries by FIFA. The legendary Eusbio is still a symbol of Portuguese football. Lus Figo was voted 2001 Player of the Year by FIFA, after finishing 2nd in 2000. Manuel Rui Costa and Cristiano Ronaldo are also noteworthy, although Vtor Baa is the player in history with most titles won, including all European club cups. Moreover, Jos Mourinho is regarded as one of the most successful and well-paid football managers in football's history. The main domestic football competition is the Superliga, where the dominating teams are S.L. Benfica, FC Porto, and Sporting CP. Portugal hosted and nearly won EURO 2004, getting defeated in the final by surprise winner Greece. The Portuguese national team also reached the semi-finals of the FIFA World Cup twice, in 1966, when Eusebio was the top scorer, with 9 goals, and also in 2006. The year 2006 was the year that Portugal nearly won the FIFA World Cup tournament, ranking 4th overall, being defeated by France and Germany. This was the first time since 1966, that the Portuguese football team had advanced to a such a high qualifying round in a World Cup tournament. The team was welcomed back proudly from its country. Other than football, many other professional and well organized sport competitions take place every season in Portugal, including basketball, swimming, athletics, tennis, gymnastics, futsal, handball, and volleyball among the hundreds of sports played in this country.

Cycling, with Volta a Portugal as the most important race, is also popular. In rink hockey, Portugal is the country with the most world titles: 15 World Championships and 20 European Championships, and in rugby sevens, the Portuguese team has won many international trophies, having as of July 2006, five European Championship titles. Golf is also worth mentioning, since its greatest players play in the sunny region of the Algarve, during the Algarve Open. The Autdromo Fernanda Pires da Silva in the Estoril, near Lisbon, is the main Portuguese race track, where many motorsport competitions are held, including the World Motorcycling Championship and A1 Grand Prix. Rallying (with the Rally of Portugal and Rally Madeira) and off-road (with the Baja Portugal 1000 and recently Lisboa-Dakar) events also have international recognition. Triathlon is also giving important steps, thanks to the world cup leader Vanessa Fernandes, and her European and world titles. She is also the duathlon European and world champion. The national team of shooting sports won the gold medal in the teams event, and Paulo Cleto won silver in the single men's competition. Martial arts like judo have also brought many medals to this country, namely Telma Monteiro, who conquered gold twice at the European Championships in the -52 kg category, bronze in 2005 world championship in Cairo, and achieved silver in 2007 World Judo Championships. Nuno Delgado, who conquered the bronze medal in the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney, also became the European champion in 1999 (in Bratislava), and vice-champion in the year of 2003. Manuel Centeno is also a major name in Portuguese sports, as he conquered the national, European and the world titles, in 2006 in bodyboarding after being the European champion back in 2001. In surfing, Justin Mujica, European surfing champion in 2004, is now back in the competitions after recovering from a knee injury. Tiago Pires reached the number one position at ASP WQS rating, and will probably be part of the main surfing competition. Ruben Gonzalez is an international acclaimed surfer and the only one to achieve the national title in two consecutive tournaments. The Portuguese team of basketball made a unique qualification to the European Championships and made through the second round, where it was eliminated. "Os Lobos" (Portugal national rugby union team) made a dramatic qualification to the 2007 Rugby World Cup, becoming the world's only all-amateur team ever to qualify for that kind of event. In fencing, Joaquim Videira won the silver medal at the pe 2006 World Fencing Championships, and has conquered numerous medals in the world cup.

The major Portuguese professional sports leagues, championships and events include:

Portuguese Football Championship and Cup of Portugal in football. Portuguese Futsal First Division in futsal. Portuguese Basketball League in basketball. Portuguese Rink Hockey Championship in rink hockey. Portuguese Handball League in handball. Campeonato Nacional Honra/Super Bock in rugby. Portuguese Volleyball League A1 in volleyball. Portuguese Beach Soccer League in beach soccer. Volta a Portugal in cycling. Rally of Portugal in motor racing.

The country has an ancient martial art known as "Jogo do Pau" (Portuguese Stick Fencing), which is used for self-protection and for duels between young men in disputes over young women. Having its origin in the Middle Ages, Jogo do Pau uses wooden staves as a combat weapon. Other sports are the "Jogos Populares", a wide variety of traditional sports played for fun. In addition to this, other popular sport-related recreational outdoor activities with thousands of enthusiasts nationwide include airsoft, fishing, golf, hiking, hunting, and orienteering.

Architecture of Portugal
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Cloisters of Jernimos Monastery in Lisbon, built in Manueline style in the 1520s. Architecture of Portugal refers to the architecture practised in the territory of present-day Portugal since before the foundation of the country in the 12th century. The term may also refer to buildings created under Portuguese influence or by Portuguese architects in other parts of the world, particularly in the Portuguese Empire.

Portuguese architecture, like all aspects of Portuguese culture, is marked by the history of the country and the several peoples that have settled and influenced the current Portuguese territory. These include Romans, Germanic peoples and Arabs, as well as the influence from the main European artistic centres from which were introduced to the broad architectural styles: Romanesque, Gothic, Renaissance, Baroque and Neoclassicism. Among the main local manifestations of Portuguese architecture are the Manueline, the exuberant Portuguese version of late Gothic; and the Pombaline style, a mix of late Baroque and Neoclassicism that developed after the Great Lisbon Earthquake of 1755. In the 20th century, Portuguese architecture has produced a number of renowned personalities like Fernando Tvora, Eduardo Souto de Moura and, especially, lvaro Siza.

Contents
[hide]

1 Early architecture o 1.1 Megaliths o 1.2 Pre-Roman villages 2 Roman period 3 Pre-Romanesque 4 Moorish period o 4.1 Castles o 4.2 Mosques 5 Romanesque style (1100-c. 1230) o 5.1 Cathedrals and monasteries o 5.2 Castles 6 Gothic (c. 1200 - c.1450) o 6.1 Churches and monasteries o 6.2 Castles and palaces 7 Manueline style (c.1490 - c.1520) 8 Renaissance and Mannerism (c.1520 - c.1650) o 8.1 Plain style (1580-1640) 9 Restoration architecture (1640-1717) 10 Baroque style (1717-1755) 11 Pombaline style (1755-1860) 12 Modern Architecture 13 See also 14 Footnotes 15 References 16 External links

[edit] Early architecture

Anta (dolmen) in Cabeo, near Mora, in the Alentejo.

[edit] Megaliths
The earliest examples of architectural activity in Portugal date from the Neolithic and consist of structures associated with Megalith culture. The Portuguese hinterland is dotted with a large number of dolmens (called antas or dlmens), tumuli (mamoas) and menhirs. The Alentejo region is particularly rich in megalithic monuments, like the notable Anta Grande do Zambujeiro, located near vora. Standing stones can be found isolated or forming circular arrays (stone circles or cromlechs). The Almendres Cromlech, also located near vora, is the largest of the Iberian Peninsula, containing nearly 100 menhirs arranged in two elliptical arrays on an East-West orientation.

[edit] Pre-Roman villages

Pre-historic fortified villages dating from the Chalcolithic are found along the Tagus river like that of Vila Nova de So Pedro, near Cartaxo, and the Castro of Zambujal, near Torres Vedras.

Iron age house in Citnia de Briteiros These sites were occupied in the period around the years 2500-1700 BC and were surrounded by stone walls and towers, a sign of the conflictivity of the time. Starting around the 6th century BC, Northwest Portugal, as well as neighbouring Galicia in Spain, saw the development of the Castro culture (cultura castreja). This region was dotted with hillfort villages (called citnias or cividades) that for the most

part continued to exist under Roman domination, when the area became incorporated into the province of Gallaecia. Notable archaeological sites are the Citnia de Sanfins, near Paos de Ferreira, Citnia de Briteiros, near Guimares, and the Cividade de Terroso, near Pvoa do Varzim. For defensive reasons, these hillforts were built over elevated terrain and were surrounded by rings of stone walls (Terroso had three wall rings). Houses were round in shape with walls made of stone without mortar, while the roofs were made of grass shoots. Baths were built in some of them, like in Briteiros and Sanfins.

[edit] Roman period

Roman Temple of vora Architecture developed significantly in the 2nd century BC with the arrival of the Romans, who called the Iberian Peninsula Hispania. Conquered settlements and villages were often modernised following Roman models, with the building of a forum, streets, theatres, temples, baths, aqueducts and other public buildings. An efficient array of roads and bridges was built to link the cities and other settlements. Braga (Bracara Augusta) was the capital of the Gallaecia province and still has vestiges of public baths, a public fountain (called Idol's Fountain) and a theatre. vora boasts a well-preserved Roman temple, probably dedicated to the cult of Emperor Augustus. A Roman bridge crosses the Tmega River by the city of Chaves (Aquae Flaviae). Lisbon (Olissipo) has the remains of a theatre in the Alfama neighbourhood. The best-preserved remains of a Roman village are those of Conimbriga, located near Coimbra. The excavations revealed city walls, baths, the forum, an aqueduct, an amphitheatre, and houses for the middle classes (insulae), as well as luxurious mansions (domus) with central courtyards decorated with mosaics. Another important excavated Roman village is Mirbriga, near Santiago do Cacm, with a well preserved Roman temple, baths, a bridge and the vestiges of the only Roman hippodrome known in Portugal.

Roman bridge of Aquae Flaviae, today's Chaves. In the hinterland, wealthy Romans established villae, country houses dedicated to agriculture. Many villae contained facilities likes baths and were decorated with mosaics and paintings. Important sites are the Villae of Pises (near Beja), Torre de Palma (near Monforte) and Centum Cellas (near Belmonte). The latter has the wellpreserved ruins of a three-storey tower which was part of the residence of the villa owner.

[edit] Pre-Romanesque

Saint Frutuoso Chapel near Braga, a Greek cross building of Byzantine influence (7th century). Roman domination in Hispania was ended with the invasions by Germanic peoples (especially Sueves and Visigoths) starting in the 5th century AD. Very few buildings survive from the period of Visigoth domination (c.580-770), most of them modified in subsequent centuries. One of these is the small Saint Frutuoso Chapel, near Braga, which was part of a Visigothic monastery built in the 7th century. The building has a Greek cross floorplan with rectangular arms and a central cupola; both the cupola and the arms of the chapel are decorated with arch reliefs. The chapel shows clear influences of Byzantine buildings like the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia in Ravenna. After 711, in the period of dominance of the Iberian Peninsula by the Moors, the Christian Kingdom of Asturias (c.711-910), located in the Northern part of the peninsula, was a centre of resistance (see Reconquista). In addition, many Christians

(Mozarabs) lived in Moorish territories and were allowed to practicise their religion and build churches. Asturian architecture and Mozarabic art influenced Christian buildings in the future Portuguese territory, as seen on the few structures that have survived from this time. The most important of these is the Church of So Pedro de Lourosa, located near Oliveira do Hospital, which bears an inscription that gives 912 as the year of its construction. The church is a basilica with three aisles separated by horseshoe arches, a narthex on the faade and mullioned, horseshoe-shaped windows of Asturian influence on the central aisle. Other preromanesque churches built under Asturian and Mozarabic influence are So Pedro de Balsemo, near Lamego, with a basilica floorplan, and the Chapel of So Gio, near Nazar, although some authors consider that these buildings may be of Visigoth origin. The inner spaces of these buildings are all divided by typical horseshoe arches. The Visigothic Saint Frutuoso Chapel was also modified in the 10th century, when the arm chapels were given a round flooplan and horseshoe arches.

[edit] Moorish period

Main gate (Porta de Loul) of the old Moorish city centre (Almedina) of Silves. The invasion of the Iberian Peninsula in the year 711 by Moors from the Maghreb put an end to Visigoth rule in Hispania, called Al-Andalus by the newcomers. Moorish presence strongly influenced art and architecture in Portuguese territory, especially in Southern Portugal, where the Reconquista was only finished in 1249. However, in contrast to neighbouring Spain, few Islamic buildings in Portugal have survived intact to this day. Traditional houses in many cities and villages in Portugal have simple, white faades that lend the ensemble of streets and neighbourhoods a distinct Islamic look, similar to that of villages in Northern Africa. Many villages and city neighbourhoods have retained the street layout from Islamic times, like the Alfama in Lisbon. Moorish buildings were often constructed with the rammed earth (taipa) and adobe techniques, followed by whitewashing.

[edit] Castles
Main article: Castles in Portugal

The Moors built strong castles and fortifications in many cities but, although many Portuguese mediaeval castles originated in the Islamic period, most of them have been extensively remodelled after the Christian reconquest. One of the best-preserved is Silves Castle, located in Silves, the ancient capital of the Al-Garb, today's Algarve. Built between the 8th and 13th centuries, Silves Castle has preserved its walls and square-shaped towers from the Moorish period, as well as 11th-century cisterns water reservoirs used in case of a siege. The old Moorish centre of the city - the Almedina - was defended by a wall and several fortified towers and gates, parts of which are still preserved.

View of Mrtola; the Main Church, formerly a mosque, is on the foreground. Another notable Islamic castle in the Algarve is Paderne Castle, whose ruined walls evidence the taipa building technique used in its construction. The Sintra Moorish Castle, near Lisbon, has also preserved rests of walls and a cistern from Moorish times. Part of the Moorish city walls have been preserved in Lisbon (the so-called Cerca Velha) and vora. Moorish city gates with a characteristic horseshoe-arched profile can be found in Faro and Elvas.

[edit] Mosques
Many mosques were built all over Portuguese territory during Muslim domination, but virtually all of these have been turned into churches and cathedrals, and Islamic features cannot be identified anymore. Thus, the Cathedrals of Lisbon, Silves and Faro, for instance, are probably built over the remains of the great mosques after the Reconquista. The only exception to this rule is the Main Church (Matriz) of Mrtola, in the Alentejo region. The Mrtola Mosque was built in the second half of the 12th century and, even though it has suffered several modifications, it is still the best-preserved mediaeval mosque in Portugal. Inside the church has an approximate square-shaped floorplan with 4 aisles with a total of 12 columns that support a 16th-century Manueline rib vaulting. Even though the roof has been modified and some aisles have been suppressed in the 16th century, the labyrinthic interior with its "forest" of pillars clearly relates to other contemporary mosques in Spain and Maghreb. The inner wall still has a mihrab, a decorated niche that indicates the direction of Mecca. In addition the church has three horseshoe arches with an alfiz, a typical Islamic decorative feature.

[edit] Romanesque style (1100-c. 1230)

See also: Romanesque architecture and List of regional characteristics of Romanesque churches

A side portal in the church of the Benedictine Monastery of Rates with zoomorphic and anthropomorphic decoration (c. 1096).

[edit] Cathedrals and monasteries

The Romanesque style was introduced in Portugal between the end of the 11th and the beginning of the 12th century. The most influential of the first Portuguese Romanesque monuments were Braga Cathedral and the Monastery of Rates. The Cathedral of Braga was rebuilt in the 1070s by bishop Pedro and consecrated in 1089, although only the apse was finished at the time. The bishop's ambitious plan was to create a pilgrimage church, with a three aisled nave, an ambulatory and a large transept. A relic of this early project may be a small Eastern chapel located nowadays outside the church itself. Building activity gained pace after 1095, when Count Henry took possession of the Condado Portucalense. Count Henry came to Portugal with a number of noblemen and also Benedictine monks of Cluny Abbey, which was headed by Henry's brother, Hugh. The Benedictines and other religious orders gave great impulse to Romanesque architecture during the whole 12th century. Count Henry sponsored the building of the Monastery of Rates (begun in 1096), one of the fundamental works of the first Portuguese Romanesque, although the project was modified several times during the 12th century. The relevance of its architecture and sculptures with diverse architectural influences make this temple a case study that is reflected in the production of further Romanesque art of the nascent kingdom of Portugal.

Faade of the Old Cathedral of Coimbra (begun 1162). The worshops of Braga and Rates were very influential in Northern Portugal. Extant 12th-century Romanesque monastic churches are found in Manhente (near Barcelos), with a portal dating from around 1117; Rio Mau (near Vila do Conde); with an exceptional apse dating from 1151; Travanca (near Amarante); Pao de Sousa (near Penafiel); Braves (near Ponte da Barca), Pombeiro (near Felgueiras) and many others. The spread of Romanesque in Portugal followed the North-South path of the Reconquista, specially during the reign of Afonso Henriques, Count Henry's son and first King of Portugal. In Coimbra, Afonso Henriques created the Santa Cruz Monastery, one of the most important of the monastic foundations of the time, although the current building is the result of a 16th century remodelling. Afonso Henriques and his successors also sponsored the building of many cathedrals in the bishop seats of the country. This generation of Romanesque cathedrals included the already-mentioned Braga, Oporto, Coimbra, Viseu, Lamego and Lisbon.

Almourol Castle, built c. 1171 on an island of the Tagus by the Templar Knights. The highest tower is the square-shaped keep of the castle. All Portuguese Romanesque cathedrals were later extensively modified with the exception of the Cathedral of Coimbra (begun 1162), which has remained unaltered.

Coimbra Cathedral is a Latin cross church with a three-aisled nave, a transept with short arms and three East chapels. The central aisle is covered by a stone barrel vaulting while the lateral aisles are covered by groin vaults. The second storey of the central aisle has an arched gallery (triforium), and the crossing is topped by a dome. This general scheme is related to that of the Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela in Galicia, although the Coimbra building is much less ambitious. Lisbon Cathedral (begun c.1147) is very similar to Coimbra Cathedral, except that the West faade is flanked by two massive towers, a feature observed in other cathedrals like Oporto and Viseu. In general, Portuguese cathedrals had a heavy, fortress-like appearance, with crenellations and little decoration apart from portals and windows. A remarkable religious Romanesque building is the Round Church (Rotunda) in the Castle of Tomar, which was built in the second half of the 12th century by the Templar Knights. The church is a round structure with a central arched octagon, and was probably modelled after the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, which was mistakenly believed by the crusaders to be a remnant of the Temple of Solomon. The Church of the Holy Sepulchre of Jerusalem may also have served as model.

[edit] Castles
Main article: Castles in Portugal The troubled times of the Portuguese Reconquista meant that many castles had to be built to protect villages from Moors and Castilians. King Afonso Henriques sponsored the building of many fortifications (often remodelling Moorish castles as Lisbon Castle) and granted land to Military Orders - specially the Templar Knights and the Knights Hospitallers - who became responsible for the defence of borders and villages. The Templar Knights built several fortresses along the line of the Tagus river, like the castles of Pombal, Tomar and Belver and Almourol. They are credited as having introduced the keep to Portuguese military architecture.

[edit] Gothic (c. 1200 - c.1450)

Main article : Portuguese Gothic architecture

Central aisle of the church of Alcobaa Monastery (12th-13th century).

[edit] Churches and monasteries

Gothic architecture was brought to Portugal by the Cistercian Order. The first fully Gothic building in Portugal is the church of the Monastery of Alcobaa, a magnificent example of the clear and simple architectural forms favoured by the Cistercians. The church was built between 1178 and 1252 in three phases, and seems inspired by the Abbey of Clairvaux, in the Champagne. Its three aisles are very tall and slender, giving an exceptional impression of height. The whole church is covered by rib vaulting and the main chapel has an ambulatory and a series of radiant chapels. The vault of the ambulatory is externally supported by flying buttresses, typical features of Gothic architecture and a novelty at the time in Portugal. After the foundation of Alcobaa, the Gothic style was chiefly disseminated by mendicant orders (mainly Franciscan, Augustinians and Dominicans). Along the 13th and 14th centuries, several convents were founded in urban centres, important examples of which can be found in Oporto (So Francisco Church), Coimbra (Monastery of Santa Clara-a-Velha), Guimares (So Francisco, So Domingos), Santarm (So Francisco, Santa Clara), Elvas (So Domingos), Lisbon (ruins of Carmo Convent) and many other places. Mendicant Gothic churches usually had a three-aisled nave covered with wooden roof and an apse with three chapels covered with rib vaulting. These churches also lacked towers and were mostly devoid of architectural decoration, in tone with mendicant ideals. Mendicant Gothic was also adopted in several parish churches built all over the country, for instance in Sintra (Santa Maria), Mafra, Lourinh and Loul.

Flamboyant Gothic in the Monastery of Batalha: church faade (left) and Founder's Chapel (right). Many of the Romanesque cathedrals were modernised with Gothic elements. Thus, the Romanesque nave of Oporto Cathedral is supported by flying buttresses, one of the first built in Portugal (early 13th century). The apse of Lisbon Cathedral was totally remodelled in the first half of the 14th century, when it gained a Gothic ambulatory illuminated by a clerestory (high row of windows on the upper storey). The ambulatory has a series of radiant chapels illuminated with large windows, contrasting with the dark Romanesque nave of the cathedral. An important transitional building is vora Cathedral, built during the 13th century; even though its floorplan, faade and elevation are inspired by Lisbon Cathedral, its forms (arches, windows,

vaults) are already Gothic. Many Gothic churches maintained the fortress-like appearance of Romanesque times, like the already-mentioned vora Cathedral, the Church of the Monastery of Lea do Balio (14th century) near Matosinhos, and even as late as the 15th-century, with the Main Church of Viana do Castelo. Several Gothic cloisters were built and can still be found in the Cathedrals of Oporto, Lisbon and vora (all from the 14th century) as well as in monasteries like Alcobaa, Santo Tirso and the Convent of the Order of Christ. In the early 15th century, the building of the Monastery of Batalha, sponsored by King John I, led to a renovation of Portuguese Gothic. After 1402, the works were trusted to Master Huguet, of unknown origin, who introduced the Flamboyant Gothic style to the project. The whole building is decorated with Gothic pinnacles (crockets), reliefs, large windows with intrincate tracery and elaborate crenellations. The main portal has a series of archivolts decorated with a multitude of statues, while the tympanum has a relief showing Christ and the Evangelists. The Founder's Chapel and the Chapter House have elaborate star-ribbed vaulting, unknown in Portugal until then. Batalha influenced 15th-century workshops like those of Guarda Cathedral, Silves Cathedral and monasteries in Beja (Nossa Senhora da Conceio) and Santarm (Convento da Graa).

View of Bragana Castle. The large keep tower was built in the 15th century. Another Gothic variant was the so-called Mudjar-Gothic, which developed in Portugal towards the end of the 15th century, specially in the Alentejo region. The name Mudjar refers to the influence of Islamic art in the Christian kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula, specially in the Middle Ages. In the Alentejo and elsewhere, Mudjar influence in several buildings is evident in the profile of windows and portals, often with horseshoe arches and a mullion, circular turrets with conical pinnacles, Islamic merlons etc., as well as tile (azulejo) decoration. Examples include the portico of St Francis Church of vora, the courtyard of the Sintra Royal Palace and several churches and palaces in vora, Elvas, Arraiolos, Beja, etc. Mdejar eventually intermingled with the Manueline style in the early 16th century.

[edit] Castles and palaces

During the Gothic era, several castles had to be either built or reinforced, especially along the border with the Kingdom of Castille. Compared to previous castles, Gothic castles in Portugal tended to have more towers, often of circular or semi-circular plan (to increase resistance to projectiles), keep towers tended to be polygonal, and castle gates were often defended by a pair of flanking towers. A second, lower wall curtain

(barbicans) were often built along the perimeter of the main walls to prevent war machines from approaching the castle. Features like machicolations and improved arrowslits became also widespread. Starting in the 14th century, keep towers became larger and more sophisticated, with rib vaulting roofs and facilities like fireplaces. Keep towers with improved residential characteristics can be found in the castles of Beja, Estremoz and Bragana, while some later castles (15th century) became real palaces, like those in Penedono, Ourm and Porto de Ms. The most significant case is the Castle of Leiria, turned into a royal palace by King John I. Some rooms of the palace are decorated with splendid Gothic loggias, from which the surrounding landscape could be appreciated by the King and Queen.

[edit] Manueline style (c.1490 - c.1520)

Main article : Manueline

Manueline nave of Jernimos Monastery in Lisbon. Portuguese Late Gothic architecture is characterised by the development of a sumptuous style called Manueline in honour of King Manuel I, under whose reign (14951521) most buildings of the style were built or begun. Manueline mixes aspects of Late Gothic with Renaissance architecture and decoration, revealing influences from Spanish (Plateresque, Isabelline), Italian and Flemish contemporary art, as well as elements borrowed from Islamic (Mudjar) tradition. Manueline buildings are also often decorated with naturalistic motifs typical of the Age of Discovery, like spiralling motifs that remind of ropes used in ships, as well as a rich array of animal and vegetal motifs. The first known building in Manueline style is the Monastery of Jesus of Setbal. The church of the monastery was built from 1490 to 1510 by Diogo Boitac, an architect considered one of the main creators of the style. The nave of the church has three aisles of equal height, revealing an attempt to unify inner space which reaches its climax in the nave of the church of the Jernimos Monastery in Lisbon, finished in the 1520s by architect Joo de Castilho. The nave of the Setbal Monastery is supported by spiralling columns, a typical Manueline feature that is also found in the nave of Guarda Cathedral and the parish churches of Olivenza, Freixo de Espada Cinta, Montemor-o-Velho and others. Manueline buildings also usually carry elaborate portals with spiralling columns, niches and loaded with Renaissance and Gothic decorative motifs, like in Jernimos Monastery, Santa Cruz Monastery of Coimbra and many others.

[edit] Renaissance and Mannerism (c.1520 - c.1650)

Main article: Renaissance architecture in Portugal The adoption of the austere Renaissance style did not catch on well in Portugal. Introduced by a French architect in 1517, it was mainly practiced from the 1530s on by foreign architects and was therefore called estrangeirada (foreign-influenced). In later years this style slowly evolved into Mannerism. The painter and architect Francisco de Holanda, writer of the book Dilogos da Pintura Antiga ("Dialogues on Ancient Painting"), dissiminated in this treatise the fundamentals of this new style.

Nave of Church of So Roque in Lisbon (1565-1587). The basilica of Nossa Senhora da Conceio in Tomar was one of the earliest churches in pure Renaissance style. It was begun by the Castilian architect Diogo de Torralva in the period 1532-1540. Its beautiful and clear architecture turns it into one of the best early Renaissance buildings in Portugal. The small church of Bom Jesus de Valverde, south of vora, attributed to both Manuel Pires and Diogo de Torralva, is another early example. The most eminent example of this style is the Claustro de D. Joo III (Cloister of John III) in the Convent of the Order of Christ in Tomar. Started under the Portuguese King Joo III, it was finished during the reign of Philip I of Portugal (also King of Spain under the name of Philip II). The first architect was the Spaniard Diogo de Torralva, who began the work in 1557, only to be finished in 1591 by Philip II's architect, the Italian Filippo Terzi. This magnificent, two-storey cloister is considered one of the most important examples of Mannerist architecture in Portugal. However, the best known Portuguese architect in this period was Afonso lvares, whose works include the cathedrals of Leiria (15511574), Portalegre (begun 1556), and the Church of So Roque in Lisbon. During this period he evolved into the Mannerist style. This last church was completed by the Jesuit architect, the Italian Filippo Terzi, who also built the Jesuit college at vora, the Monastery of So Vicente de Fora in Lisbon and the episcopal palace in Coimbra. He had an enormous production and, besides churches, he also built several aqueducts and fortresses. In his wake came several Portuguese architects :

Miguel de Arruda : Church of Our Lady of Grace (in vora) Baltasar lvares, best known for the S Nova in Coimbra and the Igreja de So Loureno in Porto. Francisco Velasquez : Cathedral of Mirando do Douro and the designs for the monastery of S. Salvador (Grij) the military architect Manuel Pires : St. Anton's church in vora.

[edit] Plain style (1580-1640)

View of the Monastery of Tibes with the church faade, near Braga During the union of Portugal and Spain, the period between 1580 and 1640, a new style developed called "Arquitecture ch" (plain architecture) by George Kubler.[1] Basically mannerist, this style also marked by a clear structure, a sturdy appearance with smooth, flat surfaces and a moderate arrangement of space, lacking excessive decorations. It is a radical break with the decorative Manueline style. This simplified style, caused by limited financial resources, expresses itself in the construction of hall churches and less impressive buildings. In resistance to the Baroque style that was already the standard in Spain, the Portuguese continued to apply the plain style to express their separate identity as a people.

Baltasar Alvares built some of the most impressive examples in this style : the S Nova of Coimbra (15981640), the S Loureno or Grilos church in Porto (begun 1614) and the church S Anto in Lisbon (16131656; now destroyed).. Other examples are the several Benedictine constructions in this period, such as the renovation by Joo Turriano of the Monastery of Tibes and the Monastery of So Bento (now the Portuguese Parliament). Francisco de Mora designed the convent of Nossa Senhora dos Remdios (vora) for the order of the Discalced Carmelites (16011614) Pedro Nunes Tinoco designed in 1616 the church of S Marta (Lisbon) for the Order of the Poor Clares.

When king Filipe II made his Joyous Entry in Lisbon in 1619, several temporary triumphal arches were erected in the Flemish style of Hans Vredeman de Vries. The tract literature of Wendel Dietterlin[2] also increased the interest in Flemish Baroque architecture and art. This influence can be seen in the faade of the S Loureno or Grilos church in Porto, begun in 1622 by Baltasar Alvares. This was also the period of the rise of the azulejos and the use of carved gilded wood (talha dourada) on altars and ceilings.

[edit] Restoration architecture (1640-1717)

The Baroque style follows naturally from and is the expression of the CounterReformation, a reaction of the Roman Catholic Church against the upcoming Protestantism. But since the ideas of Protestantism did not take root at all in Portugal, the Baroque style did not really catch on at a time when it was the prevailing style in the rest of Europe. Furthermore, this style was too much associated with the Jesuits and Spanish rule. Instead a new style, a transition from the Plain Style to Late Baroque, was adopted when Portugal regained its independence in 1640. It was a period of declining economic and military power, with fewer projects and lesser opulence as a consequence. Jos Fernandes Pereira[3] identified the first period from 1651 to 1690 as a period of experimentation.

The nobility were the first to show their regained power. A typical example is the Palace of the Marqueses da Fronteira in Benfica (Lisbon) (started in 1667). This country manor house still follows Italian Mannerism examples, but there is already a heavy influence of the Baroque style in the perfect harmony of the house and the surrounding gardens, the splendour of the staircase and the many iconographic, decorative elements in the rooms. The large azulejos (tile panels) covering the walls with equestrian portraits, historical battle scenes or trumpet-blowing monkeys, created by the workshops of Jan van Oort and Willem van der Kloet in Amsterdam, are unique.

Church of Santa Engracia, Lisbon

The Piedmontese Theatine priest and architect Camillo-Guarino Guarini designed the church of Santa Maria della Divina Providncia in Lisbon. The elliptical floor plan, adopted in the church, stands apart in the Portuguese 17th century architecture. But his sketchbook however showed a different floor

plan and elevation. Even if his designs, influenced by the Roman Baroque architect Francesco Borromini, were not exactly followed in this church, they were often publicized and they spread the influence of Borromini in Portugal.[4]

Other realisations in this period include : o Jacome Mendes : the church of Nossa Senhora da Piedade (in Santarm, 1665) o The church of S. Agostinho (1667) in Vila Viosa o Joo Turriano : the Monastery of S Clara-a-Velha in Coimbra (1649 1696) o The church of Portimo, possibly by Joo Nunes Tinoco (1660).

The next period, between 1690 and 1717, saw the cautious introduction of the Baroque style in Portugal. The Church of Santa Engrcia (now the National Pantheon of Santa Engracia), begun in 1682 by Joo Nunes Tinoco and continued by Joo Antunes is a centralised structure, built in the form of a Greek cross (a cross with arms of equal length), crowned with a central dome (only completed in 1966 !) and the faades are ondulated like in the Baroque designs of Borromini. . It goes back to a design by the Italian architect Donato Bramante of the St. Peter's Basilica in Rome. It is perhaps the only truly Baroque building in Portugal. This time Rome, instead of Flanders, became the example to be followed for the construction of buildings. The church of Senhor da Cruz in Barcelos, built by Joo Antunes in 1701-1704 is an unusual experiment because of its four-leaf clover plan.

[edit] Baroque style (1717-1755)

The year 1697 is an important year for Portuguese architecture. In that year gold, gems and later diamonds were found in Minas Gerais, Brazil. Mining exploration was strongly controlled by the Portuguese Crown, which imposed heavy taxes on everything extracted (one fifth of all gold would go to the Crown). These enormous proceeds caused Portugal to prosper and become the richest country of Europe in the 18th century. King Joo V, who reigned between 1706 and 1750, tried to rival the French king Louis XIV, also called the Sun King, by engaging in a large number of expensive building activities. But the French king could rely on local experience for the glorification and his name and of France. The Palace of Versailles was transformed for Louis XIV into a marvelous palace by architect Louis Le Vau, painter and designer Charles Le Brun and the landscape architect Andr Le Ntre. The Portuguese king, on the other hand, had to make up the lack of local experience and tradition with foreign artists who were lured to Portugal with huge amounts of money. King Joo V squandered his money lavishly, starting numerous building projects, many of which were never finished. The Mafra National Palace is among the most sumptuous Baroque buildings in Portugal. This monumental palace-monastery-church complex is even larger than the El Escorial, an immense 16th century Spanish royal palace north of Madrid to emphasize the symbolic affirmation of his power. The king appointed Johann

Friedrich Ludwig (known in Portugal as Joo Frederico Ludovice) as the architect. This German goldsmith (!) had received some experience as an architect, working for the Jesuits in Rome. His design for the palace is a synthesis of St. Peter's Basilica in the Vatican, the Jesuit Sant'Ignazio church in Rome and the Palazzo Montecitorio, designed by Gian Lorenzo Bernini. This design was in line with the king's desire to imitate the Eternal City, and with his ambition to found a "second Rome" at the river Tagus. His envoys in Rome had to provide the king with models and floor plans of many Roman monuments.

Palace of Queluz On of these was the Patriarchal palace in Lisbon. The Piedmontese architect Filippo Juvarra was brought to Lisbon to draw up the plans. But this project was also toned down because Juvarra only stayed for a few months and left against his engagement to London. Other important constructions were :

1729-1748 : the guas Livres aqueduct in Lisbon (by Manuel da Maia, Antonio Canevari and Custdio Vieira), described by contemporaties as the greatest work since the Romans. It provided Lisbon with water, but also the many new monumental fountains built by the Hungarian Carlos Mardel 1728-1732 : the Quinta de S Anto do Tojal (by the Italian architect Antonio Canevari) 1753 : the Opera house of Lisbon (destroyed 1755) (by Giovanni Carlo Sicinio-Bibiena) (completed in 1750) Palace of Necessidades (by Eugenio dos Santos, Custodio Vieira, Manuel da Costa Negreiros and Caetano Tomas de Sousa) from 1747 : the Queluz Palace, the country residence for the king's younger brother (by Mateus Vicente de Oliveira and Jean-Baptiste Robillon). This palace is the country's second major example in Baroque style. However the faade shows already some Rococo details.

Intricately worked faade of the Palcio do Raio in Braga His most spectacular undertaking was however the building in Rome of the St John the Baptist chapel with the single purpose of obtaining the blessing of the pope Benedict XIV for this chapel. The chapel was designed by Luigi Vanvitelli in 1742 and built by Nicola Salvi in the church S Antonio dei Portoghesi. After the benediction, the chapel was disassembled and transported to Lisbon. It was assembled again in 1747 in the S Roque church. It is opulently decorated with porphyry, the rarest marbles and precious stones. Its design already foreshadows the classical revival. A different and more exuberant Baroque style with some Rococo touches, more reminiscent of the style in Central Europe, developed in the northern part of Portugal. The Italian architect Nicolau Nasoni designed the church and the spectacular granite tower of So Pedro dos Clrigos in Porto. One of his successors was the painter and architect Jos de Figueiredo Seixas, who had been one of his disciples. The sanctuary Bom Jesus do Monte near Braga, built by the architect Carlos Luis Ferreira Amarante is a notable example of a pilgrimage site with a monumental, cascading Baroque stairway that climbs 116 metres. This last example already shows the shift in style to Neo-classicism. The Palcio do Raio (by Andr Soares) is an outstanding Baroque-Rococo urban palace with richly decorated faade in Braga. Several country houses and manors in late-Baroque style were built in this period. Typical examples are the homes of the Lobo-Machado family (in Guimares), the Malheiro (Viana do Castelo) and the Mateus (Vila Real).

[edit] Pombaline style (1755-1860)

Main article : Pombaline style

Praa do Comrcio with the arch leading to Augusta street, in Lisbon The 1755 Lisbon earthquake and the subsequent tsunami and fires destroyed many buildings in Lisbon. Joseph I of Portugal and his Prime Minister Sebastio de Melo, Marquis of Pombal hired architects and engineers to rebuild the damaged portions of Lisbon, including the Pombaline Downtown. The Pombaline style is a secular, utilitarian architecture marked by pragmatism. It follows the Plain style of the military engineers, with regular, rational arrangements, mixed with Rococo details and a Neo-classical approach to structure. The Baixa district of Lisbon was rebuilt by Eugnio dos Santos and Carlos Mardel. The Marquis of Pombal imposed strict conditions on the rebuilding. Architectural models were tested by having troops march around them to simulate an earthquake, making the Pombaline one of the first examples of earthquake-resistant construction. The Praa do Comrcio, the Augusta street and the Avenida da Liberdade are notable examples of this architecture. This Square of Commerce was given a regular, rational arrangement in line with the reconstruction of the new Pombaline Downtown, the Baixa. The Pombaline style of architecture is also to be found in Vila Real de Santo Antnio (17734) a new town in the Algarve, built by Reinaldo Manuel dos Santos. The style is clearly visible in the urban arrangement and especially in the main square. In Porto, at the initiative of the prison governor Joo de Almada e Melo, the Rua de S Joo was reconstructed (after 1757), and the Relao law court, the Court of Appeal Gaol (1765) and the prison were rebuilt. The British colony of port traders introduced the Palladian architecture in the Praa da Ribeira (17761782), the Factory House (17851790) and the S Antonio Hospital (1770).

Portuguese modern architecture: buildings at Parque das Naes, Lisbon

[edit] Modern Architecture

Portugals longstanding traditions, geographic isolation, extended period under an authoritarian government, along with a group of very talented architects, have kept Portuguese architecture clean of capricious imitations. Portugal has an architecture that carefully evolved within the local tradition through a balanced process of

absorbing universal influences, until slowly emerging onto the center stage of the architecture world. One of the top architecture schools in the world, known as "Escola do Porto" or School of Porto, is located in Portugal. Its alumni include Fernando Tvora, lvaro Siza (winner of the 1992 Pritzker prize) and Eduardo Souto de Moura (winner of the 2011 Pritzker prize). Its modern heir is the Faculdade de Arquitectura (School of Architecture) of the University of Porto. Although Portuguese architecture is usually associated with the internationally accredited Alvaro Siza, there are others equally responsible for the positive trends in current architecture. "Many Portuguese architects are sons of Siza, but Tavora is a grandfather to all of us." The influence of Sizas own teacher, Fernando Tavora, echoes across generations.[5] The Fundao Calouste Gulbenkian, built in 1960s and designed by Rui Atouguia, Pedro Cid and Alberto Pessoa, is one of the very best, defining examples of 20thcentury Portuguese architecture. In Portugal Toms Taveira is also noteworthy, particularly due to stadium design.[6][7][8] Other renowned Portuguese architects include Pancho Guedes and Gonalo Byrne. Carrilho da Graas Centro de Documentao da Presidncia da Repblica (Documentation Archive of the President of the Portuguese Republic), is one of Lisbons best-kept architectural secrets.[citation needed]

[edit] See also

Azulejo Portuguese pavement

[edit] Footnotes
1. ^ "Portuguese Plain Architecture: Between Spices and Diamonds, 1521-1706" (ISBN 0-8195-4045-5) 2. ^ "Architectura von Ausstellung, Symmetrie und Proportion der Sulen" (Architecture of Exhibition, Symmetry and Proportion of Columns) (1591) 3. ^ Jos Fernandes Pereira. Arquitectura Barroca em Portugal. Instituto de Cultura e Lngua Portuguesa. 1986. 4. ^ Morrogh, Andrew (March 1998). "Guarini and the Pursuit of Originality: The Church for Lisbon and Related Projects". Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians (Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, Vol. 57, No. 1) 57 (1): 629. doi:10.2307/991402. JSTOR 991402. 5. ^ Modern Portugal- Architecture in the Age of Masses 6. ^ (Portuguese) Estdios de Toms Taveira e Souto Moura premiados, Dirio de Notcias (July 8, 2005) 7. ^ Toms Taveira, Geoffrey Broadbent (introduction), Publisher: St Martins Pr (February 1991)

8. ^ (Portuguese) Toms Taveira desenha estdio do Palmeiras no Brasil, Diarioeconomico.com

[edit] References

Kingsley, Karen, Gothic Art, Visigothic Architecture in Spain and Portugal: A Study in Masonry, Documents and Form, 1980; International Census of Doctoral Dissertations in Medieval Art, 19821993 KUBLER, George, y SORIA, Martin, "Art and Architecture in Spain and Portugal and their Dominions, 1500-1800", New York, 1959. Kubler, George, "Portuguese Plain Architecture: Between Spices and Diamonds, 1521-1706 " ; Wesleyan University Press, Middletown, Connecticut 1972; ISBN 0-8195-4045-5 Toman, Rolf - Romanik; Knemann Verlagsgesellschaft mbH, Kln, 1996 (in Dutch translation : Romaanse Kunst : Architectuur, Beeldhouwkunst, Schilderkunst) ISBN 3-89508-449-2 Toman, Rolf - Barock ; Knemann Verlagsgesellschaft mbH, Kln, 1997 (in Dutch translation : Barok : Architectuur, Beeldhouwkunst, Schilderkunst); ISBN 3-89508-919-2 Underwood, D.K. - "The Pombaline Style and International Neoclassicism in Lisbon and Rio de Janeiro."; U. of Pennsylvania Editor, 1988

Manueline
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The Tower of Belm, in Lisbon, is one of the most representative examples of Manueline style. The Manueline (Portuguese: estilo manuelino, IPA: [tilu m nweinu]), or Portuguese late Gothic, is the sumptuous, composite Portuguese style of architectural ornamentation of the first decades of the 16th century, incorporating maritime elements and representations of the discoveries brought from the voyages of Vasco da Gama and Pedro lvares Cabral. This innovative style synthesizes aspects of Late Gothic architecture with influences of the Spanish Plateresque style, Italian urban architecture, and Flemish elements. It marks the transition from Late Gothic to

Renaissance. The construction of churches and monasteries in Manueline was largely financed by proceeds of the lucrative spice trade with Africa and India. The style was given its name, many years later, by Francisco Adolfo de Varnhagen, Viscount of Porto Seguro, in his 1842 book, Noticia historica e descriptiva do Mosteiro de Belem, com um glossario de varios termos respectivos principalmente a architectura gothica, in his description of the Jernimos Monastery. Varnhagen named the style after King Manuel I, whose reign (14951521) coincided with its development. The style was much influenced by the astonishing successes of the voyages of discovery of Portuguese navigators, from the coastal areas of Africa to the discovery of Brazil and the ocean routes to the Far East, drawing heavily on the style and decorations of East Indian temples. Although the period of this style did not last long (from 1490 to 1520), it played an important part in the development of Portuguese art. The influence of the style outlived the king. Celebrating the newly maritime power, it manifested itself in architecture (churches, monasteries, palaces, castles) and extended into other arts such as sculpture, painting, works of art made of precious metals, faience and furniture.

Contents
[hide]

1 Characteristics 2 Examples 3 Famous Manueline Artists o 3.1 Architects o 3.2 Painters 4 See also 5 References

[edit] Characteristics

The window of the Convent of Christ in Tomar is a well known example of Manueline style

Manueline interior of the Jernimos Monastery in Lisbon. This decorative style is characterized by virtuoso complex ornamentation in portals, windows, columns and arcades. In its end period it tended to become excessively exuberant as in Tomar. Several elements appear regularly in these intricately carved stoneworks:

elements used on ships: the armillary sphere (a navigational instrument and the personal emblem of Manuel I and also symbol of the cosmos), spheres, anchors, anchor chains, ropes and cables. elements from the sea, such as shells, pearls and strings of seaweed.

botanical motifs such as laurel branches, oak leaves, acorns, poppy capsules, corncobs, thistles. symbols of Christianity such as the cross of the Order of Christ (former Templar knights), the military order that played a prominent role and helped finance the first voyages of discovery. The cross of this order decorated the sails of the Portuguese ships. elements from newly discovered lands (such as the tracery in the Claustro Real in the Monastery of Batalha, suggesting Islamic filigree work, influenced by buildings in India) columns carved like twisted strands of rope semicircular arches (instead of Gothic pointed arches) of doors and windows, sometimes consisting of three or more convex curves multiple pillars eight-sided capitals lack of symmetry conical pinnacles bevelled crenellations ornate portals with niches or canopies.

[edit] Examples
When King Manuel I died in 1521, he had funded 62 construction projects. However, much original Manueline architecture in Portugal was lost or damaged beyond restoration in the 1755 Lisbon earthquake and subsequent tsunami. In Lisbon, the Ribeira Palace, residence of King Manuel I, and the Hospital Real de Todos os Santos (All-Saints Hospital) were destroyed, along with several churches. The city, however, still has outstanding examples of the style in the Jernimos Monastery (mainly designed by Diogo Boitac and Joo de Castilho) and in the small fortress of the Belm Tower (designed by Francisco de Arruda). Both are located close to each other in the Belm neighbourhood. The portal of the Church of Nossa Senhora da Conceio Velha, in downtown Lisbon, has also survived destruction.

Manueline exterior of the Jernimos Monastery in Lisbon. Outside Lisbon, the church and chapter house of the Convent of the Order of Christ at Tomar (designed by Diogo de Arruda) is a major Manueline monument. In particular, the large window of the chapter house, with its fantastic sculptured organic and twisted rope forms, is one of the most extraordinary achievements of the Manueline style.

Other major Manueline monuments include the arcade screens of the Royal Cloister (designed by Diogo Boitac) and the Unfinished Chapels (designed by Mateus Fernandes) at the Monastery of Batalha and the Royal Palace of Sintra. Other remarkable Manueline buildings include the church of the Monastery of Jesus of Setbal (one of the earliest Manueline churches) (also designed by Diogo Boitac), the Santa Cruz Monastery in Coimbra, the main churches in Goleg, Vila do Conde, Moura, Caminha, Olivenza and portions of the cathedrals of Braga (main chapel), Viseu (rib vaulting of the nave) and Guarda (main portal, pillars, vaulting). Civil buildings in manueline style exist in

vora, home to the vora Royal Palace (1525, by Pedro de Trillo, Diogo de Arruda and Francisco de Arruda) and the Castle of voramonte (1531) Viana do Castelo, Guimares and some other towns.

The style was extended to the decorative arts and spread throughout the Portuguese Empire, to the islands of the Azores, Madeira, enclaves in North Africa, Brazil, Goa in India and even Macau, China. Its influence is apparent in Southern Spain, the Canary Islands, North Africa and the former Spanish colonies of Peru and Mexico.

[edit] Famous Manueline Artists

Tomb of Mateus Fernandes

A piece by Vasco Fernandes

[edit] Architects

Diogo Boitac

Mateus Fernandes Diogo de Arruda

[edit] Painters

Vasco Fernandes Jorge Afonso Cristvo de Figueiredo Garcia Fernandes Gregrio Lopes

[edit] References

Turner, J., Grove Dictionary of Art, MacMillan Publishers Ltd., 1996; ISBN 0-19-517068-7 The Rough Guide to Portugal, March 2005, 11th edition, ISBN 1-84353-438X Smith, Robert C., The Art of Portugal 1500-1800; Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London, 1968 ISBN 0-297-76096-3 Atanzio, A Arte do Manuelino, Lisbon, Presena, 1984.

Cinema of Portugal
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Maria do Mar (1930), directed by Leito de Barros.

Cinema of Europe
By country[show]

Lists[show]

v t e

The Cinema of Portugal has a long tradition, reaching back to the birth of the medium in the late 19th century. In the 1950s, Cinema Novo, (literally "New Cinema") sprang up as a movement concerned with showing realism in film, in the vein of Italian Neorealism and the French New Wave. Directors Manoel de Oliveira and Joo Csar Monteiro have gained Portuguese cinema international attention.

Contents
[hide]

1 Silent films o 1.1 The early days o 1.2 The pioneers and the producing houses o 1.3 The foreign Portuguese cinematography

o 1.4 The new generation 2 Sound films o 2.1 1930s-1940s o 2.2 1950s o 2.3 1960s o 2.4 1970s o 2.5 1980s o 2.6 1990s o 2.7 2000s o 2.8 2010s 3 Festivals 4 See also 5 References 6 Bibliography 7 External links

[edit] Silent films

Portuguese silent film began its course on June 18, 1896, at the Real Colyseu da Rua da Palma n 288, in Lisbon, as Edwin Rousby presented Robert William Paul's Animatograph, using a Teatrograph projector. This places the Portuguese dbut around six months after the Lumire brothers's inaugural presentation in Paris.

[edit] The early days

However, the Portuguese audience was already familiar with photograph projection, first at the "cicloramas", "dioramas" and the "stereoscopic" views and, later, the magic lantern, with the projection of transparent photographs in glass plate then colored. On December 28, 1894, the German photographer Carlos Eisenlohr opened his "Imperial Exhibition" at the galleries of the Avenida Palace Hotel. Beyond the projections already familiar to the Lisbon audience, he presented the great novelty: the live photograph - shown not through an Edison Kinetograph, as it was announced at the time, but by the Elektrotachyscop or Schnellseher, an invention by Ottomar Anschutz, that A. J. Ferreira calls Electro-Tachiscpio Eisenlohr. The device projected images of actions, of a dog passing by or the gallop of a horse, contained in disks of small diameter that produced images of extremely short seconds. In the beginning of 1895, the tobacco shop Tabacaria Neves presents Edison's Kinetoscope (in fact, a copy of said invention, built in London by Robert William Paul, ordered by the Greek George Georgiades, who presented the machine in Lisbon). Unlike the precededing invention, the Kinestoscope provided individual visioning and the film with about 1380 photographs enabled a projection of 20 seconds. The machine that presented the movie session at the Real Colyseu was not the Cinematograph of the Lumire brothers, but rather one of its competitors, the Teatrograph, also by Robert W. Paul, that merely projected. The machine projected

behind the screen, where natural size images appeared for about a minute. The session was very well received and in the upcoming months, many were the machines swirling at the movie theatres of Lisbon, vying for the favour of the movie audience. At the Real Colyseu of the Rua da Palma of Antnio Santos Jnior, on June 18, 1896, Edwin Rousby showed the films of the producing house of British Robert-William Paul, for whom it worked. Those are films of about a minute, "animated views" taken by the operators of the British proucer: "Parisian balls", "The Pont Neuf in Paris", "The Train", "The Serpentine Dance", "A Barber and Shoeshine Store in Washington". Edwin Rousby meets Manuel Maria da Costa Veiga, a photographer with electrical and mechanical skills, who assisted him in preparing his session. Thrilled, Costa Veiga begins acting as an exhibitor, acquiring a projectoscope from Edison that same year and showing films in Lisbon venues. Robert W. Paul will also send his operator Henry Short to Southern Europe, to record the animated views of landscapes enrichening the programme of the English producing house. Short also passes by Portugal, registering several views that, though destined to be shown in London, would be integrated in the program of Rousby's Portuguese sessions, in 1897. The success is overwhelming, prolonging his stays and increasing the sessions. However, when Rousby proceeds with his tour to the Teatro-Circo Prncipe Real, in Oporto, that the animated photograph gains not only an enthusiast but also a professional, who would found Portuguese cinema: Aurlio da Paz dos Reis.

Sada do Pessoal da Fbrica Confiana, the first Portuguese film, by Aurlio Paz dos Reis From July to August, Rousby presents his films at the Teatro do Prncipe Real (currently the Teatro S da Bandeira), without achieving, however, the success of Lisbon.

[edit] The pioneers and the producing houses

Three years after beginning is exhibition business, Costa Veiga purchases a movie camera and registers his first film, Aspectos da Praia de Cascais ("Views of the Cascais beach"), with images of King D. Carlos bathing in Cascais. Costa Veiga

begins recording official visits and other relevant political events of the nation. He founds the first Portuguese producing house, "Portugal Film", headquartered in Algs, close to his home. In 1909 are born, in Lisbon, the "Portuglia Film", of Joo Freire Correia and Manuel Cardoso, financed by D. Nuno de Almada, and the"Empresa Cinematogrfica Ideal" of Jlio Costa. Joo Freire Correia, a photographer, begins his activity by buying a projector for the opening of the "Salo Ideal ao Loreto" in 1904, the first Portuguese movie theatre. He founds his producing company five years later, for which he'll turn several films, such as the Batalha de Flores ("Battle of Flowers") that garnered vast success. He was the operator of O Rapto de Uma Actriz ("The kidnapping of an Actress"), the first scripted Portuguese film, directed by Lino Ferreira in 1907. Freire Correia however directed two documentaries of significant success in 1909: A Cavalaria Portuguesa ("The Portuguese Cavalry") and the O Terramoto de Benavente ("The earthquake of Benavente"). The first showed already some technique on image capture, displaying the prowess of Portuguese cavalry in such a way as to create situations of danger, fictitious, to the audience. The earthquake was filmed in April, having been shown two days later - a remarkable speed - and with the export of 22 copies abroad. Joo Freire Correia would also be responsible for the production of the two versions of Os Crimes de Diogo Alves ("The Crimes of Diogo Alves"), whose direction he entrusted first to Lino Ferreira in 1909 but that remained incomplete, with Joo Tavares a then directing a second version in 1911. Of note still the early attempt at sound films with the incomplete Grisette (1908), using the Gaumont method but with the adaptations by Freire Correia, who attempted to synchronize image and sound. Portuglia produced also the first film from the adaptation of a literary work. Carlota ngela was based in the work with the same name by Camilo Castelo Branco and was directed by Joo Tavares, in 1912. Jlio Costa, partnering with Joo Almeida, acquired the "Salo Ideal" from Freire Correia and Nuno Almada in 1908 and starts the "Empresa Cinematogrfica Ideal", producer and distributor. Remodelled and appropriately refitted, the Salo Ideal presents a predecessor of the talkies, the "Animatgrafo Falado" (Spoken Animatograph): a group of people reads the texts and produces sound in synch with the film's exhibition. That group was made up by the Volunteer Firefighters of Ajuda, of which not only Jlio Costa but also Antnio Silva, the unforgettable actor of the Portuguese Golden Age comedies, were members. While waiting for the construction of his studio at Rua Marqus Ponte de Lima, Jlio Costa begins his activity filming "views". He begins filming features with Chantecler Atraioado ("Chantecler Betrayed") and then with Rainha depois de Morta ("Queen After Dead"), by Carlos Santos, the first Portuguese film with an historic motif. Jlio Costa's company was also a pioneer for having grouped for the first time production, distribution and exhibition. The company would cease activity after a suspicious fire.

In 1918, "Lusitnia Film" is born, a production company with an ambitious project, led by Celestino Soares and Lus Reis Santos. They rework the old studio of Portuglia Film, in So Bento, and begin activities filming documentaries. Still in 1918, two short films are done outdoors by Costa Veiga and directed by young Leito de Barros: Malmequer ("Daisy") and Mal de Espanha ("Evil From Spain"). The shooting of O Homem dos Olhos Tortos ("The man with the Twisted Eyes") begins, based upon a police serial by Reinaldo Ferreira, directed by Leito de Barros. However, due to financial pressures, it would remain incompelte. A well-organized conspiracy would close down the company that intended to film A Severa as its next production. Closed the "cycle of Lisbon", the first Oporto producer is founded, who would ensure for some years the continuous production of cinema in Portugal.

[edit] The foreign Portuguese cinematography

After founding a production company bearing his name in 1910, the Oporto exhibitor Nunes de Mattos, adds "Invicta Film" to its corporate name, two years later. The company films current events and documentaries, among them O Naufrgio do Silurian ("The Sinking of the Silurian"), of which 108 copies will be shipped to Europe. In November 1917, Nunes de Mattos decides to found the second "Invicta Film, Lda", increasing the number of partners and the equity. Henrique Alegria takes over the Art Direction and they acquire the Quinta da Prelada, in Oporto, where the studios and laboratories of the producer are to be built. In 1918 they leave for Paris, from where they bring a technical team from the Path studios. The team is led by Georges Pallu, the director who would author virtually all the feature films of the Oporto producing house. In the team were also Andr Lecointe, architect-decorator; Albert Durot, camera operator and Georges and Valentine Coutable - the couple who would be, respectively, the Chief Lab and Chief Editor. Durot would later be replaced by Maurice Laumann, also from Path. For six years, "Invicta Film" produces several films and documentaries, enrichening the Portuguese film landscape. In 1924, however, the company shows severe financial distress, leading to laying off all its personnel and ensuring only the lab work. They would shutdown in 1928. Rino Lupo is another milestone of cinematography. He shows up through Georges Pallu, who accepts his direction of Mulheres da Beira ("Women from Beira"), after a tale by Abel Botelho, with photography by Artur Costa de Macedo. Though the financial disagreements and the unfulfilment of deadlines force his removal from the company, Rino Lupo still directs Os Lobos ("The Wolves"), another pearl of the Portuguese silent cinema. He'll direct other movies, however without the quality of the earlier works. Three other companies are set up in the 20s to fill in the gap from the brief existence of the Portuguese studios: "Caldevilla Film", "Fortuna Film" and "Ptria Film". These also follow the Portuguese motif, hiring foreign technicians to use their experience in

the Portuguese production. Though the directors brought from French production houses were presented as recognised stars in their countries, in fact, they made use of that limelight to progress their careers without having the claimed background. Raul de Caldevilla founds in 1920 his "Caldevilla Film", placing production in Lisbon, at Quinta das Conchas, in Lumiar. Frenchman Maurice Mariaud is the director chosen for the works Os Faroleiros ("The Lighthouse Men") and As Pupilas do Senhor Reitor ("The Wards of the Dean"), for its only two productions. The company would shut down due to acute disagreement among partners due to financial matters. Virgnia de Castro e Almeida, a writer of children's books, founds in Lisbon the studio "Fortuna Film". She hires a French lawyer, Roger Lion, to direct productions based upon her books. With him, he brings actress Gil-Clary, his wife, Maxudian and the cameramen Daniel Quintin and Marcel Bizot. They shoot A Sereia de Pedra ("The Stone Mermaid") and Olhos da Alma ("Eyes of the Soul"), the latter shot in Nazar, in what was its first screen register. Henrique Alegria leaves "Invicta Film", in 1922, to found "Ptria Film" with Raul Lopes Freire. They buy Quinta das Conchas, where Maurice Mariaud directs O Fado ("The Fado"). This company too would cease to operate after shooting Aventuras de Agapito - Fotografia Comprometedora ("Adventures of Agapito - Compromising Photograph"), the fourth film directed by Roger Lion in Portugal.

[edit] The new generation

At the end of the roaring twenties, the "young Turks" begin the regency of the cinema estates, with the return of Leito de Barros and the emergence of young Antnio Lopes Ribeiro (who would soon launch Manoel de Oliveira), Jorge Brum do Canto, Chianca de Garcia and Arthur Duarte. Their agenda is to move away from the previous productions, taking inspiration in the esthetic designs of the French, German and Russian cinemas. The casts also support this disruptive move, bringing to the screen the stars of the Revista, by contrast to the spoken theatre. Stars such as Eduardo Brazo, Brunilde Jdice, Antnio Pinheiro or Pato Moniz fade, and a new school begins with the presence of Vasco Santana, Antnio Silva, Maria Matos, Ribeirinho or Maria Olguim. At the same time, the relationship of the State with cinema was also to change from the end of the 20s. The installed powers understood these youngsters dominated the cinema press and influenced masses with the perspectives and the way the conveyed their messages, a privileged means of propaganda for the new regime. Antnio Lopes Ribeiro launches his career benefiting from the 100 metres Law. He films Uma Batida em Malpique ("A huntin Malpique") and Bailando ao Sol ("Dancing in the Sun") (1928), the latter with photography by Anbal Contreiras. He will later depart with Leito de Barros in a visit through the European studios, where he'll meet Dziga Vertov and Eiseinstein.

Leito de Barros, who screens at Lopes Ribeiro's home the 9,5 mm film he had made with his brother-in-law in Nazar, is spurred and returns to filming with Nazar, Praia de Pescadores ("Nazar, Beach of Fishermen"). Again in Nazar, Leito de Barros films Maria do Mar ("Mary of the Sea"), the second ethnofiction in the history of cinema, a milestone for the bleak Portuguese cinematography esthetics. He also directs Lisboa, Crnica Anedtica ("Lisbon, an Anectodal Chronicle") (1929), where in a gathering of multiple city scenes, he displays Chaby Pinheiro, repeaters Adelina Abranches and Alves da Cunha, Nascimento Fernandes, and the unforgettable Vasco Santana and Beatriz Costa. Inspired by Marcel l'Herbier, Jorge Brum do Canto opens with A Dana dos Paroxismos ("The Dance of the Paroxisms") (1928), with his own script and where he plays the main role. It opens with a private session in 1930, and will only be seen again in 1984. Manoel de Oliveira shoots Douro, Faina Fluvial ("Douro, River Works"), and Antnio Lopes Ribeiro persuades him to take it to the V International Critics Congress, where it receives the praise of Pirandello. But will again be Leito de Barros who will leave a print in movie history, with A Severa, based upon the work by Jlio Dantas, with the direction of the first Portuguese talkie. A new era of Portuguese cinema was to begin.

[edit] Sound films

[edit] 1930s-1940s
With the beginning of the Estado Novo right-wing dictatorship, in 1933, a new genre of film started, based on the comedy and musical genres, famously the " A Comdia Portuguesa", with focus in contemporary life and more light matters, and the intention of taking the minds of the people from the difficult times faced. The Golden Age, as it is known, began that same year with the release of A Cano de Lisboa, and dominated the country for the next two decades, eventually fading away during the 1950s and giving way to the Novo Cinema in the 1960s. Another famous titles from this popular era are Aldeia da Roupa Branca (1938), O Ptio das Cantigas and O Pai Tirano (1941), O Costa do Castelo (1943), A Menina da Rdio (1944) and O Leo da Estrela (1947). During this period historic films also emerged as an important genre in the Portuguese industry, as a medium for the state party to develop its nationalist propaganda and conservative values, namely As Pupilas do Senhor Reitor (1935), Bocage (1936), Amor de Perdio (1943), Ins de Castro (1945), Cames (1946) and Frei Lus de Sousa (1950). A sub-genre of these nationalist films were those related to the culture of Fado and the rise to popularity of Amlia Rodrigues, the greatest name of the Portuguese song. Some of those films are Capas Negras and Fado, Histria de Uma Cantadeira, both from 1947.

1942 saw the release of Aniki-Bb, the first full-length non-documentary film from Manoel de Oliveira, who would only return to fiction film-making twenty-one years later. This film is a milestone in Portuguese film not only because it differ from the tone most in vogue at the time, dealing with social issues, but also because it can be stated that it predated the first Italian neo-realism movies for a few years.

[edit] 1950s
The Fifties were mainly years of stagnation with the continuity of the same movies made in the earlier decades, government censorship and glorification of the colonial empire - see Chaimite (1953); although the first signs of the winds to come were being given by films like Saltimbancos (1951) and Nazar (1952), both directed by Manuel Guimares and inspired by the Italian neo-realism. In 1958 opens the Portuguese Cinematheque with a retrospective of American movies that inspired the French filmmakers of the Nouvelle Vague, an event lauded by then new critics Alberto Seixas Santos e Antnio Pedro Vasconcelos.

[edit] 1960s
The first year of the new decade brought a new generation, fronted by Dom Roberto (1962), Os Verdes Anos and Pssaros de Asas Cortadas (1963). This new fase was named Cinema Novo or Novo Cinema (New Cinema), referring to Portuguese cinema made between 1963 and the revolution in 1974 by directors such as Fernando Lopes, Paulo Rocha or Antnio da Cunha Telles, amongst others. Like other new waves of the period, the influence of Italian Neo-Realism and the burgeoning ideas of the Nouvelle Vague can be felt keenly. During the following years appeared films like Belarmino (1964), Domingo Tarde (1965), Sete balas para Selma (1967) and O Cerco (1969). The term Novo Cinema is now used to avoid confusion with the Brazilian movement of the same name. This movement gains particular relevance after the Carnation Revolution, pursuing certain experiences of the French New Wave, both in the field of visual anthropology and of political cinema. The generation of the seventies, taking advantage of the new liberties, explores realism and legend, politics and ethnography, until the late eighties, in conjunction with some directors of the liberated colonies, such as Flora Gomes. Portugal has a notable tradition in the field of docufiction and ethnofiction since Leito de Barros, a contemporary to Robert Flaherty.

[edit] 1970s [edit] 1980s [edit] 1990s [edit] 2000s

In 2005, there were 13 Portuguese feature films released, one of them an animation co-produced with Spain, Midsummer Dream. The most successful film this year was O Crime do Padre Amaro, with more than 300 000 viewers, grossing more than 1.3 million euros. The following year, 22 feature films were released, five of them documentaries. The most successful film this year was Filme da Treta, with more than 270 000 viewers, grossing more than 1 million euros. In 2006 there were 19 feature films produced. In 2007, 15, in 2008, 21 and in 2009 23.[1]

[edit] 2010s
In 2010 Portugal produced 22 feature films.[2][1] In 2011, there were a total of 19 feature films produced.[3][1] The most commercially successful Portuguese film of the year was Blood of My Blood by Joo Canijo with 20,953 admissions and grossing 97,784.72.[4] The share of Portuguese cinema in the Portuguese box office was 0.7%.[5] On the artistic side, one of the most successful films was Joaquim Sapinho's This Side of Resurrection, premiered at the Visions programme at the Toronto International Film Festival with a United States premiere at the Harvard Film Archive. As of 11 July 2012, the highest grossing Portuguese film of the year is Florbela with 174,543.51.[6] The Lines of Wellington will be in competition for the Golden Lion at the 69th Venice International Film Festival. [7]

[edit] Festivals

Caminhos do Cinema Portugus Fantasporto Festival Audiovisual Black & White

[edit] See also

List of Portuguese films List of Portuguese film directors List of Portuguese film actors Cinema of the world The School of Reis

[edit] References
1. ^ a b c "Top 50 countries ranked by number of feature films produced, 20052010". Screen Australia. Screen Australia. http://www.screenaustralia.gov.au/research/statistics/acompfilms.asp. Retrieved 2012-7-14. 2. ^ "OBRAS CINEMATOGRFICAS PRODUZIDAS - 2010" (in Portuguese). Instituto do Cinema e do Audiovisual. Instituto do Cinema e do Audiovisual. http://www.ica-ip.pt/Admin/Files/Documents/contentdoc1893.pdf. Retrieved 2012-714.

3. ^ "OBRAS CINEMATOGRFICAS PRODUZIDAS - 2011" (in Portuguese). Instituto do Cinema e do Audiovisual. Instituto do Cinema e do Audiovisual. http://www.ica-ip.pt/Admin/Files/Documents/contentdoc2189.pdf. Retrieved 2012-714. 4. ^ "Cinema Portugal 2011 - Dados Provisrios" (in Portuguese). ICA. http://www.icaip.pt/Admin/Files/Documents/contentdoc2204.pdf. Retrieved 2012-02-05. 5. ^ Agncia Lusa (2012-02-01). "Nova lei de cinema inclui modelo de financiamento mais "dialogante"" (in Portuguese). i. http://www.ionline.pt/boa-vida/nova-leicinema-inclui-modelo-financiamento-mais-dialogante. Retrieved 2012-02-05. 6. ^ "RANKING DOS FILMES NACIONAIS ESTREADOS - 2012" (in Portuguese). Instituto do Cinema e do Audiovisual. Instituto do Cinema e do Audiovisual. http://www.ica-ip.pt/Admin/Files/Documents/contentdoc2187.pdf. Retrieved 2012-714. 7. ^ "Venezia 69". labiennale.org. http://www.labiennale.org/en/cinema/festival/lineup/offsel/venezia69/venezia_69.html?nocache=true&currentpage=2. Retrieved 2012-7-28.

Ribeiro, Flix O Cinema Portugus antes do Sonoro, Esboo Histriconema Portugus, Terra Livre, Lisbon, Portugal, 1978. Ribeiro, Flix, Panorama do Cinema Portugus, Lisbon, Portugal. Bandeira, Jos Gomes, Porto: 100 anos de cinema portugus, Cmara Municipal do Porto, Porto, Portugal, 1996. Antunes, Joo and Matos-Cruz, Jos de, Cinema Portugus 1896-1998, Lusomundo, Lisbon, Portugal, 1997. Duarte, Fernando, Primitivos do Cinema Portugus, ed. Cinecultura, Lisbon, Portugal, 1960. Faria de Almeida, M., Resumo da Histria do Cinema, RTP Centro de Formao, Lisbon, Portugal, 1982. Ferreira, Antnio J., O Cinema Chegou a Portugal, - Palestra Baseada no Livro A Fotografia Animada em Portugal 1894-1895-1896-1897 - 1896. Ferreira, Antnio J., A Fotografia Animada em Portugal, 1894-1896-1897, ed. Cinemateca Portuguesa, Lisbon, Portugal, 1986. Nobre, Roberto, Singularidades do Cinema Portugus, Portuglia Editora, Lisbon, Portugal. Pina, Lus de, Histria do Cinema Portugus, Coleco Saber n190, Publicaes Europa-Amrica, Lisboa, 1986. Pina, Lus de, Aventura do Cinema Portugus, ed. Vega, Lisbon, Portugal, 1977 Pina, Lus de, Documentarismo Portugus, Instituto Portugus de Cinema, 1977. Pina, Lus de, Panorama do Cinema Portugus, Terra Livre, Lisbon, Portugal, 1978. Silent film at Amor de Perdio.

Portuguese literature
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search This is a survey of Portuguese literature. The Portuguese language was developed gradually from the Vulgar language (i.e. Vulgar Latin) spoken in the countries which formed part of the Roman Empire and, both in morphology and syntax, it represents an organic transformation of Latin without the direct intervention of any foreign tongue. The sounds, grammatical forms, and syntactical types, with a few exceptions, are derived from Latin, but the vocabulary has absorbed a number of Germanic and Arabic words, and a few have Celtic origin. Before the close of the Middle Ages the language threatened to become almost as abbreviated as French, but learned writers, in their passion for antiquity, reapproximated the vocabulary to Latin. The Renaissance commenced a separation between literary men and the people, between the written and spoken tongue, which with some exceptions lasted until the beginning of the 19th century. Then the Romanticists went back to tradition and drew on the poetry and every day speech of the people, and, thanks to the writings of such men as Almeida Garrett and Camilo Castelo Branco, the literary language became national once again.

Contents
[hide]

1 Birth of a literary language o 1.1 Verse o 1.2 Prose 2 Fifteenth century o 2.1 Prose o 2.2 Poetry 3 Early sixteenth century o 3.1 Pastoral Poetry o 3.2 Drama 4 First classical phase: The Renaissance o 4.1 Lyric and epic poetry o 4.2 The classical plays o 4.3 Prose 5 Second Classical Phase: Baroque o 5.1 Lyric Poetry o 5.2 Prose 6 Third Classical Phase: NeoClassicism o 6.1 The Academies o 6.2 The Arcadians o 6.3 Brazilian Poetry o 6.4 Prose o 6.5 Drama

7 Romanticism and Realism o 7.1 Poetry o 7.2 Drama o 7.3 The Novel o 7.4 Other prose 8 Examples of Portuguese literature o 8.1 Lus Vaz de Cames o 8.2 Ea de Queiroz o 8.3 Fernando Pessoa o 8.4 Antero de Quental o 8.5 Alexandre O'Neill o 8.6 Jos Saramago 9 See also 10 External links

[edit] Birth of a literary language

The Pergaminho Sharrer ("Sharrer Parchment"), containing songs by King Dinis I.

[edit] Verse
Main articles: Trovadorismo and List of Galician-Portuguese troubadours It has been argued (by great early scholars such as Henry Roseman Lang and Carolina Michalis de Vasconcellos) that an indigenous popular poetry existed before the beginning of the written record, although the first datable poems (a handful between around 1200 and 1225) show influences from Provence. These poems were composed in a language called Galician-Portuguese (or Galego-Portuguese), the common ancestor of modern Galician and Portuguese. The first known venues of poetic activity were aristocratic courts in Galicia and the North of Portugal (we know this thanks to the recent work of the Portuguese historian Antonio Resende de Oliveira). After that the center shifted to the court of Alfonso X (The Wise King), King of Castile and Len (etc.). Some of the same poets (and others) practiced their craft in the court of King Alfonso III, who had been educated in France. The main manuscript sources for Galician-Portuguese verse are the Cancioneiro da Ajuda probably a late 13th century manuscript, the Cancioneiro da Vaticana and the Cancioneiro da Biblioteca Nacional (also called Cancioneiro Colocci-Brancuti). Both these latter codices were copied in Rome at the behest of the Italian humanist Angelo Colocci, probably around 1525.

There was a late flowering during the reign of King Dinis I (12611325), a very learned man, whose output is the largest preserved (137 texts). The main genres practiced were the male-voiced cantiga d'amor, the female-voiced cantiga d'amigo (though all the poets were male) and the poetry of insult, called cantigas d'escarnio e maldizer (songs of scorn and insult). This 13th-century Court poetry, which deals mainly with love and personal insult (often wrongly called satire), by no means derives entirely from Provenal models and conventions (as is often said). Most scholars and critics favor the cantigas d'amigo, which probably were "rooted in local folksong" (Henry Roseman Lang, 1894), and in any event are the largest surviving body of female-voiced love lyric that has survived from ancient or medieval Europe. The total corpus of medieval Galician-Portuguese lyric, excluding the Cantigas de Santa Maria, consists of around 1,685 texts. In addition to the large manuscripts named above, we also have a few songs with music in the Vindel Parchment, which contains melodies for six cantigas d'amigo of Martin Codax, and the Pergaminho Sharrer, a fragment of a folio with seven cantigas d'amor of King Dinis. In both these manuscripts the poems are the same we find in the larger codices and moreover in the same order.

Musicians in a miniature of the Cancioneiro da Ajuda. By the middle of the 15th century troubadour verse was effectively dead, replaced by a limper form of court poetry, represented in the Cancioneiro Geral compiled in the 16th century by poet and humanist Garcia de Resende. Meanwhile the people were elaborating a ballad poetry of their own, the body of which is known as the Romanceiro. It consists of lyrico-narrative poems treating of war, chivalry, adventure, religious legends, and the sea, many of which have great beauty and contain traces of the varied civilizations which have existed in the peninsula. When the Court poets had exhausted the artifices of Provenal lyricism, they imitated the poetry of the people, giving it a certain vogue which lasted until the Classical Renaissance. It was then thrust into the background, and though cultivated by a few, it remained unknown to men of letters until the nineteenth century, when Almeida-Garrett began his literary revival and collected folk poems from the mouths of the peasantry.

[edit] Prose
Prose developed later than verse and first appeared in the 13th century in the shape of short chronicles, lives of saints, and genealogical treatises called Livros de Linhagens. In Portuguese chanson de geste has survived to this day, but there are medieval poems

of romantic adventure given prose form; for example, the Demanda do Santo Graal (Quest for the Holy Grail) and "Amadis of Gaul". The first three books of the latter probably received their present shape from Joo Lobeira, a troubadour of the end of the 13th century, though this original has been lost and only a 16th-century Spanish version remains. The Book of Aesop also belongs to this period. Though the cultivated taste of the Renaissance affected to despise the medieval stories, it adopted them with alterations as a homage to classical antiquity. Hence came the cycle of the "Palmerins" and the Chronica do Emperador Clarimundo of Joo de Barros. The medieval romance of chivalry gave place to the pastoral novel, the first example of which is the Saudades of Bernardim Ribeiro, followed by the Diana of Jorge de Montemayor, a Portuguese writer who wrote in Spanish. Later in the sixteenth century Gonalo Fernandes Trancoso, a fascinating storyteller, produced his Historias de Proveito e Exemplo.

[edit] Fifteenth century

[edit] Prose
A new epoch in literature dates from the Revolution of 1383-1385. King John I wrote a book of the chase, his sons, King Duarte and D. Pedro, composed moral treatises, and an anonymous scribe told with charming navet the story of the heroic Nuno Alvares Pereira in the Chronica do Condestavel. The line of the chroniclers which is one of the boasts of Portuguese literature began with Ferno Lopes, who compiled the chronicles of the reigns of Kings Pedro I, Fernando, and John I. He combined a passion for accurate statement with a special talent for descriptive writing and portraiture, and with him a new epoch dawns. Azurara, who succeeded him in the post of official chronicler, and wrote the Chronicle of Guinea and chronicles of the African wars, is an equally reliable historian, whose style is marred by pedantry and moralizing. His successor, Ruy de Pina, avoids these defects and, though not an artist like Lopes, gives a useful record of the reigns of Kings Duarte, Alfonso V, and John II. His history of the latter monarch was appropriated by the poet Garcia de Resende, who adorned it, adding many anecdotes he had learned during his intimacy with John, and issued it under his own name.

[edit] Poetry
The introduction of Italian poetry, especially that of Petrarch, into the peninsula led to a revival of Spanish verse, which dominated Portugal throughout the fifteenth century. Constable Dom Pedro, friend of the Marquis of Santillana, wrote almost entirely in Castilian and is the first representative of the Spanish influence which imported from Italy the love of allegory and reverence for classical antiquity. The court poetry of some three hundred knights and gentlemen of the time of Alfonso V and John II is contained in the "Cancioneiro Geral", compiled by Resende and inspired by Juan de Mena, Jorge Manrique, and other Spaniards. The subjects of these mostly artificial verses are love and satire. Among the few that reveal special talent and genuine poetical feeling are Resende's lines on the death of D. Ignez de Castro, the "Fingimento de Amores" of Diogo Brando, and the "Coplas" of D. Pedro. Three names appear in the "Cancioneiro" which were destined to create a literary revolution, those of Bernardim Ribeiro, Gil Vicente, and S de Miranda.

[edit] Early sixteenth century

[edit] Pastoral Poetry
Portuguese pastoral poetry is more natural and sincere than that of the other nations because Ribeiro, the founder of the bucolic school, sought inspiration in the national serranilhas, but his eclogues, despite their feeling and rhythmic harmony, are surpassed by the "Crisfal" of Christovo Falco. These and the eclogues and sententious "Cartas" of S de Miranda are written in versos de arte mayor, and the popular medida velha (as the national metre was afterwards called to distinguish it from the Italian endecasyllable), continued to be used by Camoens in his so-called minor works, by Bandarra for his prophecies, and by Gil Vicente.

[edit] Drama
Though Gil Vicente did not originate dramatic representations, he is the father of the Portuguese stage. Of his forty-four pieces, fourteen are in Portuguese, eleven in Castilian, the remainder bilingual, and they consist of autos, or devotional works, tragicomedies, and farces. Beginning in 1502 with religious pieces, conspicuous among them being "Auto da Alma" and the famous trilogy of the "Barcas", he soon introduces the comic and satirical element by way of relief and for moral ends, and, before the close of his career in 1536, has arrived at pure comedy, as in "Ignez Pereira" and the "Floresta de Enganos", and developed the study of character. The plots are simple, the dialogue spirited, the lyrics often of finished beauty, and while Gil Vicente appeared too early to be a great dramatist, his plays mirror to perfection the types, customs, language, and daily life of all classes. The playwrights who followed him had neither superior talents nor court patronage and, attacked by the classical school for their lack of culture and by the Inquisition for their grossness, they were reduced to entertaining the lower class at country fairs and festivals.

[edit] First classical phase: The Renaissance

The Renaissance produced a pleiad of distinguished poets, historians, critics, antiquaries, theologians, and moralists which made the sixteenth century a golden age.

[edit] Lyric and epic poetry

S de Miranda introduced Italian forms of verse and raised the tone of poetry. He was followed by Antnio Ferreira, a superior stylist, by Diogo Bernardes, and Andrade Caminha, but the Quinhentistas tended to lose spontaneity in their imitation of classical models, though the verse of Frei Agostinho da Cruz is an exception. The genius of Lus de Cames, called "Camoens" in English, led him to fuse the best elements of the Italian and popular muse, thus creating a new poetry. Imitators arose in the following centuries, but most of their epics are little more than chronicles in verse. They include three by Jernimo Corte-Real, and one each by Pereira Brando, Francisco de Andrade, Rodriguez Lobo, Pereira de Castro, S de Menezes, and Garcia de Mascarenhas.

[edit] The classical plays

S de Miranda endeavoured also to reform the drama and, shaping himself on Italian models, wrote the "Estrangeiros". Jorge Ferreira de Vasconcellos had produced in "Eufrosina" the first prose play, but the comedies of S and Antonio Ferreira are artificial and stillborn productions, though the latter's tragedy, "Ignez de Castro", if dramatically weak, has something of Sophocles in the spirit and form of the verse.

[edit] Prose
The best prose work of the sixteenth century is devoted to history and travel. Joo de Barros in his "Decadas", continued by Diogo do Couto, described with mastery the deeds achieved by the Portuguese in the discovery and conquest of the lands and seas of the Orient. Damio de Gois, humanist and friend of Erasmus, wrote with rare independence on the reign of King Manuel the Fortunate. Bishop Osorio treated of the same subject in Latin, but his interesting "Cartas" are in the vulgar tongue. Among others who dealt with the East are Castanheda, Antonio Galvo, Gaspar Correia, Bras de Albuquerque, Frei Gaspar da Cruz, and Frei Joo dos Santos. The chronicles of the kingdom were continued by Francisco de Andrade and Frei Bernardo da Cruz, and Miguel Leito de Andrade compiled an interesting volume of "Miscellanea". The travel literature of the period is too large for detailed mention: Persia, Syria, Abyssinia, Florida, and Brazil were visited and described and Father Lucena compiled a classic life of St. Francis Xavier, but the "Peregrination" of Mendes Pinto, a typical Conquistador, is worth all the story books put together for its extrordinary adventures told in a vigorous style, full of colour and life, while the "Historia TragicoMaritima", a record of notable shipwrecks between 1552 and 1604, has good specimens of simple anonymous narrative. The dialogues of Samuel Usque, a Lisbon Jew, also deserve mention. Religious subjects were usually treated in Latin, but among moralists who used the vernacular were Frei Heitor Pinto, Bishop Arraez, and Frei Thome de Jesus, whose "Trabalhos de Jesus" has appeared in many languages.

[edit] Second Classical Phase: Baroque

The general inferiority of seventeenth-century literature to that of the preceding age has been blamed on the new royal absolutism, the Inquisition, the Index, and the exaggerated humanism of the Jesuits who directed higher education; nevertheless, had a man of genius appeared he would have overcome all obstacles. In fact letters shared in the national decline. The taint of Gongorism and Marinism attacked all the Seiscentistas, as may be seen in the "Fenix Renascida", and rhetoric conquered style. The Revolution of 1640 liberated Portugal, but could not undo the effects of the sixty years' union with Spain. The use of Spanish continued among the upper class and was preferred by many authors who desired a larger audience. Spain had given birth to great writers for whom the Portuguese forgot the earlier ones of their own land. The foreign influence was strongest in the drama. The leading Portuguese playwrights wrote in Spanish, and in the national tongue only poor religious pieces and a witty comedy by D. Francisco Manuel de Mello, "Auto do Fidalgo Aprendiz", were produced. The numerous Academies which arose with exotic names aimed at raising the level of letters, but they spent themselves is discussing ridiculous theses and

determined the triumph of pedantry and bad taste. Yet though culteranismo and conceptismo infected nearly everyone, the century did not lack its big names.

[edit] Lyric Poetry

Melodious verses relieve the dullness of the pastoral romances of Rodriguez Lobo, while his "Corte na Aldea" is a book of varied interest in elegant prose. The versatile D. Francisco Manuel de Mello, in addition to his sonnets on moral subjects, wrote pleasing imitations of popular romances, but is at his best in a reasoned but vehement "Memorial to John IV", in the witty "Apologos Dialogaes", and in the homely philosophy of the "Carta de Guia de Casados, prose classics. Other poets of the period are Soror Violante do Ceo, and Frei Jeronymo Vahia, convinced Gongorists, Frei Bernardo de Brito with the "Sylvia de Lizardo", and the satirists, D. Thomas de Noronha and Antonio Serro de Castro.

[edit] Prose
The century had a richer output in prose than in verse, and history, biography, sermons, and epistolary correspondence all flourished. Writers on historical subjects were usually friars who worked in their cells and not, as in the sixteenth century, travelled men and eye-witnesses of the events they describe. They occupied themselves largely with questions of form and are better stylists than historians. Among the five contributors to the ponderous "Monarchia Lusitana", only the conscientious Frei Antonio Brando fully realized the importance of documentary evidence. Frei Bernardo de Brito begins his work with the creation and ends it where he should have begun; he constantly mistakes legend for fact, but was a patient investigator and vigorous narrator. Frei Luis de Sousa, the famous stylist, worked up existing materials into the classical hagiography "Vida de D. Frei Bertholameu dos Martyres" and "Annaes d'el Rei D. Joo III. Manoel de Faria y Sousa, historian and arch-commentator of Camoens, by a strange irony of fate chose Spanish as his vehicle, as did Mello for his classic account of the Catalonian War, while Jacintho Freire de Andrade told in grandiloquent language the story of justice-loving viceroy, D. Joo de Castro. Ecclesiastical eloquence was at its best in the seventeenth century and the pulpit filled the place of the press of to-day. The originality and imaginative power of his sermons are said to have won for Father Antonio Vieira in Rome the title of "Prince of Catholic Orators" and though they and his letters exhibit some of the prevailing faults of taste, he is nonetheless great both in ideas and expression. The discourses and devotional treatises of the Oratorian Manuel Bernardes, who was a recluse, have a calm and sweetness that we miss in the writings of a man of action like Vieira and, while equally rich, are purer models of classic Portuguese prose. He is at his best in "Luz e Calor" and the "Nova Floresta". Letter writing is represented by such master hands as D. Francisco Manuel de Mello in familiar epistles, Frei Antonio das Chagas in spiritual, and by five short but eloquent documents of human affection, the "Cartas de Marianna Alcoforada".

[edit] Third Classical Phase: NeoClassicism

Affectation continued to mark the literature of the first half of the eighteenth century, but signs of a change gradually appeared and ended in that complete literary reformation known as the Romantic Movement. Distinguished men who fled abroad to escape the prevailing despotism did much for intellectual progress by encouragement and example. Verney criticized the obsolete educational methods and exposed the literary and scientific decadence in the "Verdadeiro Methodo de Estudar", while the various Academies and Arcadias, wiser than their predecessors, worked for purity of style and diction, and translated the best foreign classics.

[edit] The Academies

The Academy of History, established by John V in 1720 in imitation of the French Academy, published fifteen volumes of learned "Memoirs" and laid the foundations for a critical study of the annals of Portugal, among its members being Caetano de Sousa, author of the volumious "Historia da Casa Real", and the bibliographer Barbosa Machado. The Royal Academy of Sciences, founded in 1780, continued the work and placed literary criticism on a sounder basis, but the principal exponents of belles-lettres belonged to the Arcadias.

[edit] The Arcadians

Of these the most important was the Arcadia Ulisiponense established in 1756 by the poet Cruz e Silva--"to form a school of good example in eloquence and poetry"--and it included the most considered writers of the time. Garo composed the "Cantata de Dido", a classic gem, and many excellent sonnets, odes, and epistles. The bucolic verse of Quita has the tenderness and simplicity of that of Bernardin Ribeiro, while in the mock-heroic poem, "Hyssope", Cruz e Silva satirizes ecclesiastical jealousies, local types, and the prevailing gallomania with real humour. Intestine disputes led to the dissolution of the Arcadia in 1774, but it had done good service by raising the standards of taste and introducing new poetical forms. Unfortunately its adherents were too apt to content themselves with imitating the ancient classics and the Quinhentistas and they adopted a cold, reasoned style of expression, without emotion or colouring. Their whole outlook was painfully academic. Many of the Arcadians followed the example of a latter-day Maecenas, the Conde de Ericeira, and endeavoured to nationalize the pseudo-classicism which obtained in France. In 1790 the "New Arcadia" came into being and had in Bocage a man who, under other conditions, might have been a great poet. His talent led him to react against the general mediocrity and though he achieved no sustained flights, his sonnets vie with those of Camoens. He was a master of short improvised lyrics as of satire, which he used to effect in the "Pena de Talio" against Agostinho de Macedo. This turbulent priest constituted himself a literary dictator and in "Os Burros" surpassed all other bards in invective, moreover he sought to supplant the Lusiads by a tasteless epic, "Oriente". He, however, introduced the didactic poem, his odes reach a high level, and his letters and political pamphlets display learning and versatility, but his influence on letters was hurtful. The only other Arcadian worthy of mention is Curvo Semedo, but the "Dissidents", a name given to those poets who remained outside the Arcadias, include three men who show independence and a sense of reality, Jos Anastacio da Cunha, Nicolo Tolentino, and Francisco Manoel de Nascimento, better known as Filinto Elysio. The first versified in a philosophic and

tender strain, the second sketched the custom and follies of the time in quintilhas of abundant wit and realism, the third spent a long life of exile in Paris in reviving the cult of the sixteenth-century poets, purified the language of Gallicisms and enriched it by numerous works, original and translated. Though lacking imagination, his contos, or scenes of Portuguese life, strike a new note of reality, and his blank verse translation of the "Martyrs" of Chateaubriand is a high performance. Shortly before his death he became a convert to the Romantic Movement, for whose triumph in the person of Almeida-Garrett he had prepared the way.

[edit] Brazilian Poetry

During the eighteenth century the colony of Brazil began to contribute to Portuguese letters. Manuel da Costa wrote a number of Petrarchian sonnets, Manuel Incio da Silva Alvarenga showed himself an ardent lyricist and cultivator of form, Toms Antnio Gonzaga became famous by the harmonious verses of his love poem "Marlia de Dirceu", while the "Poesias sacras" of Antnio Pereira Sousa Caldas have a certain mystical charm though metrically hard. In epic poetry the chief name is that of Baslio da Gama, whose "O Uraguai" deals with the struggle between the Portuguese and the Paraguay Indians. It is written in blank verse and has some notable episodes. The "Caramuru" of Santa Rita Duro begins with the discovery of Bahia and contains, in a succession of pictures, the early history of Brazil. The passages descriptive of native customs are well written and these poems are superior to anything of the kind produced contemporaneously by the mother country.

[edit] Prose
The prose of the century is mainly dedicated to scientific subjects, but the letters of Antonio da Costa, Antonio Ribeiro Sanches, and Alexandre de Gusmo have literary value and those of the celebrated Carvalheiro d'Oliveira, if not so correct, are even more informing.

[edit] Drama
Though a Court returned to Lisbon in 1640, it preferred, for one hundred and fifty years, Italian opera and French plays to vernacular representations. Early in the eighteenth century several authors sprung from the people vainly attempted to found a national drama. Their pieces mostly belong to low comedy. The "Operas Portuguezas" of Antonio Jos da Silva, produced between 1733 and 1741, have a real comic strength and a certain originality, and, like those of Nicolau Luiz, exploit with wit the faults and foibles of the age. The latter divided his attention between heroic comedies and comedies de capa y espada and, though wanting in ideas and taste, they enjoyed a long popularity. At the same time the Arcadia endeavoured to raise the standard of the stage, drawing inspiration from the contemporary French drama, but its members lacked dramatic talent and achieved little. Garo wrote two bright comedies, Quita some stillborn tragedies, and Manuel de Figueredo compiled plays in prose and verse on national subjects, which fill thirteen volumes, but he could not create characters.

[edit] Romanticism and Realism

[edit] Poetry
The early nineteenth century witnessed a literary reformation which was begun by Almeida Garrett who had become acquainted with the English and French Romanticism in exile and based his work on the national traditions. In the narrative poem "Cames" (1825) he broke with the established rules of composition and followed it with "Flores sem Fructo" and a collection of ardent love poems "Folhas Cahidas", while the clear elegant prose of this true artist is seen in a miscellany of romance and criticism, "Viagens na minha terra". The poetry of the austere Herculano has a religious or patriotic motive and is reminiscent of Lamennais. The movement initiated by Garrett and Herculano became ultra-Romantic with Castilho, a master of metre, who lacked ideas, and the verses of Joo de Lemos and the melancholy Soares de Passos record a limited range of personal emotions, while their imitators voice sentiments which they have not felt deeply or at all. Thomas Ribeiro, author of the patriotic poem "D. Jayme", is sincere, but belongs to the same school which thought too much of form and melody. In 1865 some young poets led by Anthero de Quental, and future president Tefilo Braga, rebelled against the domination over letters which Castilho had assumed, and, under foreign influences, proclaimed the alliance of philosophy with poetry. A fierce pamphlet war heralded the downfall of Castilho and poetry gained in breadth and reality, though in many instances it became non-Christian and revolutionary. Quental produced finely wrought, pessimistic sonnets inspired by neo-Buddhistic and German agnostic ideas, while Braga, a Positivist, compiled an epic of humanity, the "Viso dos Tempos". Guerra Junqueiro is mainly ironic in the "Morte de D. Joo", in "Patria" he evokes and scourges the Braganza kings in some powerful scenes, and in "Os Simples" interprets nature and rural life by the light of a pantheistic imagination. Gomes Leal is merely anti-Christian with touches of Baudelaire. Joo de Deus belonged to no school; an idealist, he drew inspiration from religion and women, and the earlier verses of the "Campo de Flores" are marked, now by tender feeling, now by sensuous mysticism, all very Portuguese. Other true poets are the sonneteer Joo Penha, the Parnassian Goncalves Crespo, and the symbolist Eugenio de Castro. The reaction against the use of verse for the propaganda of radicalism in religion and politics has succeeded and the most considered poets of the early twentieth century, Correa de Oliveira, and Lopes Vieira, were natural singers with no extraneous purpose to serve. They owe much to the "S" of Antonio Nobre, a book of true race poetry.

[edit] Drama
After producing some classical tragedies, the best of which is "Cato", Almeida Garrett undertook the reform of the stage on independent lines, though he learnt something from the Anglo-German school. Anxious to find a national drama, he chose subjects from Portuguese history and, beginning with "An Auto of Gil Vicente", produced a series of prose plays which culminated in "Brother Luiz de Sousa", a masterpiece. His

imitators, Mendes Leal and Pinheiro Chagas, fell victims to ultra-Romanticism, but Fernando Caldeira and Gervasio Lobato wrote life-like and witty comedies and recently the regional pieces of D. Joo da Camara have won success, even outside Portugal. At the present time, with the historical and social plays of Lopes de Mendonca, Julio Dantas, Marcellino Mesquita, and Eduardo Schwalbach, drama is more flourishing than ever before and Garrett's work has fructified fifty years after his death.

[edit] The Novel

The novel is really a creation of the nineteenth century and it began with historical romances in the style of Walter Scott by Alexandre Herculano de Carvalho e Araujo, to whom succeeded Rebello da Silva with A Mocidade de D. Joo V, Andrade Corvo, and others. The romance of manners is due to the versatile Camillo Castello Branco, a rich impressionist who describes to perfection the life of the early part of the century in Amor de Perdio, Novellas do Minho, and other books. Gomes Coelho (Julio Dinis), a romantic idealist and subjective writer, is known best by As Pupillas do Snr Reitor, but the great creative artist was Jos Maria de Ea de Queiroz, founder of the Naturalist School, and author of Primo Basilio, Correspondencia de Fradique Mendes, A Cidade e as Serras. His characters live and many of his descriptive and satiric passages have become classical. Among the lesser novelists are Pinheiro Chagas, Arnaldo Gama Luiz de Magalhes, Teixeira de Queiroz, and Malheiro Dias.

[edit] Other prose

History became a science with Herculano whose Historia de Portugal is also valuable for its sculptural style, and Joaquim Pedro de Oliveira Martins ranks as a painter of scenes and characters in Os Filhos de D. Joo and Vida de Nun' Alvares. A strong gift of humour distinguishes the As Farpas of Ramalho Ortigo, as well as the work of Fialho d'Almeida and Julio Cesar Machado, and literary criticism had able exponents in Luciano Cordeiro and Moniz Barreto. The Panorama under the editorship of Herculano exercised a sound and wide influence over letters, but since that time the press has become less and less literary and now treats of little save politics.

[edit] Examples of Portuguese literature

[edit] Lus Vaz de Cames
The poet Lus Vaz de Cames or Lus Vaz Camoens (1524 - June 10, 1580) was the author of the epic poem The Lusiad. (In the Victorian era, he was both sufficiently admired and sufficiently obscure for Elizabeth Barrett Browning to disguise her work by entitling it Sonnets from the Portuguese, a reference to Cames). The Portuguese national holiday, "Portugal's Day" or "Dia de Portugal, das Comunidades Portuguesas e de Cames" (Portugal's, Portuguese Communities' and Camoens' Day), is celebrated on June 10, the anniversary of Cames' death. It is a day of national pride similar to the "Independence Day" celebrated in other countries.

[edit] Ea de Queiroz

Ea de Queiroz (18451900) is a Portuguese novelist. Born in Pvoa de Varzim, near Oporto, he traveled throughout the world as a consul. He accepted an assignment to the consulate of Paris in 1888 and remained there until his death on August 16, 1900. The books he wrote in Paris are critical of Portuguese society. His most famous works include Os Maias (The Maias) (1878), O Crime do Padre Amaro (The Crime of Father Amaro) (1876) and O Primo Bazilio (Cousin Baslio) (1878). Nicknamed the "Portuguese Zola," Ea was the founder of Portuguese Naturalism. In 2002, the Mexican director Carlos Carrera made a motion picture, "El Crimen del Padre Amaro" ("The Crime of Father Amaro"), adapted from Queirs' novel. One of the most successful Mexican films in history, it was also controversial because of its depiction of Catholic priesthood.

[edit] Fernando Pessoa

Fernando Pessoa (18881935) was a Portuguese poet. He used heteronyms, where he wrote in different styles as if he were more than one poet. One of his most famous works was an adaptation of the Lusiad called The Message (A Mensagem). The Message discusses the Sebastianism and Portuguese prophecies, that were created and prophesized during the time of Camoens. The Portuguese await the return of the dead king on a foggy day - the return of National Me (Eu Nacional) that will take Portugal, once more, to govern the Fifth Empire.

[edit] Antero de Quental

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(December 2009)

Antero de Quental studied at the University of Coimbra, and soon distinguished himself by unusual talent, as well as turbulence and eccentricity. He began to write poetry at an early age, chiefly, though not entirely, devoting himself to the sonnet. After the publication of one volume of verse, he entered with great warmth into the revolt of the young men which dethroned Antnio Feliciano de Castilho, the chief living poet of the elder generation, from his place as dictator over modern Portuguese literature. He then travelled, engaged on his return in political and socialistic agitations, and found his way through a series of disappointments to the mild pessimism, a kind of Western Buddhism, which animates his latest poetical productions. His melancholy was increased by a spinal disease, which after several years of retirement from the world, eventually drove him to suicide in his native island. Antero stands at the head of modern Portuguese poetry after Joo de Deus. His principal defect is monotony: his own self is his solitary theme, and he seldom attempts any other form of composition than the sonnet. On the other hand, few poets who have chiefly devoted themselves to this form have produced so large a proportion of really exquisite work. The comparatively few pieces in which be either forgets his doubts and inward conflicts, or succeeds in giving them an objective form, are among

the most beautiful in any literature. The purely introspective sonnets are less attractive, but equally finely wrought, interesting as psychological studies, and impressive from their sincerity. His mental attitude is well described by himself as the effect of Germanism on the unprepared mind of a Southerner. He had learned much, and half-learned more, which he was unable to assimilate, and his mind became a chaos of conflicting ideas, settling down into a condition of gloomy negation, save for the one conviction of the vanity of existence, which ultimately destroyed him. A healthy participation in public affairs might have saved him, but he seemed incapable of entering upon any course that did not lead to delusion and disappointment. The great popularity acquired, notwithstanding, by poetry so metaphysical and egotistic is a testimony to the artistic instinct of the Portuguese. As a prose writer Quental displayed high talents, though he wrote little. His most important prose work is the Consideraes sobre a philosophia da historia literaria Portugueza, but he earned fame by his pamphlets on the Coimbra question, Bom senso e bom gosto, a letter to Castilho, and A dignidade das lettras e litteraturas officiaes. His friend Oliveira Martins edited the Sonnets (Oporto, 1886), supplying an introductory essay; and an interesting collection of studies on the poet by the leading Portuguese writers appeared in a volume entitled Anthero de Quental. In Memoriam (Oporto, 1896). The sonnets have been turned into most European languages; into English by Edgar Prestage (Anthero de Quental, Sixty-four Sonnets, London, 1894), together with a striking autobiographical letter addressed by Quental to his German translator, Dr Storck.

[edit] Alexandre O'Neill

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(December 2009)

Alexandre Manuel Vaha de Castro ONeill (December 19, 1924 - August 21, 1986) was a Portuguese poet of Irish origin. In 1948, O'Neill was among the founders of the Lisbon Surrealist Movement, along with Mrio Cesariny, Jos-Augusto Frana and others. His writings soon diverged from surrealist to form an original style whose poetry reflects a love/hate relationship with his country. His most salient characteristics - a disrespect of conventions, both social and literary, an attitude of permanent revolt, playfulness with language, and the use of parody and black humor - are used to form a body of incisive depictions of what is to be Portuguese and his relation with the country. ONeill was in permanent conflict with Portugal. While other contemporaries wrote poems that protested against national life under Salazar, ONeills attack ran deeper. Poems such as Standing at Fearful Attention and Portugal suggested that the dictatorial regime was a symptom (the worst symptom) of graver ills lack of

courage and smallness of vision woven into the nations psyche. Other poems, such as Lament of the Man Who Misses Being Blind, seemed to hold religion and mysticism responsible for an obscurantism that made change difficult if not impossible. A publicist by profession, famed for inventing some of the most ingenious advertising slogans of his time, ONeill was unusually adept at manipulating words and using them in an efficacious manner, but he refused to put that talent at the service of a lyrically lofty, feel-good sort of poetry (see Simply Expressive). Stridently antiRomantic, concerned to keep humanity in its place as just one of earths species, he did not believe that an especially harmonious world was possible, and he abhorred all attempts to escape the world, whether through mystical or poetical exaltations. His one hope, or consolation, explicitly stated in St. Franciss Empty Sandal, was in the connection (never entirely peaceful) he felt with other members of the species. Although most of his works are lost or out of sight in private collections he was also a painter and a graphic composer of immense talent. Some of his work was shown, to great surprise and admiration, in 2002 at an exhibit on the surrealist movement.

[edit] Jos Saramago

Jos Saramago (19222010) was a Portuguese novelist, who wrote such works as "Memorial do Convento", and won the Nobel Prize in 1998. See: Rogrio Miguel Puga, Chronology of Portuguese Literature 1128-2000, Cambridge Scholars Publishing, UK, 2011.

[edit] External links

Projecto Vercial A big Portuguese literature database. Portuguese Literature By Joana Dalila in Accessible Portugal Online Magazine

Lus de Cames
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Lus de Cames

A painting depicting Cames, made by Franois Grard Lus Vaz de Cames Born 1524 Lisbon, Kingdom of Portugal 1580 (aged 5556) Lisbon, Kingdom of Portugal Poet Portuguese University of Coimbra Classicism The Lusiads Cames Family

Died

Occupation Nationality Alma mater Literary movement Notable work(s) Relative(s)

Influences[show]

Influenced[show]

Lus Vaz de Cames (Portuguese pronunciation: [lui va d kamj]; sometimes rendered in English as Camoens /km onz/; c. 1524 10 June 1580) is considered Portugal's and the Portuguese language's greatest poet. His mastery of verse has been compared to that of Shakespeare, Vondel, Homer, Virgil and Dante. He wrote a considerable amount of lyrical poetry and drama but is best remembered for his epic work Os Lusadas (The Lusiads). His recollection of poetry The Parnasum of Lus de Cames was lost in his lifetime. The influence of his masterpiece Os Lusadas in Portuguese is so profound that it is called the "language of Cames".

Contents
[hide]

1 Life 2 Bibliography 3 In culture 4 See also 5 References 6 External links

[edit] Life
Many details concerning the life of Cames remain unknown, but he is thought to have been born around 1524. Lus Vaz de Cames was the only child of Simo Vaz de Cames and wife Ana de S de Macedo.[1] His birthplace is unknown. Lisbon, Coimbra or Alenquer are frequently presented as his birthplace, although the latter is based on a disputable interpretation of one of his poems. Constncia is also considered a possibility as his place of birth: a statue of him can be found in the town. Cames belongs to a family originating from the northern Portuguese region of Chaves near Galicia. At an early age, his father Simo Vaz left his family to discover personal riches in India, only to die in Goa in the following years. His mother later remarried.

Monument to Lus de Cames, Lisbon Cames lived a semi-privileged life and was educated by Dominicans and Jesuits. For a period, due to his familial relations he attended the University of Coimbra, although records do not show him registered (he participated in courses in the Humanities). His uncle, Bento de Cames, is credited with this education, owing to his position as Prior at the Monastery of Santa Cruz and Chancellor at the University of Coimbra. He frequently had access to exclusive literature, including classical Greek, Roman and Latin works, read Latin, Italian and wrote in Spanish. Cames, as his love of poetry can attest, was a romantic and idealist. It was rumored that he fell in love with Catherine of Atade, lady-in-waiting to the Queen, and also the Princess Maria, sister of John III of Portugal. It is also likely that an indiscreet allusion to the king in his play El-Rei Seleuco, as well as these other incidents may have played a part in his exile from Lisbon in 1548. He traveled to the Ribatejo where he stayed in the company of friends who sheltered and fed him. He stayed in the province for about six months. He enlisted in the overseas militia, and traveled to Ceuta in the fall of 1549. During a battle with the Moors, he lost the sight in his right eye. He eventually returned to Lisbon in 1551, a changed man, living a bohemian lifestyle. In 1552, during the religious festival of Corpus Christi, in the Largo do Rossio, he injured Gonalo Borges, a member of the Royal Stables. Cames was imprisoned. His mother pleaded for his release, visiting royal ministers and the Borges family for a pardon. Released, Cames was ordered to pay 4,000 ris and serve three-years in the militia in the Orient. He departed in 1553 for Goa on board the So Bento, commanded by Ferno Alves Cabral. The ship arrived six months later. In Goa, Cames was imprisoned for debt. He found Goa "a stepmother to all honest men" but he studied local customs and mastered the local geography and history. On his first expedition, he joined a battle

along the Malabar Coast. The battle was followed by skirmishes along the trading routes between Egypt and India. The fleet eventually returned to Goa by November 1554. During his time ashore, he continued his writing publicly, as well as writing correspondence for the uneducated men of the fleet. At the end of his obligatory service, he was given the position of chief warrant officer in Macau. He was charged with managing the properties of missing and deceased soldiers in the Orient. During this time he worked on his epic poem Os Lusadas ("The Lusiads") in a grotto. He was later accused of misappropriations and traveled to Goa to respond to the accusations of the tribunal. During his return journey, near the Mekong River along the Cambodian coast, he was shipwrecked, saving his manuscript but losing his Chinese lover. His shipwreck survival in the Mekong Delta was enhanced by the legendary detail that he succeeded in swimming ashore while holding aloft the manuscript of his still-unfinished epic. In 1570 Cames finally made it back to Lisbon, where two years later he published Os Lusadas. In recompense for his poem or perhaps for services in the Far East, he was granted a small royal pension by the young and ill-fated Sebastian of Portugal (ruled 15571578). In 1578 he heard of the appalling defeat of the Battle of Ksar El Kebir, where King Sebastian was killed and the Portuguese army destroyed. The Castilian troops were approaching Lisbon[citation needed] when Cames wrote to the Captain General of Lamego: "All will see that so dear to me was my country that I was content to die not only in it but with it". Cames died in Lisbon in 1580, at the age of 56. The day of his death, 10 June, is Portugal's national day. He is buried near Vasco da Gama in the Jernimos Monastery in the Belm district of Lisbon.

[edit] Bibliography
Works by Cames

The Lusiads The Parnasum of Lus Vaz (lost) Lyric Poems Auto dos Anfitries Auto El-rei Seleuco Auto do Filodemo Letters

English translations

The Lusiadas of Luiz de Cames. Leonard Bacon. 1966. Luis de Cames: Epic and Lyric. Keith Bosley. Carcanet, 1990. The Lusiads. Trans. Landeg White. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2002. ISBN 0-19-280151-1.

Camoens: His Life and his Lusiads: A Commentary. Richard Francis Burton. 2 vols. London: Quaritch, 1881.[3] The Place of Camoens in Literature. Joaquim Nabuco. Washington, D.C. [?], 1908.[4] Luis de Cames. Aubrey F.G. Bell. London: 1923. Camoens, Central Figure of Portuguese Literature. Isaac Goldberg. Girard: Haldeman-Julius, 1924. From Virgil to Milton. Cecil M. Bowra. 1945. Camoens and the Epic of the Lusiads. Henry Hersch Hart. 1962. The Presence of Cames: Influences on the Literature of England, America & Southern Africa. George

Luis de Camoes, Selected Sonnets: Monteiro. Lexington: University of A Bilingual Edition. Ed. and trans. Kentucky Press, 1996. ISBN 0William Baer. Chicago: U of 8131-1952-9. Chicago P, 2005. ISBN 978-0 Ordering Empire: The Poetry of 226-09266-9. (Paperback publ. Cames, Pringle and Campbell. 2008, ISBN 978-0-226-09286-7) Nicholas Meihuizen. Bern: Peter The Collected Lyric Poems of Lus Lang, 2007. ISBN 978-3-03911de Cames Trans. Landeg White. 023-0. Princeton: Princeton UP, 2008. ISBN [2] Biography and textual study in Spanish

Biography and textual study in English

Life of Cames. John Adamson. Longman, 1820.

Camoens y Cervantes / Orico, Osvaldo., 1948 Camoens / Filgueira Valverde, Jose., 1958 Homenaje a Camoens: Estudios y Ensayos., 1980 Cuatro Lecciones Sobre Camoens / Alonso Zamora Vicente., 1981

[edit] In culture

Cames is the subject of the first romantic painting from a Portuguese painter, A Morte de Cames (1825), by Domingos Sequeira, now lost. He is one of the characters in Gaetano Donizetti's grand opera Dom Sbastien, Roi de Portugal. Cames figures prominently in the book Het verboden rijk (The Forbidden Empire) by the Dutch writer J. Slauerhoff, who himself made several voyages to the Far East as a ship's doctor. A museum dedicated to Cames can be found in Macau, the Museu Lus de Cames. In Goa, India the Archeological Museum at Old Goa (which used to be a Franciscan monastery) houses a 3 meters high bronze statue of Lus de Cames. The statue was originally installed in the garden in year 1960 but was moved into the museum due to public protest after Goa's annexation to India. Another Camoes monument in Goa, India "Jardim de Garcia da Orta Garden" (popularly known as Panaji Municipal Garden) has a 12 meter high pillar in the center.

Jos Maria de Ea de Queiroz

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Jos Maria de Ea de Queirs

Born

November 25, 1845 Pvoa de Varzim, Portugal

Died

August 16, 1900 (aged 54) Paris, France

Occupation

Novelist/Consul

Nationality

Portuguese

Literary movement

Realism, Romanticism

Jos Maria de Ea de Queiroz or Ea de Queirs[1] (European Portuguese: [uz m i d s d k i]; November 25, 1845 August 16, 1900) is generally considered to be the greatest Portuguese writer in the realist style.[2] Zola considered him to be far greater than Flaubert.[3] The London Observer critics rank him with Dickens, Balzac and Tolstoy.[4] Ea never officially rejected Catholicism, and in many of his private letters he even invokes Jesus and uses expressions typical of Catholics, but was very critical of the Catholic Church of his time, and of Christianity in general (also Protestant churches) as is evident in some of his novels. During his lifetime, the spelling was "Ea de Queiroz" and this is the form that appears on many editions of his works; the modern standard Portuguese spelling is "Ea de Queirs".

Contents
[hide]

1 Biography 2 Works by Ea de Queirs 3 Periodicals to which Ea de Queirs contributed 4 Translations 5 Adaptations 6 References o 6.1 Notes o 6.2 Bibliography 7 External links

[edit] Biography
Ea de Queirs was born in Pvoa de Varzim, Portugal, in 1845. An illegitimate child, he was officially recorded as the son of Jos Maria de Almeida Teixeira de Queirs, a Brazilian judge and an unknown mother. Teixeira de Queirs soon afterwards married Carolina Augusta Pereira d'Ea, and it has been suggested that in reality the boy was her son by an unknown father, or even that he was instead both his and her son, as most genealogists and relatives contend. At age 16, he went to Coimbra to study law at the University of Coimbra; there he met the poet Antero de Quental. Ea's first work was a series of prose poems, published in the Gazeta de Portugal magazine, which eventually appeared in book form in a posthumous collection edited by Batalha Reis entitled Prosas Brbaras ("Barbarous texts"). He worked as a journalist at vora, then returned to Lisbon and, with his former school friend Ramalho Ortigo and others, created the Correspondence of the fictional adventurer Fradique Mendes. This amusing work was first published in 1900.

Statue of Ea in Pvoa de Varzim; a couple of metres from his birthplace. In 1869 and 1870, Ea de Queirs travelled to Egypt and watched the opening of the Suez Canal, which inspired several of his works, most notably O Mistrio da Estrada de Sintra ("The Mystery of the Sintra Road", 1870), written in collaboration with Ramalho Ortigo, in which Fradique Mendes appears. A Relquia ("The Relic") was

also written at this period but was published only in 1887. When he was later dispatched to Leiria to work as a municipal administrator, Ea de Queirs wrote his first realist novel, O Crime do Padre Amaro ("The Sin of Father Amaro"), which is set in the city and first appeared in 1875. Ea then worked in the Portuguese consular service and after two years' service at Havana was stationed at 53 Grey Street, Newcastle upon Tyne, from late 1874 until April 1879. His diplomatic duties involved the dispatch of detailed reports to the Portuguese foreign office concerning the unrest in the Northumberland and Durham coalfields - in which, as he points out, the miners earned twice as much as those in South Wales, along with free housing and a weekly supply of coal. The Newcastle years were among the most productive of his literary career. He published the second version of O Crime de Padre Amaro in 1876 and another celebrated novel, O Primo Baslio ("Cousin Bazilio") in 1878, as well as working on a number of other projects. These included the first of his "Cartas de Londres" ("Letters from London") which were printed in the Lisbon daily newspaper Dirio de Notcias and afterwards appeared in book form as Cartas de Inglaterra. As early as 1878 he had at least given a name to his masterpiece Os Maias ("The Maias"), though this was largely written during his later residence in Bristol and was published only in 1888. There is a plaque to Ea in that city and another was unveiled in Grey Street, Newcastle, in 2001 by the Portuguese ambassador. Ea, a cosmopolite widely read in English literature, was not enamoured of English society, but he was fascinated by its oddity. In Bristol he wrote: "Everything about this society is disagreeable to me - from its limited way of thinking to its indecent manner of cooking vegetables." As often happens when a writer is unhappy, the weather is endlessly bad. Nevertheless, he was rarely bored and was content to stay in England for some fifteen years. "I detest England, but this does not stop me from declaring that as a thinking nation, she is probably the foremost." It may be said that England acted as a constant stimulus and a corrective to Eas traditionally Portuguese Francophilia. In 1888 he became Portuguese consul-general in Paris. He lived at Neuilly-sur-Seine and continued to write journalism (Ecos de Paris, "Echos from Paris") as well as literary criticism. He died in 1900 of either tuberculosis or, according to numerous contemporary physicians, Crohn's disease.[5] His son Antnio Ea de Queirs would hold government office under Antnio de Oliveira Salazar.

Bust of Ea de Queiroz in Neuilly-sur-Seine avenue Charles de Gaulle

[edit] Works by Ea de Queirs

Cover of the first edition of Os Maias

A Capital ("The Capital") A Cidade e as Serras ("The City and the Mountains", 1901) A Ilustre Casa de Ramires ("The Noble House of Ramires", 1900) A Relquia ("The Relic", 1887) A Tragdia da Rua das Flores ("The Rua das Flores Tragedy")

Alves & C.a ("Alves & Co.", published in English as "The Yellow Sofa", 1925) As Minas de Salomo, a reworking of H. Rider Haggard's King Solomon's Mines Cartas de Inglaterra ("Letters from England") Cartas Familiares e Bilhetes de Paris ("Family Letters and Notes from Paris") Contos ("Stories") Correspondncia de Fradique Mendes ("Correspondence of Fradique Mendes", 1900) Ecos de Paris ("Echos from Paris") Notas Contemporneas ("Contemporary Notes") O Conde d'Abranhos ("Count d'Abranhos") O Crime do Padre Amaro ("The Sin of Father Amaro", 1875, revised 1876, revised 1880) O Egipto ("Egypt", 1926) O Mandarim ("The Mandarin", 1880) O Mistrio da Estrada de Sintra ("The Mystery of the Sintra Road", 1870, in collaboration with Ramalho Ortigo) O Primo Baslio ("Cousin Bazilio", 1878) Os Maias ("The Maias", 1888) Prosas Brbaras ("Barbarous Texts", 1903) ltimas pginas ("Last Pages") Uma Campanha Alegre ("A Cheerful Campaign")

[edit] Periodicals to which Ea de Queirs contributed

Gazeta de Portugal As Farpas ("Barbs") Dirio de Notcias

[edit] Translations
His works have been translated into about 20 languages, including English. Since 2002 English versions of six of his novels and a volume of short stories, translated by Margaret Jull Costa, have been published in the UK by Dedalus Books.

A capital (The Capital): translation by John Vetch, Carcanet Press (UK), 1995. A Cidade e as serras (The City and the Mountains): translation by Roy Campbell, Ohio University Press, 1968. A Ilustre Casa de Ramires (The illustrious house of Ramires): translation by Ann Stevens, Ohio University Press, 1968. A Relquia (The Relic): translation by Aubrey F. Bell, A. A. Knopf, 1925. Also published as The Reliquary, Reinhardt, 1954. A Relquia (The Relic): translation by Margaret Jull Costa, Dedalus Books, 1994.

A tragdia da rua das Flores (The Tragedy of the Street of Flowers): translation by Margaret Jull Costa, Dedalus Books, 2000. Alves & Cia (Alves & Co.): translation by Robert M. Fedorchek, University Press of America, 1988. Cartas da Inglaterra (Letters from England): translation by Ann Stevens, Bodley Head, 1970. Also published as Ea's English Letters, Carcanet Press, 2000. O Crime do Padre Amaro (El crimen del Padre Amaro): Versin de Ramn del Valle - Inclan, Editorial Maucci, 1911 O Crime do Padre Amaro (The Sin of Father Amaro): translation by Nan Flanagan, St. Martins Press, 1963. Also published as The Crime of Father Amaro, Carcanet Press, 2002. O Crime do Padre Amaro (The Crime of Father Amaro): translation by Margaret Jull Costa, Dedalus Books, 2002. O Mandarim (The Mandarin in The Mandarin and Other Stories): translation by Richard Frank Goldman, Ohio University Press, 1965. Also published by Bodley Head, 1966; and Hippocrene Books, 1993. Um Poeta Lrico (A Lyric Poet in The Mandarin and Other Stories): translation by Richard Frank Goldman, Ohio University Press, 1965. Also published by Bodley Head, 1966; and Hippocrene Books, 1993. Singularidades de uma Rapariga Loura (Peculiarities of a Fair-haired Girl in The Mandarin and Other Stories): translation by Richard Frank Goldman, Ohio University Press, 1965. Also published by Bodley Head, 1966; and Hippocrene Books, 1993. Jos Mathias (Jos Mathias in The Mandarin and Other Stories): translation by Richard Frank Goldman, Ohio University Press, 1965. Also published by Bodley Head, 1966; and Hippocrene Books, 1993. O Mandarim (The Mandarin in The Mandarin and Other Stories): translation by Margaret Jull Costa, Hippocrene Books, 1983. O Mandarim (The Mandarin in The Mandarin and Other Stories): translation by Margaret Jull Costa, Dedalus Books, 2009. Jos Mathias (Jos Mathias in The Mandarin and Other Stories): translation by Margaret Jull Costa, Dedalus Books, 2009. O Defunto (The Hanged Man in The Mandarin and Other Stories): translation by Margaret Jull Costa, Dedalus Books, 2009. Singularidades de uma Rapariga Loura (Idiosyncrasies of a young blonde woman in The Mandarin and Other Stories): translation by Margaret Jull Costa, Dedalus Books, 2009. O Primo Baslio (Dragon's teeth): translation by Mary Jane Serrano, R. F. Fenno & Co., 1896. O Primo Baslio (Cousin Bazilio): translation by Roy Campbell, Noonday Press, 1953. O Primo Baslio (Cousin Bazilio): translation by Margaret Jull Costa, Dedalus Books, 2003. Suave milagre (The Sweet Miracle): translation by Edgar Prestage, David Nutt, 1905. Also published as The Fisher of Men, T. B. Mosher, 1905; The Sweetest Miracle, T. B. Mosher, 1906; The Sweet Miracle, B. H. Blakwell, 1914. Os Maias (The Maias): translation by Ann Stevens and Patricia McGowan Pinheiro, St. Martin's Press, 1965.

Os Maias (The Maias): translation by Margaret Jull Costa, New Directions, 2007. O Defunto (Our Lady of the Pillar): translation by Edgar Prestage, Archibald Constable, 1906. Pacheco (Pacheco): translation by Edgar Prestage, Basil Blackwell, 1922. A Perfeio (Perfection): translation by Charles Marriott, Selwyn & Blovnt, 1923. Jos Mathias (Jos Mathias in Jos Mathias and A Man of Talent): translation by Lus Marques, George G. Harap & Co., 1947. Pacheco (A man of talent in Jos Mathias and A Man of Talent): translation by Lus Marques, George G. Harap & Co., 1947. Alves & Cia (The Yellow Sofa in Yellow Sofa and Three Portraits): translation by John Vetch, Carcanet Press, 1993. Also published by New Directions, 1996. Um Poeta Lrico (Lyric Poet in Yellow Sofa and Three Portraits): translation by John Vetch, Carcanet Press, 1993. Also published by New Directions, 1996. Jos Mathias (Jos Mathias in Yellow Sofa and Three Portraits): translation by Lus Marques, Carcanet Press, 1993. Also published by New Directions, 1996. Pacheco (A man of talent in Yellow Sofa and Three Portraits): translation by Lus Marques, Carcanet Press, 1993. Also published by New Directions, 1996.

[edit] Adaptations
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Ea de Queirs

There have been two film versions of O Crime do Padre Amaro, a Mexican one in 2002 and a Portuguese version in 2005 which was edited out of a SIC television series, released shortly after the film (the film was by then the most seen Portuguese movie ever, though very badly received by critics, but the TV series, maybe due to being a slightly longer version of the same thing seen by a big share of Portuguese population, flopped and was rather ignored by audiences and critics). Ea's works have been also adapted on Brazilian television. In 1988 Rede Globo produced O Primo Baslio in 35 episodes. Later, in 2007, a movie adaptation of the same novel was made by director Daniel Filho. In 2001 Rede Globo produced an acclaimed adaptation of Os Maias as a television serial in 40 episodes. A movie adaptation of O Mistrio da Estrada de Sintra was produced in 2007.[6] The director had shortly before directed a series inspired in a whodunit involving the descendants of the original novel's characters (Nome de Cdigo Sintra, Code Name Sintra), and some of the historical flashback scenes (reporting to the book's events) of the series were used in the new movie. The movie was more centered on Ea's and Ramalho Ortigo's writing and publishing of the original serial and the controversy it created and less around the book's plot itself.

[edit] References
[edit] Notes
1. ^ According with the new Portuguese Orthography; see http://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/E%C3%A7a_de_Queiroz#cite_note-0. 2. ^ Pick of the week - Consul yourself, Nicholas Lezard, The Guardian, 23 December 2000 3. ^ backcover of The crime of Father Amaro: scenes of the religious life 4. ^ The Maias, by Eca de Queiros, New Directions Publishing Corp 5. ^ [1] 6. ^ filmesfundo.com

[edit] Bibliography

Theatre Adaptations: 'Galleon Theatre Company', the resident producing company at the 'Greenwich Playhouse' (London), has staged internationally acclaimed theatre adaptations, by Alice de Sousa and directed by Bruce Jamieson, of Ea de Queirs' novels. In 2001, the company presented 'Cousin Baslio' and in 2002 'The Maias'. From the 8th March to the 3rd April 2011 the company are reviving their greatly acclaimed production of 'The Maias' at the 'Greenwich Playhouse'.

Fernando Pessoa
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Fernando Pessoa

Photo by Victoriano Braga (1914)

Fernando Antnio Nogueira de Seabra Born Pessoa June 13, 1888 Lisbon, Portugal November 30, 1935 (aged 47) Lisbon, Portugal Alberto Caeiro, lvaro de Campos, Ricardo Reis, Bernardo Soares, etc. Poet, writer, and translator Portuguese, English, and French Portuguese 19121935 Poetry, essay, theatre, fiction

Died

Pen name

Occupation Language Nationality Period Genres Notable work(s) Notable

The Book of Disquiet, Message

Queen Victoria Prize (1903) Antero de Quental Award (1934)

award(s)

Influences[show]

Influenced[show]

Signature

Fernando Pessoa, born Fernando Antnio Nogueira de Seabra Pessoa (Portuguese pronunciation: [fen du tnju nug i d siab pso ]) (June 13, 1888 November 30, 1935), was a Portuguese poet, writer, literary critic and translator, described as one of the most significant literary figures of the 20th century and one of the greatest poets in the Portuguese language. He also wrote in and translated from English and French.

Contents
[hide]

1 Early years in Durban 2 Adult life in Lisbon 3 Pessoa the flneur 4 Literature and occultism 5 Writing a lifetime 6 Heteronyms o 6.1 List of known heteronyms o 6.2 Alberto Caeiro o 6.3 Ricardo Reis o 6.4 lvaro de Campos o 6.5 Fernando Pessoa-himself 7 Summaries of selected works o 7.1 Message o 7.2 Literary essays o 7.3 Philosophical essays 8 Works 9 See also 10 References 11 Further reading o 11.1 Books o 11.2 Articles 12 External links

[edit] Early years in Durban

Nothing had ever obliged him to do anything. He had spent his childhood alone. He never joined any group. He never pursued a course of study. He never belonged to a crowd. The circumstances of his life were marked by that strange but rather common phenomenon perhaps, in fact, its true for all lives of being tailored to the image and likeness of his instincts, which tended towards inertia and withdrawal.
Fernando Pessoa, from the Preface of The Book of Disquiet, tr. by Richard Zenith.

Pessoa's birthplace: a large flat at So Carlos Square, in Lisbon. On 13 July 1893, when Pessoa was five, his father, Joaquim de Seabra Pessoa, died of tuberculosis. The following year, on 2 January, his younger brother Jorge, aged only one, also died. His mother, Maria Madalena Pinheiro Nogueira, married again in December 1895. In the beginning of 1896, he moved with his mother to Durban, capital of the former British Colony of Natal, where his stepfather Joo Miguel dos Santos Rosa, a military officer, had been appointed Portuguese consul. The young Pessoa received his early education at St. Joseph Convent School, a Catholic grammar school run by Irish and French nuns. He moved to Durban High School in April, 1899, becoming fluent in English and developing an appreciation for English literature. During the Matriculation Examination, held at the time by the then University of the Cape of Good Hope, forerunner of the University of Cape Town, in November 1903, he was awarded the recently-created Queen Victoria Memorial Prize for best paper in English. While preparing to enter university, he also attended the Durban Commercial School during one year, in the evening shift. Meanwhile, he started writing short stories in English, some under the name of David Merrick, many of which he left unfinished.[1] Hillier did first usurp the realms of rhyme To parody the bard of olden time: Haggar then followed and, in shallow verse, Proves that to every bad there is a worse. Some nameless critic then in furious strain Causes the reader cruel pain While after metre pure he seems to thirst But shows how every worse can have a worst.
Charles Robert Anon, Natal Mercury, July 6, 1904.

Pessoa in Durban, 1898, aged 10. At the age of sixteen, The Natal Mercury[2] (July 6, 1904 edition) published his poem "Hillier did first usurp the realms of rhyme...", under the name of Charles Robert Anon, along with a brief introductory text: "I read with great amusement...". In December, The Durban High School Magazine published his essay "Macaulay".[3] From February to June, 1905, in the section "The Man in the Moon," The Natal Mercury also published at least four sonnets by Fernando Pessoa: "Joseph Chamberlain", "To England I", "To England II" and "Liberty".[4] His poems often carried humorous versions of Anon as the author's name. Pessoa started using pen names quite young. The first one, still in his childhood, was Chevalier de Pas, supposedly a French noble. In addition to David Merrick and Charles Robert Anon, the young writer also signed up, among other pen names, as Horace James Faber and Alexander Search, another meaningful pseudonym. The young Pessoa as seen by a schoolfellow

Pessoa in 1901, aged 13.

 I cannot tell you exactly how long I knew him, but the period during which I received most of my impressions of him was the whole of the year 1904 when we were at school together. How old he was at this time I dont know, but judge him to have 15 or 16. He was pale and thin and appeared physically to be very imperfectly developed. He had a narrow and contracted chest and was inclined to stoop. He had a peculiar walk and some defect in his eyesight gave to his eyes also a peculiar appearance, the lids seemed to drop over the eyes. He was regarded as a brilliant clever boy as, in spite of the fact that he had not spoken English in his early years, he had learned it so rapidly and so well that he had a splendid style in that language. Although younger than his schoolfellows of the same class he appeared to have no difficulty in keeping up with and surpassing them in work. For one of his age, he thought much and deeply and in a letter to me once complained of spiritual and material encumbrances of most especial adverseness. He took no part in athletic sports of any kind and I think his spare time was spent on reading. We generally considered that he worked far too much and that he would ruin his health by so doing. Clifford E. Geerdts, "Letter to Dr. Faustino Antunes", 04.10.1907.[5] Ten years after his arrival, he sailed for Lisbon via the Suez Canal on board the "Herzog", leaving Durban for good at the age of seventeen. This journey inspired the poems "Opirio" (dedicated to his friend, the poet and writer Mrio de S-Carneiro) published in March, 1915, in Orpheu nr.1[6] and "Ode Martima" (dedicated to the futurist painter Santa Rita Pintor) published in June, 1915, in Orpheu nr.2[7] by his heteronym lvaro de Campos.

[edit] Adult life in Lisbon

Once again I see you Lisbon, the Tagus, and all Useless passerby of you and of me, Stranger in this place as in every other, Accidental in life as in the soul, Phantom wandering the halls of memory, To the squealing of rats and the squeaking of boards, In the doomed castle where life must be lived...
Fernando Pessoa, from "Lisbon Revisited" (1926), ed. and tr. by Edwin Honig and Susan M. Brown.

 Empreza Ibis, typographica e editora . While his family remained in South Africa, Pessoa returned to Lisbon in 1905 to study diplomacy. After a period of illness, and two years of poor results, a student strike against the dictatorship of Prime Minister Joo Franco put an end to his studies. Pessoa became a self student, a devoted reader who spent a lot of time at the library. In August, 1907, he started working at R.G. Dun & Company, an American mercantile information agency (currently D&B, Dun & Bradstreet). His grandmother died in September and left him a small inheritance, which he spent on setting up his own publishing house, the Empreza Ibis. The venture was not a success and closed down in 1910, but the name ibis,[8] the sacred bird of Ancient Egypt and inventor of the alphabet in Greek mythology, would remain an important symbolic reference for him.

Pessoa's last home, since 1920 till his death, in 1935, currently the Fernando Pessoa Museum Upon his return to Lisbon, Pessoa began to complement his British education with Portuguese culture, as an autodidact. Pre-revolutionary atmosphere surrounding the assassination of King Carlos I and Crown Prince Luis Filipe, in 1908, and patriotic environment resulting from the successful republican revolution, in 1910, certainly exerted a relevant influence in the formation of the writer. His stepuncle Henrique dos Santos Rosa, a retired general and poet, introduced the young Pessoa to Portuguese poetry, notably the romantics and symbolists of 19th century.[9] In 1912, Fernando Pessoa entered the literary world with a critical essay, published in the cultural journal A guia, which triggered one of the most important literary debates in the Portuguese intellectual world of 20th century: the polemic regarding a super-Cames. In 1915 a group of artists and poets, including Fernando Pessoa, Mrio de S-Carneiro and Almada Negreiros, created the literary magazine Orpheu,[10] which introduced

modernist literature to Portugal. Only two issues were published (Jan-Feb-Mar and Apr-May-Jun, 1915), the third failed to appear due to funding difficulties. Lost for many years, this issue was finally recovered and published in 1984.[11] Among other writers and poets, Orpheu published Pessoa, orthonym, and the modernist heteronym, lvaro de Campos. Pessoa also founded the literary review Athena (192425), which published the heteronym Ricardo Reis. Along with his activity as free-lance commercial translator, Fernando Pessoa undertook intense activity as a writer and literary critic, contributing to journals and magazines such as A guia (1912-13), A Renascena (1914), Orpheu (1915), Exlio (1916), Centauro (1916), Portugal Futurista (1917), Ressurreio (1920), Contempornea (192226), Athena (192425), Presena (192734) and Sudoeste (1935). He also published as a political analyst and literary critic in journals and newspapers such as Teatro (1913), O Jornal (1915), Centauro (1916), Aco (191920), Dirio de Lisboa (192435), Revista de Comrcio e Contabilidade (1926) and Fama (193233).

[edit] Pessoa the flneur

Walking on these streets, until the night falls, my life feels to me like the life they have. By day theyre full of meaningless activity; by night, theyre full of meaningless lack of it. By day I am nothing, and by night I am I. There is no difference between me and these streets, save they being streets and I a soul, which perhaps is irrelevant when we consider the essence of things.
Fernando Pessoa, from "A Factless Autobiography" in The Book of Disquiet, tr. by Richard Zenith.

Pessoa, a flneur in the streets of Lisbon. If Franz Kafka is the writer of Prague, Fernando Pessoa is certainly the writer of Lisbon. After his return to Portugal, when he was seventeen, Pessoa barely left his beloved city, which inspired the poems "Lisbon Revisited" (1923 and 1926), by his heteronym lvaro de Campos. From 1905 to 1921, when his family returned from

Pretoria after the death of his stepfather, he lived in fifteen different places around the city,[12] moving from a rented room to another according to his financial troubles and the troubles of the young Portuguese Republic.

Coffee house "A Brasileira", established in 1905, the year Pessoa returned to Lisbon. Pessoa had the flneur's regard, namely through the eyes of Bernardo Soares, another of his heteronyms.[13] This character was supposedly an accountant, working at an office in Douradores Street, where Vasques was the boss. Bernardo Soares also supposedly lived in the same downtown street, a world that Pessoa knew quite well due to his long career as free lance correspondence translator. In fact, from 1907 until his death, in 1935, Pessoa worked in twenty one firms located in Lisbon's downtown, sometimes in two or three of them simultaneously.[14] In The Book of Disquiet, Bernardo Soares describes some of those typical places and its "atmosphere". Pessoa was a frequent customer at Martinho da Arcada, a centennial coffeehouse in Comercio Square, surrounded by ministries, almost an "office" for his private business and literary concerns, where he used to meet friends in the 1920s. He also frequented other coffee shops, pubs and restaurants, a number of which no longer exist. The statue of Fernando Pessoa (below) can be seen outside A Brasileira, one of the preferred places of the young writers and artists of the group of orpheu during the 1910s. This coffeehouse, in the aristocratic district of Chiado, is quite close to Pessoa's birthplace: 4, Largo de So Carlos (in front of the Opera House),[15] one of the most elegant neighborhoods of Lisbon.[16] In 1925, Pessoa wrote in English a guidebook to Lisbon but it remained unpublished until 1992.[17][18]

[edit] Literature and occultism

Pessoa's mediumship: Automatic writing sample. The night my body makes of me were torn Away from being, and my unbodied shape Would, like a ship doubling the final cape, Come to that sight of port and shiver of coming That God allows to those whose bliss of roaming Is no more than the wish to find His peace And mingle with it as a scent with the breeze.
Fernando Pessoa, "To One Singing", in The Mad Fiddler.

Pessoa translated into English some Portuguese books[19] and from English The Scarlet Letter by Nathaniel Hawthorne[20] and the poems "The Raven", "Annabel Lee" and "Ulalume"[21] by Edgar Allan Poe who, along with Walt Whitman, strongly influenced him. He also translated into Portuguese a number of books by leading theosophists such as C. W. Leadbeater and Annie Besant.[22] In 1912-1914, while living with his aunt "Anica" and cousins,[23] Pessoa took part in "semi-spiritualist sessions" that were carried out at home. But he was considered a "delaying element" by the other members of the session. Pessoa's interest in spiritualism was truly awakened in the second half of 1915, when he translated a series of esoteric books. This was further deepened in the end of March 1916, when he suddenly started having experiences where he became a medium. The experiences were revealed through automatic writing. In June, 24, Pessoa wrote an impressive letter to his aunt, then living in Switzerland with her daughter and son in law, in which he describes this "mystery case" that surprised him. Besides automatic writing, Pessoa also had "astral" or "etherial visions" and was able to see "magnetic auras" similar to radiographic images. He felt "more curiosity than scare", but was respectful towards this phenomenon and asked secrecy, because "there is no advantage, but a lot of disadvantages" in speaking about this. Mediumship exerted a strong influence in Pessoa writings, who felt "sometimes suddenly being owned by something else" or having a "very curious sensation" in the right arm that

"was lifted into the air without my will". Looking in the mirror, Pessoa saw several times the heteronyms, his "face fading out" and being replaced by the one of "a bearded man", or another one, four men in total.[24]

Astral chart of the heteronym Ricardo Reis by Fernando Pessoa. Pessoa also developed a strong interest in astrology, becoming a competent astrologist. He elaborated more than 1,500 astrological charts, of well-known people like William Shakespeare, Lord Byron, Oscar Wilde, Chopin, Maximilien Robespierre, Napoleon I, Wilhelm II, Leopold II of Belgium, Victor Emmanuel III, Benito Mussolini, Alfonso XIII, or the Kings Sebastian and Carlos of Portugal and Salazar. In 1915, Pessoa created the heteronym Raphael Baldaya, who was an astrologist, and planned to write in his name "System of Astrology" and "Introduction to the Study of Occultism". Pessoa established the pricing of his astrological services from 500 to 5,000 ris and made horoscopes of costumers, friends and also himself and, astonishingly, of the heteronyms. Born on June, 13, Pessoa was native of Gemini and had scorpio as rising sign. The characters of the main heteronyms were inspired by the four astral elements: air, fire, water and earth. It means that Pessoa and his heteronyms altogether comprised the full principles of ancient knowledge. All those heteronyms were designed according to their horoscopes, all include Mercury, the planet of literature. Astrology was part of his everyday life and Pessoa kept that interest until his death, which he was able to predict with a certain degree of accuracy.[25] As a mysticist, Pessoa was an enthusiast of esotericism, occultism, hermetism and alchemy. Along with spiritualism and astrology, he also paid attention to rosicrucianism, neopaganism and freemasonry, which strongly influenced his work. His interest in occultism led Pessoa to correspond with Aleister Crowley. Later he helped Crowley plan an elaborate fake suicide when he visited Portugal in 1930.[26] Pessoa translated Crowley's poem "Hymn To Pan"[27] into Portuguese, and the catalogue of Pessoa's library shows that he possessed Crowley's books Magick in Theory and Practice and Confessions. Pessoa also wrote on Crowley's doctrine of Thelema in several fragments, including Moral.[28]

[edit] Writing a lifetime

Pessoa in 1928, drinking a glass of red wine in Lisbon's downtown. He looked about thirty, thin, rather above average height, exaggeratedly bent over when seated but less so when he stood up, dressed with a certain negligence, which was not entirely negligence. On his pale, uninteresting face an air of suffering did not stir interest, although it was difficult to define what kind of suffering that air it seemed to suggest several kinds: privation, anguish, and a suffering born from the indifference of having suffered a great deal.
Fernando Pessoa, from the Introduction to The Book of Disquiet, tr. by Alfred Mac Adam.

In his early years, Pessoa was influenced by major English classic poets as Shakespeare, Milton or Spenser and romantics like Wordsworth, Coleridge, Byron, Shelley and Keats. Later, when he returned to Lisbon for good, he was influenced by French symbolists Charles Baudelaire, Maurice Rollinat, Stphane Mallarm; mainly by Portuguese poets as Antero de Quental, Gomes Leal, Cesrio Verde, Antnio Nobre, Camilo Pessanha or Teixeira de Pascoaes. Later on, he was also influenced by modernists as Yeats, Ezra Pound and T. S. Eliot, among many other writers.[1] During World War I, Pessoa wrote to a number of British publishers in order to print his collection of English verse The Mad Fiddler (unpublished during his lifetime), but it was refused. However, in 1920, the prestigious literary journal Athenaeum included one of those poems.[29] Since the British publication failed, in 1918 Pessoa published in Lisbon two slim volumes of English verse: Antinous[30] and 35 Sonnets,[31] received by the British literary press without enthusiasm.[32] Along with some friends, he founded another publishing house, Olisipo, which published in 1921 a further two English poetry volumes: English Poems III and English Poems III by Fernando Pessoa. Politically, Pessoa considered himself a "mystical nationalist" and, despite his monarchist sympathies, he didn't favour the restoration of the monarchy. He described himself as conservative within the British tradition. He was an outspoken elitist and aligned himself against communism, socialism, fascism and Catholicism.[33] He supported the military coups of 1917 and 1926, and wrote a pamphlet in 1928

supportive of the Military Dictatorship but after the establishment of the New State, in 1933, Pessoa become disenchanted with the regime and wrote critically of Salazar and fascism in general. In the beginning of 1935, Pessoa was banned by the Salazar regimen, after he wrote in defense of Freemasonry.[34][35]

Pessoa's tomb in Lisbon, at the cloister of the Hieronymites Monastery since 1988. EPITAPH Here lies who thought himself the best Of poets in the world's extent; In life he had not joy nor rest.
Alexander Search, 1907.

Pessoa died of cirrhosis in 1935, at the age of forty-seven, with only one book published in Portuguese: "Mensagem" (Message). However, he left a lifetime of unpublished and unfinished work (over 25,000 pages manuscript and typed that have been housed in the Portuguese National Library since 1988). The heavy burden of editing this huge work is still in progress. In 1988 (the centenary of his birth), Pessoa's remains were moved to the Hieronymites Monastery, in Lisbon, where Vasco da Gama, Lus de Cames, and Alexandre Herculano are also buried. Pessoa's portrait was on the 100-escudo banknote.

[edit] Heteronyms

Pessoa's statue outside Lisbon's famous coffeehouse A Brasileira. Pessoa's earliest heteronym, at the age of six, was Chevalier de Pas. Other childhood heteronyms included Dr. Pancrcio and David Merrick, followed by Charles Robert Anon, an English young man that became Pessoa's alter ego. In 1906/7, when Pessoa was a student at Lisbon's University, Alexander Search took the place of Anon. The main reason for this was that, although Search is English, he was born in Lisbon as his author. But Search represents a transition heteronym that Pessoa used while searching to adapt to the Portuguese cultural reality. After the republican revolution, in 1910, and consequent patriotic atmosphera, Pessoa created another alter ego, lvaro de Campos, supposedly a Portuguese naval engineer graduated in Glasgow. Translator Richard Zenith notes that Pessoa eventually established at least seventy-two heteronyms.[36] According to Pessoa himself, there were three main heteronyms: Alberto Caeiro, lvaro de Campos and Ricardo Reis. The heteronyms possess distinct biographies, temperaments, philosophies, appearances and writing styles.[37] Fernando Pessoa on the heteronyms How do I write in the name of these three? Caeiro, through sheer and unexpected inspiration, without knowing or even suspecting that Im going to write in his name. Ricardo Reis, after an abstract meditation, which suddenly takes concrete shape in an ode. Campos, when I feel a sudden impulse to write and dont know what. (My semiheteronym Bernardo Soares, who in many ways resembles lvaro de Campos, always appears when I'm sleepy or drowsy, so that my qualities of inhibition and rational thought are suspended; his prose is an endless reverie. Hes a semi-heteronym because his personality, although not my own, doesnt differ from my own but is a mere mutilation of it. Hes me without my rationalism and emotions. His prose is the same as mine, except for certain formal restraint that reason imposes on my own writing, and his Portuguese is exactly the same whereas Caeiro writes bad Portuguese, Campos writes it reasonably well but with mistakes such as "me myself" instead of "I myself", etc.., and Reis writes better than I, but with a purism I find excessive...). Fernando Pessoa, "Letter to Adolfo Casais Monteiro", 13.01.1935, translated by Richard Zenith.[38]

[edit] List of known heteronyms

No. 1 Name Fernando Antonio Nogueira Pessoa Fernando Pessoa Fernando Pessoa Type Himself Notes Commercial correspondent in Lisbon

2 3

Orthonym Autonym

Poet and prose writer Poet and prose writer

Fernando Pessoa

Heteronym

Poet; a pupil of Alberto Caeiro Poet; author of O guardador de Rebanhos, O Pastor Amoroso and Poemas inconjuntos; master of heteronyms Fernando Pessoa, lvaro de Campos, Ricardo Reis and Antnio Mora Poet and prose writer, author of Odes and texts on the work of Alberto Caeiro

Alberto Caeiro Heteronym

6 7 8 9

Ricardo Reis Federico Reis lvaro de Campos Antnio Mora

Heteronym

Heteronym / Essayist; brother of Ricardo Reis, upon whom Para-heteronym he writes Heteronym Heteronym Poet and prose writer; a pupil of Alberto Caeiro Philosopher and sociologist; theorist of Neopaganism; a pupil of Alberto Caeiro

10 Claude Pasteur 11 Bernardo Soares

Heteronym / French translator of Cadernos de reconstruo Semi-heteronym pag conducted by Antnio Mora Heteronym / Poet and prose writer; author of The Book of Semi-heteronym Disquiet Heteronym / Translator, poet; director of Ibis Press; author Semi-heteronym of a paper Heteronym / Author of the text "A Coroao de Jorge Para-heteronym Quinto" Heteronym Poet and short story writer

12 Vicente Guedes 13 14 15 16 Gervasio Guedes Alexander Search Charles James Search

Heteronym / Translator and essayist; brother of Alexander Para-heteronym Search

Jean-Mluret of Heteronym / French poet and essayist Seoul Proto-heteronym Astrologer; author of Tratado da Negao and Princpios de Metaphysica Esotrica Prose writer; author of Educao do Stoica and Daphnis e Chloe

17 Rafael Baldaya Heteronym 18 Baro de Teive Heteronym 19

Charles Robert Heteronym / Poet, philosopher and story writer Anon Semi-heteronym Pseudonym / Author and puzzle-solver Proto-heteronym Heteronym / English epic character/occultist, popularized Proto-heteronym in Portuguese culture Heteronym / Para-heteronym Heteronym / Poet, storyteller and playwright Semi-heteronym

20 A. A. Crosse 21 Thomas Crosse 22 I. I. Crosse 23 David Merrick

24 Lucas Merrick 25 Pro Botelho 26 Abilio Quaresma

Heteronym / Short story writer; perhaps brother David Para-heteronym Merrick Heteronym / Pseudonym Short story writer and author of letters

Heteronym / Character inspired by Pro Botelho and author Character / of short detective stories Meta-heteronym Character / Metaheteronym? Pseudonym / Character Alias / Heteronym Character Character Character inspired by Pro Botelho and author of short detective stories Character inspired by Pro Botelho and author of short detective stories English poet and prose writer Possibly brother of Frederick Wyatt Another brother of Frederick Wyatt and resident of Paris

Inspector 27 Guedes 28 Uncle Pork 29 30 Frederick Wyatt Rev. Walter Wyatt

31 Alfred Wyatt 32 Maria Jos 33 Chevalier de Pas

Heteronym / Wrote and signed "A Carta da Corcunda para Proto-heteronym o Serralheiro" Pseudonym / Author of poems and letters Proto-heteronym Heteronym / Author of humoristic stories Proto-heteronym Heteronym / Pseudonym Psychologist and author of Ensaio sobre a Intuio

34 Efbeedee Pasha Faustino 35 Antunes / A. Moreira 36 Carlos Otto 37 Michael Otto 38 39 Sebastian Knight Horace James Faber

Heteronym / Poet and author of Tratado de Lucta Livre Proto-heteronym Probably brother of Carlos Otto who was Pseudonym / entrusted with the translation into English of Para-heteronym Tratado de Lucta Livre Proto-heteronym / Alias Heteronym / English short story writer and essayist Semi-heteronym Heteronym / Translated Horace James Faber in Portuguese Para-heteronym Heteronym / Poet and prose writer Proto-heteronym Heteronym / Deceased author of a text Pantaleo decided to Meta-heteronym publish

40 Navas 41 Pantaleo Torquato Fonseca 42 Mendes da Cunha Rey

43

Proto-heteronym Joaquim Moura Satirical poet; Republican activist; member of / SemiCosta O Phosphoro heteronym Proto-heteronym Compiler and author of the preface of a / Pseudonym sensationalist anthology in English Semi-heteronym Philosopher; author of "Historia Cmica do / Character Affonso apateiro" Proto-heteronym Author of an essay with humorous advice for / Pseudonym young poets Signed a letter written in English on April 13, 1905

44 Sher Henay 45 46 47 48 Anthony Gomes Professor Trochee

Willyam Links Character Esk Antnio de Seabra

Pseudonym / Literary critic Proto-heteronym Pseudonym / Journalist; follower of Sidonio Pereira Proto-heteronym Pseudonym Collaborator in Natal Mercury (Durban, South Africa) Character from Pessoa's childhood accompanying him until the end of his life; also signed poems

49 Joo Craveiro 50 Tagus 51 Pipa Gomes 52 Ibis 53

Draft heteronym Collaborator in O Phosphoro Character / Pseudonym

Dr. Gaudencio Proto-heteronym English-Portuguese journalist and humorist; Turnips / Pseudonym director of O Palrador Proto-heteronym Poet and author of humorous anecdotes; / Pseudonym predecessor of Dr. Pancrcio Proto-heteronym Storyteller, poet and creator of charades / Pseudonym Proto-heteronym Collaborator in O Palrador; columnist and / Pseudonym presenter of Eduardo Lana Proto-heteronym Luso-Brazilian poet / Pseudonym

54 Pip 55 Dr. Pancrcio 56 Lus Antnio Congo

57 Eduardo Lana 58 59

A. Francisco de Proto-heteronym Collaborator in O Palrador; author of "Textos Paula Angard / Pseudonym scientificos" Pedro da Silva Proto-heteronym Author and director of the section of Salles / Z Pad / Alias anecdotes at O Palrador

Jos Rodrigues Proto-heteronym Collaborator in O Palrador; author of 60 do Valle / / Alias charades; literary manager Scicio 61 Dr. Caloiro 62 Adolph Moscow Proto-heteronym Collaborator in O Palrador; reporter and / Pseudonym author of A pesca das prolas Proto-heteronym Collaborator in O Palrador; novelist and / Pseudonym author of Os Rapazes de Barrowby Proto-heteronym Author of a novel announced in O Palrador,

63 Marvell Kisch

/ Pseudonym 64 Gabriel Keene 65 Sableton-Kay 66 Morris & Theodor

called A Riqueza de um Doido

Proto-heteronym Author of a novel announced in O Palrador, / Pseudonym called Em Dias de Perigo Proto-heteronym Author of a novel announced in O Palrador, / Pseudonym called A Lucta Area Pseudonym Pseudonym Pseudonym Pseudonym Collaborator in O Palrador; author of charades Collaborator in O Palrador; author of charades Collaborator in O Palrador; author of charades Collaborator in O Palrador; author of charades Collaborator in O Palrador; author of charades Collaborator in O Palrador; author of charades

67 Diabo Azul 68 Parry 69 Gallio Pequeno

70 Urban Accursio Alias 71 Ceclia 72 Jos Rasteiro Pseudonym

Proto-heteronym Collaborator in O Palrador; author of / Pseudonym proverbs and riddles Collaborator in O Palrador; author of charades

73 Nympha Negra Pseudonym 74 Diniz da Silva 75 Herr Prosit 76 Henry More 77 Wardour 78 J. M. Hyslop 79 Vadooisf ? 80 Nuno Reis 81 Joo Caeiro

Pseudonym / Author of the poem "Loucura"; collaborator in Proto-heteronym Europe Pseudonym Translator of El estudiante de Salamanca by Jos Espronceda Poet Poet Poet Son of Ricardo Reis Son of Alberto Caeiro and Ana Taveira

Proto-heteronym Author and prose writer Character? Character? Character? Pseudonym Character?

[edit] Alberto Caeiro

No tenho ambies nem desejos Ser poeta no uma ambio minha a minha maneira de estar sozinho. ______________________________________ I have no ambitions nor desires. To be a poet is not my ambition, It's simply my way of being alone. Alberto Caeiro, "The Keeper of Herds" (O Guardador de Rebanhos), tr. Richard Zenith.

Alberto Caeiro was Pessoa's first great heteronym; summarized by Pessoa, writing: He sees things with the eyes only, not with the mind. He does not let any thoughts arise when he looks at a flower... the only thing a stone tells him is that it has nothing at all to tell him... this way of looking at a stone may be described as the totally unpoetic way of looking at it. The stupendous fact about Caeiro is that out of this sentiment, or rather, absence of sentiment, he makes poetry.[citation needed] What this means, and what makes Caeiro such an original poet is the way he apprehends existence. He does not question anything whatsoever; he calmly accepts the world as it is. The recurrent themes to be found in nearly all of Caeiro's poems are wide-eyed child-like wonder at the infinite variety of nature, as noted by a critic. He is free of metaphysical entanglements. Central to his world-view is the idea that in the world around us, all is surface: things are precisely what they seem, there is no hidden meaning anywhere. He manages thus to free himself from the anxieties that batter his peers; for Caeiro, things simply exist and we have no right to credit them with more than that. Our unhappiness, he tells us, springs from our unwillingness to limit our horizons. As such, Caeiro attains happiness by not questioning, and by thus avoiding doubts and uncertainties. He apprehends reality solely through his eyes, through his senses. What he teaches us is that if we want to be happy we ought to do the same. Octavio Paz called him the innocent poet. Paz made a shrewd remark on the heteronyms: In each are particles of negation or unreality. Reis believes in form, Campos in sensation, Pessoa in symbols. Caeiro doesn't believe in anything. He exists.[39] Poetry before Caeiro was essentially interpretative; what poets did was to offer an interpretation of their perceived surroundings; Caeiro does not do this. Instead, he attempts to communicate his senses, and his feelings, without any interpretation whatsoever. Caeiro attempts to approach Nature from a qualitatively different mode of apprehension; that of simply perceiving (an approach akin to phenomenological approaches to philosophy). Poets before him would make use of intricate metaphors to describe what was before them; not so Caeiro: his self-appointed task is to bring these objects to the reader's attention, as directly and simply as possible. Caeiro sought a direct experience of the objects before him. As such it is not surprising to find that Caeiro has been called an anti-intellectual, anti-Romantic, anti-subjectivist, anti-metaphysical...an anti-poet, by critics; Caeiro simplyis. He is in this sense very unlike his creator Fernando Pessoa: Pessoa was besieged by metaphysical uncertainties; these were, to a large extent, the cause of his unhappiness; not so Caeiro: his attitude is anti-metaphysical; he avoided uncertainties by adamantly clinging to a certainty: his belief that there is no meaning behind things. Things, for him, simplyare. Caeiro represents a primal vision of reality, of things. He is the pagan incarnate. Indeed Caeiro was not simply a pagan but paganism itself.[40] The critic Jane M. Sheets sees the insurgence of Caeirowho was Pessoa's first major heteronymas essential in founding the later poetic personas: By means of this

artless yet affirmative anti-poet, Caeiro, a short-lived but vital member of his coterie, Pessoa acquired the base of an experienced and universal poetic vision. After Caeiro's tenets had been established, the avowedly poetic voices of Campos, Reis and Pessoa himself spoke with greater assurance.[41]

[edit] Ricardo Reis

This section does not cite any references or sources. (September 2009)
Desde que sinta a brisa fresca no meu cabelo E ver o sol brilhar forte nas folhas No irei pedir por mais. Que melhor coisa podia o destino dar-me? Que a passagem sensual da vida em momentos De ignorncia como este? ___________________________________________________ As long as I feel the fresh breeze in my hair And see the sun shining strong on the leaves, I will not ask for more. What better thing could destiny grant me? Other than the sensual passing of life in moments Of ignorance such as this one? Ricardo Reis

Reis sums up his philosophy of life in his own words, admonishing: 'See life from a distance. Never question it. There's nothing it can tell you.' Like Caeiro, whom he admires, Reis defers from questioning life. He is a modern pagan who urges one to seize the day and accept fate with tranquility. 'Wise is the one who does not seek', he says; and continues: 'the seeker will find in all things the abyss, and doubt in himself.'[citation needed] In this sense Reis shares essential affinities with Caeiro. Believing in the Greek gods, yet living in a Christian Europe, Reis feels that his spiritual life is limited, and true happiness cannot be attained. This, added to his belief in Fate as a driving force for all that exists, as such disregarding freedom, leads to his epicureanist philosophy, which entails the avoidance of pain, defending that man should seek tranquility and calm above all else, avoiding emotional extremes. Where Caeiro wrote freely and spontaneously, with joviality, of his basic, meaningless connection to the world, Reis writes in an austere, cerebral manner, with premeditated rhythm and structure and a particular attention to the correct use of the language, when approaching his subjects of, as characterized by Richard Zenith, 'the brevity of life, the vanity of wealth and struggle, the joy of simple pleasures, patience in time of trouble, and avoidance of extremes'. In his detached, intellectual approach, he is closer to Fernando Pessoa's constant rationalization, as such representing the ortonym's wish for measure and sobriety and a world free of troubles and respite, in stark contrast to Caeiro's spirit and style. As such, where Caeiro's predominant attitude is that of joviality, his sadness being

accepted as natural ('My sadness,' Caeiro says, 'is a comfort for it is natural and right.'), Reis is marked by melancholy, saddened by the impermanence of all things. Ricardo Reis is the main character of Jos Saramago's 1986 novel The Year of the Death of Ricardo Reis.

[edit] lvaro de Campos

Main article: lvaro de Campos
No sou nada. Nunca serei nada. No posso querer ser nada. parte isso, tenho em mim todos os sonhos do mundo. _____________________________________________________ I am nothing. I will never be anything. I cannot wish to be anything. Bar that, I have in me all the dreams of the world. lvaro de Campos, "The Tobacco Shop" (Tabacaria), tr. Miguel Peres dos Santos.

lvaro de Campos manifests, in a way, as an hyperbolic version of Pessoa himself. Of the three heteronyms he is the one who feels most strongly, his motto being 'to feel everything in every way.' 'The best way to travel,' he wrote, 'is to feel.' As such, his poetry is the most emotionally intense and varied, constantly juggling two fundamental impulses: on the one hand a feverish desire to be and feel everything and everyone, declaring that 'in every corner of my soul stands an altar to a different god' (alluding to Walt Whitman's desire to 'contain multitudes'), on the other, a wish for a state of isolation and a sense of nothingness. As a result, his mood and principles varied between violent, dynamic exultation, as he fervently wishes to experience the entirety of the universe in himself, in all manners possible (a particularly distinctive trait in this state being his futuristic leanings, including the expression of great enthusiasm as to the meaning of city life and its components) and a state of nostalgic melancholy, where life is viewed as, essentially, empty. One of the poet's constant preoccupations, as part of his dichotomous character, is that of identity: he does not know who he is, or rather, fails at achieving an ideal identity. Wanting to be everything, and inevitably failing, he despairs. Unlike Caeiro, who asks nothing of life, he asks too much. In his poetic meditation 'Tobacco Shop' he asks: How should I know what I'll be, I who don't know what I am? Be what I think? But I think of being so many things!

[edit] Fernando Pessoa-himself

This section does not cite any references or sources. (September 2009)
O poeta um fingidor Finge to completamente Que chega a fingir que dor A dor que deveras sente _____________________________ The poet is a faker Who's so good at his act He even fakes the pain Of pain he feels in fact. Fernando Pessoa-himself, "Autopsychography" (Autopsicografia), tr. Richard Zenith.

'Fernando Pessoa-himself' is not the 'real' Fernando Pessoa. Like Caeiro, Reis and CamposPessoa 'himself' embodies only aspects of the poet Fernando Pessoa's personality is not stamped in any given voice; his personality is diffused through the heteronyms. For this reason 'Fernando Pessoa-himself' stands apart from the poet proper. 'Pessoa' shares many essential affinities with his peers, Caeiro and Campos in particular. Lines crop up in his poems that may as well be ascribed to Campos or Caeiro. It is useful to keep this in mind as we read this exposition. The critic Leland Guyer sums up 'Pessoa': "the poetry of the orthonymic Fernando Pessoa normally possesses a measured, regular form and appreciation of the musicality of verse. It takes on intellectual issues, and it is marked by concern with dreams, the imagination and mystery."[citation needed] Richard Zenith calls 'Pessoa' '[Pessoa's] most intellectual and analytic poetic persona.'[citation needed] Like lvaro de Campos, Pessoa-himself was afflicted with an acute identity crisis. Pessoa-himself has been described as indecisive and doubt plagued, as restless. Like Campos he can be melancholic, weary, resigned. The strength of Pessoa-himself's poetry rests in his ability to suggest a sense of loss; of sorrow for what can never be. A constant theme in Pessoa's poetry is Tdio, or Tedium. The dictionary defines this word simply as 'a condition of being tedious; tediousness or boredom.' This definition does not sufficiently encompass the peculiar brand of tedium experienced by Pessoahimself. His is more than simple boredom: it is from a world of weariness and disgust with life; a sense of the finality of failure; of the impossibility of having anything to want.

[edit] Summaries of selected works

[edit] Message

Mensagem, 1st. edition, 1934. Mensagem in Portuguese (from the Latin "MENS AGitat molEM", which means, "The Mind moves/commands the Matter), is a very unusual twentieth century book: it is a symbolist epic made up of 44 short poems organized in three parts or Cycles:[42] The first, called "Braso" (Coat-of-Arms), relates Portuguese historical protagonists to each of the fields and charges in the Portuguese coat-of-arms. The first two poems ("The castles" and "The escutcheons") draw inspiration from the material and spiritual natures of Portugal. Each of the remaining poems associates to each charge a historical personality. Ultimately they all lead to the Golden Age of Discovery. The second Part, called "Mar Portugus" (Portuguese Sea), references the country's Age of Portuguese Exploration and to its seaborne Empire that ended with the death of King Sebastian at Ksar-el-Kebir (in 1578). Pessoa brings the reader to the present as if he had woken up from a dream of the past, to fall in a dream of the future: he sees King Sebastian returning and still bent on accomplishing a Universal Empire, like King Arthur heading for Avalon to come back in England's hour of need. The third Cycle, called "O Encoberto" ("The Hidden One"), is the most disturbing. It refers to Pessoa's vision of a future world of peace and the Fifth Empire. After the Age of Force, (Vis), and Taedium (Otium) will come Science (understanding) through a reawakening of "The Hidden One", or "King Sebastian". The Hidden One represents the fulfillment of the destiny of mankind, designed by God since before Time, and the accomplishment of Portugal. One of the most famous quotes from Mensagem is the first line from O Infante (belonging to the second Part), which is Deus quer, o homem sonha, a obra nasce (which translates roughly to "God wishes it, man dreams it, the work is born"). That means 'Only by God's will man does', a full comprehension of man's subjection to God's wealth. Another well-known quote from Mensagem is the first line from Ulysses, "O mito o nada que tudo" (a possible translation is "The myth is the

nothing that is all"). This poem refers Ulysses, king of Ithaca, as Lisbon's founder (recalling an ancient Greek myth).[43]

[edit] Literary essays

A guia, journal of the Portuguese Renaissance, nr. 4, April 1912. In 1912, Fernando Pessoa wrote a set of essays (later collected as The New Portuguese Poetry) for the cultural journal A guia (The Eagle), founded in Oporto, in December 1910, and run by the republican association Renascena Portuguesa.[44] In the first years of the Portuguese Republic, this cultural association was started by republican intellectuals led by the writer and poet Teixeira de Pascoaes, philosopher Leonardo Coimbra and historian Jaime Corteso, aiming for the renewal of Portuguese culture through the aesthetic movement called Saudosismo.[45] Pessoa contributed to the journal A guia with a series of papers: 'The new Portuguese Poetry Sociologically Considered' (nr. 4), 'Relapsing...' (nr. 5) and 'The Psychological Aspect of the new Portuguese Poetry' (nrs. 9,11 and 12). These writings were strongly encomiastic to saudosist literature, namely the poetry of Teixeira de Pascoaes and Mrio Beiro. The articles disclose Pessoa as a connoisseur of modern European literature and an expert of recent literary trends. On the other hand, he does not care much for a methodology of analysis or problems in the history of ideas. He states his confidence that Portugal would soon produce a great poet - a super-Cames pledged to make an important contribution for European culture, and indeed, for humanity.[46]

[edit] Philosophical essays

The philosophical notes of young Fernando Pessoa, mostly written between 1905 and 1912, illustrate his debt to the history of Philosophy more through commentators than through a first-hand protracted reading of the Classics, ancient or modern.[citation needed] The issues he engages with pertain to every philosophical discipline and concern a large profusion of concepts, creating a vast semantic spectrum in texts whose length oscillates between half a dozen lines and half a dozen pages and whose density of

analysis is extremely variable; simple paraphrasis, expression of assumptions and original speculation. Pessoa sorted the philosophical systems thus:

A passage from his famous poem "Mar Portugus" from "Message", in the city of Lagos, Portugal. 1. Relative Spiritualism and relative Materialism privilege "Spirit" or "Matter" as the main pole that organizes data around Experience. 2. Absolute Spiritualist and Absolute Materialist "deny all objective reality to one of the elements of Experience". 3. The materialistic Pantheism of Spinoza and the spiritualizing Pantheism of Malebranche, "admit that experience is a double manifestation of any thing that in its essence has no matter neither spirit". 4. Considering both elements as an illusory manifestation", of a transcendent and true and alone realities, there is Transcendentalism, inclined into matter with Schopenhauer, or into spirit, a position where Bergson could be emplaced. 5. A terminal system "the limited and summit of metaphysics" would not radicalize - as poles of experience one of the singled categories - matter, relative, absolute, real, illusory, spirit. Instead, matching all categories, it takes contradiction as "the essence of the universe" and defends that "an affirmation is so more true insofar the more contradiction involves". The transcendent must be conceived beyond categories. There is one only and eternal example of it. It is that cathedral of thought -the philosophy of Hegel. Such pantheist transcendentalism is used by Pessoa to define the project that "encompasses and exceeds all systems"; to characterize the new poetry of Saudosismo where the "typical contradiction of this system" occurs; to inquire of the particular social and political results of its adoption as the leading cultural paradigm; and, at last, he hints that metaphysics and religiosity strive "to find in everything a beyond".

[edit] Works

Collected Poems of lvaro de Campos, 2, Chris Daniels, transl, Exeter, UK: Shearsman Books, 2009 [192835], ISBN 978-1-905700-25-7, http://www.shearsman.com/pages/books/catalog/2009/pessoa_campos.html Lisbon: What the Tourist Should See, Exeter, UK: Shearsman Books, 2008, ISBN [[Special:BookSources/978190570752|978190570752]], http://www.shearsman.com/pages/books/catalog/2008/pessoa_lisbon.html The Collected Poems of Alberto Caeiro, Chris Daniels, transl, Exeter, UK: Shearsman Books, 2007, ISBN 978-1-905700-24-0, http://www.shearsman.com/pages/books/catalog/2007/pessoa_caeiro.html Selected English Poems, Exeter, UK: Shearsman Books, 2007, ISBN 978-1905700-26-4, http://www.shearsman.com/pages/books/catalog/2007/pessoa_engl.html Message, Jonathan Griffin, transl, Exeter, UK: Shearsman Books, 2007, ISBN 978-1-905700-27-1, http://www.shearsman.com/pages/books/catalog/2007/pessoa_msg.html Selected English Poems , ed. Tony Frazer, Exeter (UK): Shearsman Books, 2007. ISBN 1-905700-26-1 A Centenary Pessoa, tr. Keith Bosley & L. C. Taylor, foreword by Octavio Paz, Carcanet Press, 2006. ISBN 1-85754-724-1 A Little Larger Than the Entire Universe: Selected Poems, tr. Richard Zenith, Penguin Classics, 2006. ISBN 0-14-303955-5 The Education of the Stoic, tr. Richard Zenith, afterword by Antonio Tabucchi, Exact Change, 2004. ISBN 1-878972-40-5 The Book of Disquiet, tr. Richard Zenith, Penguin classics, 2003. ISBN 978-014-118304-6 The Selected Prose of Fernando Pessoa, tr. Richard Zenith, Grove Press, 2002. ISBN 0-8021-3914-0 Sheep's Vigil by a Fervent Person: A Transelation of Alberto Caeiro/Fernando Pessoa, tr. Eirin Moure, House of Anansi, 2001. ISBN 088784-660-2 The Selected Prose of Fernando Pessoa, Richard Zenith, transl, New York, USA: Grove Press, 2001, ISBN 978-0-8021-3914-6, http://books.google.pt/books?id=yrp9Fu168uYC&printsec=frontcover&source =gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false Selected Poems: with New Supplement tr. Jonathan Griffin, Penguin Classics; 2nd edition, 2000. ISBN 0-14-118433-7 Fernando Pessoa & Co: Selected Poems, tr. Richard Zenith, Grove Press, 1999. ISBN 0-8021-3627-3 Poems of Fernando Pessoa, Edwin Honig & Susan Brown, transl, San Francisco, USA: City Lights Books, 1998, ISBN 978-0-87286-342-2, http://books.google.pt/books?id=klT3KN2V2JgC&printsec=frontcover&sourc e=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false The Keeper of Sheep, bilingual edition, tr. Edwin Honig & Susan M. Brown, Sheep Meadow, 1997. ISBN 1-878818-45-7 Message, tr. Jonathan Griffin, introduction by Helder Macedo, Menard Press, 1992. ISBN 1-905700-27-X The Book of Disquietude, tr. Richard Zenith, Carcanet Press, 1991. ISBN 014-118304-7 The Book of Disquiet, tr. Iain Watson, Quartet Books, 1991. ISBN 0-70430153-9

The Book of Disquiet, tr. Alfred Mac Adam, New York NY: Pantheon Books, 1991. ISBN 0-679-40234-9 The Book of Disquiet, tr. Margaret Jull Costa, London, New York NY: Serpent's Tail, 1991, ISBN 1-85242-204-1 Fernando Pessoa: Self-Analysis and Thirty Other Poems, tr. George Monteiro, Gavea-Brown Publications, 1989. ISBN 0-943722-14-4 Always Astonished, tr. Edwin Honig, San Francisco CA: City Lights Books, 1988. ISBN 978-0-87286-228-9 Always Astonished: selected prose, Edwin Honig, transl, San Francisco, USA: City Lights Books, 1988, ISBN 978-0-87286-228-9, http://books.google.pt/books?id=XZYYXErWaB0C&printsec=frontcover&so urce=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false Selected Poems, tr. Edwin Honig, Swallow Press, 1971. ISBN B000XU4FE4 English Poems, 2 vol. (vol. 1 part I Antinous, part II Inscriptions; vol. 2 part III Epithalamium), Lisbon: Olisipo, 1921 (vol. 1, 20 pp.; vol. 2, 16 pp., 24 cm). Portugal: PURL. 35 Sonnets, Lisbon: Monteiro & Co., 1918 (20 pp., 20 cm). Portugal: PURL. Antinous: a poem, Lisbon: Monteiro & Co., 1918 (16 p., 20 cm). Portugal: PURL. The anarchist banker and other Portuguese stories Carcanet Press, 1996

[edit] See also

Orpheu heteronym Portuguese Poetry Andrs Fischer Muoz The Book Of Disquietude The Year of the Death of Ricardo Reis

[edit] References
1. ^ a b Zenith, Richard (2008), Fotobiografias Sculo XX: Fernando Pessoa, Lisboa: Crculo de Leitores. 2. ^ The Natal Mercury 3. ^ Monteiro, Maria da Encarnao (1961), Incidncias Inglesas na Poesia de Fernando Pessoa, Coimbra: author ed. 4. ^ Jennings, H. D. (1984), Os Dois Exilios, Porto: Centro de Estudos Pessoanos 5. ^ Pessoa, Fernando. Escritos Autobiogrficos, Automticos e de Reflexo Pessoal, ed. Richard Zenith. Lisboa: Assrio & Alvim, 2003, pp. 394398. 6. ^ Orpheu nr.1 7. ^ Orpheu, Project Gutenberg, http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/23621. 8. ^ This name has a very long literary tradition: the elegiac poem Ibis by Ovid was inspired in the lost poem of the same title by Callimachus. 9. ^ Zenith, Richard (2008) (in Portuguese), Fernando Pessoa, Fotobiografias do Sculo XX, Lisboa: Crculo de Leitores, p. 78. 10. ^ Orpheu, Portuguese National Library, JanMar 1915, http://purl.pt/12089/2/. 11. ^ Saraiva, Arnaldo, ed. (in Portuguese), Orpheu, Lisboa: Edies tica. 12. ^ Zenith, Richard (2008), Fotobiografias do Sculo XX: Fernando Pessoa. Lisboa: Crculo de Leitores, pp. 194-195.

13. ^ Guerreiro, Ricardina (2004), De Luto por Existir: a melancolia de Bernardo Soares luz de Walter Benjamin. Lisboa: Assrio & Alvim, p. 159. 14. ^ Sousa, Joo Rui de (2010), Fernando Pessoa Empregado de Escritrio, 2nd ed. Lisboa: Assrio & Alvim. 15. ^ Teatro Nacional de So Carlos, Lisbon's Opera House. 16. ^ Dias, Marina Tavares (2002), Lisboa nos Passos de Pessoa: uma cidade revisitada atravs da vida e da obra do poeta [Lisbon in Pessoa's footsteps: a Lisbon tour through the life and poetry of Fernando Pessoa], Lisboa: Quimera. 17. ^ Pessoa, Fernando (2006) [1992] (in Portuguese/English), Lisboa: o que o turista deve ver (3rd ed.), Lisboa: Livros Horizonte, http://www.livroshorizonte.pt/catalogo_detalhe.php?idLivro=895 18. ^ Pessoa, Fernando (2008), Lisbon: what the tourist should see, Exeter, UK: Shearsman Books, http://www.shearsman.com/pages/books/catalog/2008/pessoa_lisbon.html. 19. ^ Botto, Antnio (2010), The Songs of Antnio Botto translated by Fernando Pessoa. Edited and with an introduction By Josiah Blackmore. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, ISBN 978-0-8166-7101-4. 20. ^ Published in a serial in the Portuguese Journal Ilustrao, from January 1, 1926, without a reference to the translator, as usual. 21. ^ Athena nrs. 1 (October, 1924) and 4 (January, 1925). 22. ^ A Voz do Silncio (The Voice of Silence) at the Portuguese National Library. Besant, Annie (1915), Os Ideaes da Theosophia, tr. Fernando Pessoa. Lisboa: Clssica Editora Leadbeater, C. W. (1915), Compndio de Theosophia, tr. Fernando Pessoa. Lisboa: Clssica Editora. Leadbeater, C. W. (1916) Auxiliares Invisveis, tr. Fernando Pessoa. Lisboa: Clssica Editora. Leadbeater, C. W. (1916), A Clarividncia, tr. Fernando Pessoa. Lisboa: Clssica Editora. (1916), A Voz do Silncio: e outros fragmentos selectos do Livro dos Preceitos Aureos, tr. ingleza e anot. por H. P. B., verso portuguesa de Fernando Pessoa. Lisboa: Clssica Editora. (1916), Luz Sobre o Caminho e o Karma, transcriptos por M. C., com notas, commentarios, traduco de Fernando Pessoa. Lisboa: Clssica Editora. 23. ^ Ana Lusa Pinheiro Nogueira, his mother's sister was also his godmother, a widow with two children, Maria and Mrio, less younger than Pessoa. She traveled to Switzerland in November 1914, with her daughter, recently married, and son-in-law. 24. ^ Pessoa, Fernando (1999), Correspondncia 1905-1922, Lisbon: Assrio & Alvim, ISBN 978-85-7164-916-3. 25. ^ Cardoso, Paulo (2011), Fernando Pessoa, cartas astrolgicas, Lisbon: Bertrand editora, ISBN 978-972-25-2261-8. 26. ^ The magical world of Fernando Pessoa, Nthposition, http://www.nthposition.com/themagicalworldof.php. 27. ^ Presena nr. 33 (JulyOctober, 1931). 28. ^ PASI, Marco (2002), "The Influence of Aleister Crowley on Fernando Pessoa's Esoteric Writings", The Magical Link 9 (5): 411. 29. ^ Terlinden, Anne (1990), Fernando Pessoa, the bilingual Portuguese poet: A Critical Study of "The Mad Fidler", Bruxels: Facults Universitaires Saint-Louis, ISBN 978-2-8028-0075-0, http://books.google.com/?id=pofTVSteuaIC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f= false. 30. ^ Antinous, at the Portuguese National Library, http://purl.pt/13961/2/f. 31. ^ 35 Sonnets at the Portuguese National Library. 32. ^ The Times Literary Supplement, September 19, 1918. Athenaeum, January, 1919.

33. ^ {{citation | last = Serro (int. and org.) | first = Joel | year = 1980 | title = Fernando Pessoa, Ultimatum e Pginas de Sociologia Poltica | place = Lisboa | publisher = tica. 34. ^ Darlene Joy Sadlier An introduction to Fernando Pessoa: modernism and the paradoxes of authorship, University Press of Florida, 1998, pp. 447. 35. ^ Maconaria.net 36. ^ The Book of Disquiet, tr. Richard Zenith, Penguin classics, 2003. 37. ^ Letter to Adolfo Casais Monteiro, 13 January 1935. 38. ^ Pessoa, Fernando (2003), The Book of Disquiet, tr. Richard Zenith. London: Penguin classics, p. 474. 39. ^ PAZ, Octavio (1983), El Desconocido de Si Mismo: Fernando Pessoa in Los Signos en Rotacion y Otros Ensayos, Madrid: Alianza Editorial. 40. ^ Pessoa, Fernando, Notas Para Recordao do Meu Mestre Caeiro in Presena nr. 30, Jan.-Feb. 1930, Coimbra. 41. ^ Sheets, Jane M., Fernando Pessoa as Anti-Poet: Alberto Caeiro, in Bulletin of Hispanic Studies, Vol. XLVI, Nr. 1, January 1969, pp. 3947. 42. ^ Message, Tr. by Jonathan Griffin, Exeter: Shearsman Books, 2007. 43. ^ Mensagem 1st. edition, 1934, at the Portuguese National Library. 44. ^ Martins, Fernando Cabral (coord.) (2008). Dicionrio de Fernando Pessoa e do Modernismo Portugus. Alfragide: Editorial Caminho. 45. ^ The Portuguese Republic was founded by the revolution of October 5, 1910, giving freedom of association and publishing. 46. ^ Pessoa, Fernando (1993). Textos de Crtica e de Interveno. Lisboa: Edies tica.

[edit] Further reading

[edit] Books

Adverse Genres in Fernando Pessoa Jackson, Kenneth David, 2010. Embodying Pessoa: corporeality, gender, sexuality / Klobucka, Anna and Mark Sabine, eds. 2007 (Portuguese edition 2010). Portuguese Writers (Dictionary of Literary Biography) / Rector, Mnica. 2004 Atlantic Poets: Fernando Pessoa's turn in Anglo-American Modernism Santos, Maria Irene Ramalho Sousa 2003 Genius: A Mosaic of One Hundred Exemplary Creative Minds / Bloom, Harold. 2002 Spanish and Portuguese literatures and their times: The Iberian peninsula / Moss, Joyce. 2002 Stevens, Dana Shawn, "A local habitation and a name heteronymy and nationalism in Fernando Pessoa", PhD Dissertation, University of California, Berkeley. 2001 Modernism's Gambit: Poetry Problems and Chess Stratagemes in Fernando Pessoa and Jorge Luis Borges / Pea, Karen Patricia. 2000 Fernando Pessoa and nineteenth-century Anglo-American literature Monteiro, George 2000 Pessoa's Alberto Caeiro / (Issue of Portuguese Literary and Cultural Studies, University of Massachusetts Dartmouth). 2000 Dreams of dreams: and, The last three days of Fernando Pessoa / Tabucchi, Antonio. 1999

The presence of Pessoa: English, American, and Southern African literary responses Monteiro, George 1998 An Introduction to Fernando Pessoa: Modernism and the Paradoxes of Authorship Sadlier, Darlene 1998 Modern art in Portugal: 1910-1940 : the artist contemporaries of Fernando Pessoa / Serra, Joao. 1998 A Centenary Pessoa / Pessoa, Fernando. 1997 Fernando Pessoa: photographic documentation and caption / Lancastre, Maria Jose de. 1997 Fernando Pessoa: Voices of a Nomadic Soul / Kotowicz, Zbigniew. 1996 The Western Canon / Bloom, Harold. 1994 The Continuing Presence of Walt Whitman: the Life after the Life / Martin, Robert. 1992 Fernando Pessoa: the Bilingual Portuguese Poet Terlinden-Villepin, Anne 1990 Three Persons on One: A Centenary Tribute to Fernando Pessoa / McGuirk, Bernard. 1988 Modern Spanish and Portuguese literatures / Marshall J Schneider. 1988 Fernando Pessoa, a Galaxy of Poets / Carvalho, Maria Helena Rodrigues de. 1985 Fernando Pessoa's The Mad Fiddler: A Critical Study / Terlinden-Villepin, Anne. 1984 The Man Who Never Was: Essays on Fernando Pessoa / Monteiro, George. 1982 Fernando Pessoa: the genesis of the heteronyms / Green, J. C. R. 1982 Spatial Imagery of Enclosure in the Poetry of Fernando Pessoa / Guyer, Leland Robert. 1979 The Role of the Other in the Poetry of Fernando Pessoa / Jones, Marilyn Scarantino. 1974 Selected Poems of Fernando Pessoa / Rickard, Peter. 1972 Studies in modern Portuguese literature / Faria, Almeida. 1971 Three Twentieth-Century Portuguese Poets / Parker M., John. 1960

[edit] Articles

Riccardi, Mattia, "Dionysus or Apollo? The heteronym Antonio Mora as moment of Nietzsche's reception by Pessoa" in Portuguese Studies 23 (1), 109, 2007. Suarez, Jose, "Fernando Pessoa's acknowledged involvement with the occult" in Hispania 90 (2): 245-252, May 2007. De Castro, Mariana, "Oscar Wilde, Fernando Pessoa, and the art of lying" in Portuguese Studies 22 (2): 219-+ 2006 Beyer, Bethany, "Borges and Pessoa: Authorial voices and esoteric reflections", M.A. Dissertation, Brigham Young University., 2006 Ribeiro, A. S., "A tradition of empire: Fernando Pessoa and Germany" in Portuguese Studies 21: 201-209 2005 begin_of_the_skype_highlighting 201-209 2005 end_of_the_skype_highlighting Hale, Michelle, "Ironic multiplicity: Fernando's "pessoas" suspended in Kierkegaardian irony", M. A. Dissertation, Brigham Young University., 2004

McNeill, Pods, "The aesthetic of fragmentation and the use of personae in the poetry of Fernando Pessoa and W.B. Yeats" in Portuguese Studies 19: 110121 2003 Muldoon P., "In the hall of mirrors: 'Autopsychography' by Fernando Pessoa" in New England Review 23 (4), Fal 2002, pp. 3852 Bloom, Harold, "Fernando Pessoa", in Genius: a mosaic of one hundred exemplary creative minds: Pub. New York: Warner Books., 2002 Steiner, George, "A man of many parts" in The Observer, Sunday, 3 June 2001. Wallace, James, "Cames, Pessoa, Bloom and the poetry of heteronomy as solution for the anxiety of influence", M.A. Dissertation, Brigham Young University, 2000. Bamforth, I., "An Introduction to Fernando Pessoa: Modernism and the paradoxes of authorship" in Parnassus 24 (1), 1999, pp. 286303. Bamforth, I., "The presence of Pessoa: English, American and Southern African literary responses" Parnassus 24 (1), 1999, pp. 286303. Hicks, J., "The Fascist imaginary in Pessoa and Pirandello" in Centennial Review 42 (2): 309-332 SPR 1998 Mahr, G., "Pessoa, life narrative, and the dissociative process" in Biography 21 (1) Winter 1998, pp. 2535. Haberly, David T., "Fernando Pessoa: Overview" in Reference Guide to World Literature, second ed., edited by Lesley Henderson, St. James Press, 1995. Lopes J. M., "Cubism and intersectionism in Fernando Pessoa's 'Chuva Obliqua" in Texte(15-16),1994, pp. 6395. Zenith, Richard, "Pessoa, Fernando and the Theater of his Self" in Performing Arts Journal(44), May 1993, pp. 4749. Anderson, R. N., "The Static Drama of Pessoa, Fernando" in Hispanofila (104): 89-97 January 1992 Severino, Alexandrino E., "Was Pessoa Ever in South Africa?" in Hispania, Volume 74, Number 3, September 1991 Brown, S.M., "The Whitman Pessoa Connection" in Walt Whitman Quarterly Review 9 (1): 1-14 SUM 1991. Eberstadt, Fernanda, "Proud of His Obscurity", in The New York Times Book Review, Vol 96, September 1, 1991, p. 26. Dyer, Geoff, "Heteronyms" in The New Statesman, Vol. 4, December 6, 1991, p. 46. Monteiro, George, "The Song of the Reaper-Pessoa and Wordsworth" in Portuguese Studies 5, 1989, pp. 7180. Cruz, Anne J., "Masked Rhetoric: Contextuality in Fernando Pessoa's Poems", in Romance Notes, Vol. XXIX, No. 1, Fall, 1988, pp. 5560. Hollander, John, "Quadrophenia", in New Republic, September 7, 1987, pp. 336. Rosenthal, David H., "Unpredictable Passions", in The New York Times Book Review, December 13, 1987, p. 32. Guyer, Leland, "Fernando Pessoa and the Cubist Perspective", in Hispania, Vol. 70, No. 1, March 1987, pp. 7378. Bunyan, D, "The South-African Pessoa: Fernando 20th Century Portuguese Poet", in English in Africa 14 (1), May 1987, pp. 67105.

Seabra, J.A., "Pessoa, Fernando Portuguese Modernist Poet", in Europe 62 (660): 41-53 1984 Severino, Alexandrino E., "Pessoa, Fernando - A Modern Lusiad", in Hispania 67 (1): 52-60 1984 Howes, R. W., "Pessoa, Fernando, Poet, Publisher, and Translator", in British Library Journal 9 (2): 161-170 1983 Sousa, Ronald W., "The Structure of Pessoa's Mensagem", in Bulletin of Hispanic Studies, Vol. LIX, No. 1, January 1982, pp. 5866. Severino, Alexandrino E., "Fernando Pessoa's Legacy: The Presena and After", in World Literature Today, Vol. 53, No. 1, Winter, 1979, pp. 59. Jennings, Hubert D., "In Search of Fernando Pessoa" in Contrast 47 - South African Quarterly, Volume 12 No. 3, June 1979. Wood, Michael, "Mod and Great" in The New York Review of Books, Vol. XIX, No. 4, September 21, 1972, pp. 1922. Sheets, Jane M., "Fernando Pessoa as Anti-Poet: Alberto Caeiro", in Bulletin of Hispanic Studies, Vol. XLVI, No. 1, January 1969, pp. 3947.

Jos Saramago
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Jos Saramago

Jos de Sousa Saramago Born 16 November 1922 Azinhaga, Santarm, Portugal 18 June 2010 (aged 87) Tas, Lanzarote Island, Spain Novelist Playwright

Died

Occupation

Nationality Period Notable work(s)

Portuguese 19472010 Death with Interruptions; The Gospel According to Jesus Christ; Blindness; Cain Prmio Cames

Notable award(s)

1995 Nobel Prize in Literature 1998

Spouse(s)

Pilar del Rio (1952-2010)

Influences

Jorge Luis Borges,[1] Miguel de Cervantes,[1] Machado de Assis, Michel de Montaigne,[1] Ea de Queiroz, Nikolai Gogol,[1] Franz Kafka,[1] Karl Marx, Fernando Pessoa, Marcel Proust, Ludwig Wittgenstein

Signature

www.josesaramago.org/saramago/

Jos de Sousa Saramago, GColSE (Portuguese: [uz d soz s mau]; 16 November 1922 18 June 2010) was a Portuguese novelist, poet, playwright, journalist and recipient of the 1998 Nobel Prize in Literature. His works, some of which can be seen as allegories, commonly present subversive perspectives on historic events, emphasizing the human factor. Harold Bloom has described Saramago as "a permanent part of the Western canon".[2] Awarded the 1998 Nobel Prize in Literature,[3] more than two million copies of Saramago's books have been sold in Portugal alone and his work has been translated into 25 languages.[4][5] He founded the National Front for the Defence of Culture

(Lisbon, 1992) with Freitas-Magalhes and others. A proponent of libertarian communism,[6] Saramago came into conflict with some groups, such as the Catholic Church. Saramago was an atheist who defended love as an instrument to improve the human condition. In 1992, the Portuguese government, under Prime Minister Anbal Cavaco Silva, ordered the removal of The Gospel According to Jesus Christ from the European Literary Prize's shortlist, claiming the work was religiously offensive. Disheartened by this political censorship of his work,[7] Saramago went into exile on the Spanish island of Lanzarote, upon which he resided until his death in 2010.[8][9] At the time of his death, Saramago was married to Spanish journalist Pilar del Rio, and had a daughter from a previous marriage.[9] The European Writers Parliament came about as a result of a joint proposal by Saramago and Orhan Pamuk; Saramago was expected to speak as the guest of honour at the EWP however he died before its opening ceremony in 2010.[10]

Contents

1 Biography o 1.1 Early and middle life o 1.2 Later life and international acclaim o 1.3 Nobel Prize 2 Style and themes 3 Politics 4 Atheism o 4.1 Death and funeral 5 Lost novel 6 Bibliography 7 See also 8 References o 8.1 Bibliography 9 External links

[edit] Biography
[edit] Early and middle life
Saramago was born in 1922 into a family of landless peasants in Azinhaga, Portugal, a small village in Ribatejo Province some hundred kilometers northeast of Lisbon.[8] His parents were Jos de Sousa and Maria de Piedade. "Saramago", a wild herbaceous plant known in English as the wild radish, was his father's family's nickname, and was accidentally incorporated into his name upon registration of his birth.[8] In 1924, Saramago's family moved to Lisbon, where his father started working as a policeman. A few months after the family moved to the capital, his brother Francisco, older by two years, died. He spent vacations with his grandparents in Azinhaga. When his grandfather suffered a stroke and was to be taken to Lisbon for treatment, Saramago recalled, "He went into the yard of his house, where there were a few trees, fig trees,

olive trees. And he went one by one, embracing the trees and crying, saying good-bye to them because he knew he would not return. To see this, to live this, if that doesn't mark you for the rest of your life," Saramago said, "you have no feeling."[11] Although Saramago was a good pupil, his parents were unable to afford to keep him in grammar school, and instead moved him to a technical school at age 12. After graduating, he worked as a car mechanic for two years. Later he worked as a translator, then as a journalist. He was assistant editor of the newspaper Dirio de Notcias, a position he had to leave after the democratic revolution in 1974.[8] After a period of working as a translator he was able to support himself as a writer. Saramago married Ilda Reis in 1944. Their only child, Violante, was born in 1947.[8] From 1952 until his death in June 2010 Saramago was married to the Spanish journalist Pilar del Ro, who is the official translator of his books into Spanish.[8]

[edit] Later life and international acclaim

Saramago did not achieve widespread recognition and acclaim until he was sixty, with the publication of his fourth novel, Memorial do Convento (literally, Memoir of the Convent). A baroque tale set during the Inquisition in 18th-century Lisbon, it tells of the love between a maimed soldier and a young clairvoyant, and of a renegade priest's heretical dream of flight. The novel's translation in 1988 as Baltasar and Blimunda, by Giovanni Pontiero, brought Saramago to the attention of an international readership.[8][12] This novel won the Portuguese PEN Club Award. He became a member of the Portuguese Communist Party in 1969 and remained so until the end of his life.[13] Saramago was also an atheist[14] and self-described pessimist.[15] His views have aroused considerable controversy in Portugal, especially after the publication of The Gospel According to Jesus Christ.[16] Members of the country's Catholic community were outraged by Saramago's representation of Jesus and particularly God as fallible, even cruel human beings. Portugal's conservative government, then led by prime minister Cavaco Silva, would not allow Saramago's work to compete for the European Literary Prize,[8] arguing that it offended the Catholic community. As a result, Saramago and his wife moved to Lanzarote, an island in the Spanish Canaries.[17]

[edit] Nobel Prize

Saramago was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1998. The announcement came when he was about to fly to Germany ahead of the Frankfurt Book Fair, and caught both him and his editor by surprise.[8] The Nobel committee praised his "parables sustained by imagination, compassion and irony", and his "modern skepticism" about official truths.[12]

[edit] Style and themes

Saramago at Teatro Jorge Elicer Gaitn in Bogot in 2007. Saramago's experimental style often features long sentences, at times more than a page long. He uses periods sparingly, choosing instead a loose flow of clauses joined by commas.[8] Many of his paragraphs extend for pages without pausing for dialogue, (which Saramago chooses not to delimit by quotation marks); when the speaker changes, Saramago capitalizes the first letter of the new speaker's clause. His works often refer to his other works.[8] In his novel Blindness, Saramago completely abandons the use of proper nouns, instead referring to characters simply by some unique characteristic, an example of his style reflecting the recurring themes of identity and meaning found throughout his work. Saramago's novels often deal with fantastic scenarios, such as that in his 1986 novel The Stone Raft, in which the Iberian Peninsula breaks off from the rest of Europe and sails around the Atlantic Ocean. In his 1995 novel Blindness, an entire unnamed country is stricken with a mysterious plague of "white blindness". In his 1984 novel The Year of the Death of Ricardo Reis (which won the PEN Award and the Independent Foreign Fiction Award), Fernando Pessoa's heteronym survives for a year after the poet himself dies. Additionally, his novel Death with Interruptions (also translated as Death at Intervals) takes place in a country in which, suddenly, nobody dies, and concerns, in part, the spiritual and political implications of the event, although the book ultimately moves from a synoptic to a more personal perspective. Using such imaginative themes, Saramago addresses the most serious of subject matters with empathy for the human condition and for the isolation of contemporary urban life. His characters struggle with their need to connect with one another, form relations and bond as a community, and also with their need for individuality, and to find meaning and dignity outside of political and economic structures. When asked to describe his daily writing routine in 2009, Saramago responded, "I write two pages. And then I read and read and read."[18]

[edit] Politics

Saramago by Portuguese painter Carlos Botelho. Saramago was a proponent of anarcho-communism,[6] and a member of the Communist Party of Portugal.[9] As a member of his PCP he stood for the 1989 Lisbon Local election in the list of the Coalition "For Lisbon" and was elected Alderman and presiding officer of the Municipal Assembly of Lisbon.[19] Saramago was also a candidate of the Democratic Unity Coalition to the European Parliament in all the elections from 1989 to 2009, usually in positions with no possibility of being elected.[19] Saramago was a critic of the European Union and the International Monetary Fund.[8] In his novel Blindness, the communist principle of from each according to his ability, to each according to his need is stated in a positive light.[20] In a 2008 press conference for the filming of Blindness he stated, in reference to the global financial crisis, that "Marx was never so right as now"[21] Although many of his novels are acknowledged political satire of a subtle kind, it is in The Notebook that Saramago makes his political convictions most clear. The book, written from a Marxist perspective, is a collection of his blog articles for the year September 2008 to August 2009. According to The Independent, "Saramago aims to cut through the web of 'organized lies' surrounding humanity, and to convince readers by delivering his opinions in a relentless series of unadorned, knock-down prose blows."[22] His political engagement has led to comparisons with George Orwell: "Orwell's hostility to the British Empire runs parallel to Saramago's latter-day crusade against empire in the shape of globalisation."[23] When speaking to The Observer in 2006 he said "The painter paints, the musician makes music, the novelist writes novels. But I believe that we all have some influence, not because of the fact that one is an artist, but because we are citizens. As citizens, we all have an obligation to intervene and become involved, it's the citizen who changes things. I can't imagine myself outside any kind of social or political involvement."[24] During a visit to Ramallah in March 2002 during the second intifada, Saramago compared the Palestinian city, which was blockaded at the time by the Israeli army, to concentration camps. Some critics claimed Saramago's statement was antisemitic.[9][25][26][27][28][29] During the 2006 Lebanon War, Saramago joined Tariq Ali, John Berger, Noam Chomsky, and others in condemning what they characterized as "a long-term military, economic and geographic practice whose political aim is nothing less than the liquidation of the Palestinian nation".[30]

He was also a supporter of Iberian Federalism.

[edit] Atheism
Saramago was an outspoken atheist and a prominent critic of religion. Due to some of his novels, mainly The Gospel According to Jesus Christ and Cain, where he uses satire and bible quotes to describe the figure of God as being of the highest cruelty, he came several times into conflict with the Catholic Church. The Portuguese government lambasted his 1991 novel O Evangelho Segundo Jesus Cristo (The Gospel according to Jesus Christ) and struck the writer's name from nominees for the European Literature Prize, saying the atheist work offended Portuguese Catholic convictions. The book portrays a Christ who, subject to human desires, lives with Mary Magdalene and tries to back out of the crucifixion.[31]

[edit] Death and funeral

"Thank you Jos Saramago", Lisbon, october 2010. Saramago suffered from leukemia. He died on 18 June 2010, aged 87, having spent the last few years of his life in Lanzarote, Spain.[32] His family said that he had breakfast and chatted with his wife and translator Pilar del Rio on Friday morning, after which he started feeling unwell and passed away.[33] The Guardian described him as "the finest Portuguese writer of his generation",[32] while Fernanda Eberstadt of The New York Times said he was "known almost as much for his unfaltering Communism as for his fiction".[4] Saramago's translator, Margaret Jull Costa, paid tribute to him, describing his "wonderful imagination" and calling him "the greatest contemporary Portuguese writer".[32] Saramago had continued his writing until his death. His most recent publication, Cain, was published in 2009, with an English translation made available in August 2010. Saramago had suffered from pneumonia a year before his death. Having been thought to have made a full recovery, he had been scheduled to attend the Edinburgh International Book Festival in August 2010.[32] Portugal declared two days of mourning.[6][7] There were verbal tributes from senior international politicians: Luiz Incio Lula da Silva (Brazil), Bernard Kouchner (France) and Jos Luis Rodrguez Zapatero (Spain), while Cuba's Ral and Fidel Castro sent floral tributes.[6] Saramago's funeral was held in Lisbon on 20 June 2010, in the presence of more than 20,000 people, many of whom had travelled hundreds of kilometres, but also notably in the absence of right-wing President of Portugal Anbal Cavaco Silva who holidayed

in Azores as the ceremony took place.[34] Silva, the Prime Minister when Saramago's name was removed from the shortlist of the European Literary Prize, said he did not attend Saramago's funeral because he "had never had the privilege to know him".[7] Mourners, who questioned Silva's absence in the presence of reporters,[7] held copies of the red carnation, symbolic of Portugal's democratic revolution.[34] Saramago's cremation took place in Lisbon,[34] with his ashes being scattered in his birthplace of Azinhaga and in Tias in Lanzarote, his home until his death.[6]

[edit] Lost novel

The Jose Saramago Foundation announced in October 2011 the publication of a so called "lost novel" published as The Clairvoyant (A Claraboia in Portuguese). It was written in the 50's and remained buried in the archive of a publisher that the manuscript was sent to. Saramago remained silent about the work up to his death. The book has been translated to other languages though not yet to English.[35]

[edit] Bibliography
Title Year English title Year ISBN

Terra do Pecado

1947 Land of Sin

ISBN 97221-1145-0

Os Poemas Possveis Provavelmente Alegria Deste Mundo e do Outro A Bagagem do Viajante As Opinies que o DL teve O Ano de 1993 Os Apontamentos Manual de Pintura e Caligrafia Objecto Quase Levantado do Cho Viagem a Portugal Memorial do Convento O Ano da Morte de

1966 Possible Poems 1970 Probably Joy This World and the Other The Traveller's 1973 Baggage 1971 1974 Opinions that DL had 1975 The Year of 1993 1976 The Notes Manual of Painting 1977 and Calligraphy 1978 Quasi Object Raised from the 1980 Ground 1981 Journey to Portugal

1993

ISBN 185754-043-3

2011 2000

ISBN 0-15100587-7 Baltasar and ISBN 0-151982 1987 Blimunda 110555-3 1986 The Year of the Death 1991 ISBN 0-15-

Ricardo Reis A Jangada de Pedra

of Ricardo Reis 1986 The Stone Raft

Histria do Cerco de The History of the 1989 Lisboa Siege of Lisbon

199735-7 ISBN 0-151994 185198-0 ISBN 0-151996 100238-X

O Evangelho Segundo The Gospel According ISBN 0-151991 1993 Jesus Cristo to Jesus Christ 136700-0

Ensaio sobre a Cegueira Todos os Nomes O Conto da Ilha Desconhecida A Caverna A Maior Flor do Mundo

1995 Blindness 1997 All the Names 1997 The Tale of the Unknown Island

2000 The Cave 2001 Children's Picture Book

ISBN 0-15100251-7 ISBN 0-151999 100421-8 ISBN 0-151999 100595-8 ISBN 0-152002 100414-5 1997

O Homem Duplicado 2003 The Double Ensaio sobre a Lucidez Don Giovanni ou O Dissoluto Absolvido As Intermitncias da Morte As Pequenas Memrias 2004 Seeing Don Giovanni, or, Dissolute Acquitted Death with 2005 Interruptions 2005 2006 Small Memories The Elephant's Journey

ISBN 0-15101040-4 ISBN 0-152006 101238-5 2004

A Viagem do Elefante 2008

Caim

2009 Cain The clairvoyant (not 1953 yet translated to English)

ISBN 184655-020-3 ISBN 978-02010 15-101508-5 ISBN 9782010 972-212017-3 ISBN 9782011 607-110316-1 2008 2011

Claraboia

[edit] See also

Magical realism

[edit] References
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Jos Saramago
^ a b c d e FT.com "Small Talk: Jos Saramago". "Everything Ive read has influenced me in some way. Having said that, Kafka, Borges, Gogol, Montaigne, Cervantes are constant companions." ^ "Fond Farewells". TIME. Harold Bloom. 15 December 2010. ^ "Jos Saramago - Autobiography". Nobelprize.org. http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/1998/saramago-autobio.html. Retrieved 2010-07-27. ^ a b Eberstadt, Fernanda (18 June 2010). "Jos Saramago, Nobel Prize-Winning Writer, Dies". The New York Times (The New York Times Company). http://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/19/books/19saramago.html?src=mv. Retrieved 18 June 2010. ^ "Nobel Writer, A Communist, Defends Work". The New York Times. 12 October 1998. http://www.nytimes.com/1998/10/12/world/nobel-writer-a-communist-defends-work.html. Retrieved 18 June 2010. ^ a b c d e "Portugal mourns as Nobel laureate's body returned". The China Post. 21 June 2010. http://www.chinapost.com.tw/art/celebrity-news/2010/06/21/261516/Portugal-mourns.htm. Retrieved 21 June 2010. ^ a b c d "President defends Jose Saramago funeral no-show". BBC News (BBC). 21 June 2010. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment_and_arts/10364807.stm. Retrieved 21 June 2010. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Quoted in: Eberstadt, Fernanda (August 26, 2007). "The Unexpected Fantasist". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2007/08/26/magazine/26saramagot.html?_r=2&oref=slogin. Retrieved August 14, 2009. ^ a b c d Nobel-winning Portuguese novelist Saramago dies, Associated Press 18-06-2010 ^ Wall, William (1 December 2010). "The Complexity of Others: The Istanbul Declaration of The European Writers Conference". Irish Left Review. http://www.irishleftreview.org/2010/12/01/complexity-istanbul-declaration-european-writersconference/. Retrieved 1 December 2010. ^ [1][dead link] ^ a b Jaggi, Maya (22 November 2008). "New ways of seeing". The Guardian (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/books/2008/nov/22/jose-saramago-blindness-nobel. ^ "Nobel Prize citation, 1998". Nobelprize.org. http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/1998/bio-bibl.html. Retrieved 2010-0620. ^ The God Factor[dead link] ^ "Langer, Adam. "Jos Saramago: Prophet of Doom." ''Book Magazine'' November/December 2002". Web.archive.org. 2002-10-31. Archived from the original on 2002-10-31. http://web.archive.org/web/20021031062736/http://www.bookmagazine.com/issue25/saramag o.shtml. Retrieved 2010-06-20. ^ "Austin, Paige. "Shadows on the Wall." ''The Yale Review of Books'' Spring 2004". Yalereviewofbooks.com. http://www.yalereviewofbooks.com/archive/winter03/review12.shtml.htm. Retrieved 201006-20. ^ "Jos Saramago: Autobiography". Nobelprize.org. 1998. http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/1998/saramago-autobio.html. Retrieved 2010-06-20. ^ Maloney, Evan (4 March 2010). "The best advice for writers? Read". The Guardian (London: Guardian Media Group). http://www.guardian.co.uk/books/booksblog/2010/mar/02/best-advice-writersread?INTCMP=ILCNETTXT3487. Retrieved 4 March 2010. ^ a b "Communist Party of Portugal: Short Biographical note on Jose Saramago". Pcp.pt. http://www.pcp.pt/node/244347. Retrieved 2012-06-15.

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11. 12. 13.

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20. ^ Blindness, Harvest Book Series, Jos Saramago, translated by Giovanni Pontiero, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 1999 21. ^ "Karl Marx was never so right, says Nobel laureate Saramago MercoPress". En.mercopress.com. 2008-10-28. http://en.mercopress.com/2008/10/28/karl-marx-was-neverso-right-says-nobel-laureate-saramago. Retrieved 2012-06-15. 22. ^ The Notebook by Jos Saramago, London Independent 23. ^ Saramago and Orwell), Rollason, C. 24. ^ Stephanie Meritt, "Interview: Still a street-fighting man," Observer (30 April 2006). 25. ^ Portuguese Nobel Laureate's Remarks on Jews and the Holocaust Are "Incendiary and Offensive", Anti-Defamation League (ADL) - Press release, October 15, 2003. 26. ^ ADL Outraged by Nobel Laureate Comparison of Ramallah to Auschwitz, Anti-Defamation League (ADL) - Press release, March 26, 2002. 27. ^ De las piedras de David a los tanques de Goliat by Jos Saramago, El Pais 21/Abril/2002 (in Spanish). 28. ^ Bigotry in Print. Crowds Chant Murder. Something's Changed by Paul Berman, The Forward (available online here) May 24, 2002. 29. ^ David Frum: Death of a Jew-hater by David Frum, National Post, June 19, 2010. 30. ^ "Israel, Lebanon, and Palestine" statement, July 19, 2006 31. ^ Nash, Elizabeth (9 October 1998). "Saramago the atheist, an outsider in his own land". The Independent (London). http://www.independent.co.uk/news/saramago-the-atheist-an-outsiderin-his-own-land-1177040.html. 32. ^ a b c d Lea, Richard (18 June 2010). "Nobel laureate Jos Saramago dies, aged 87". The Guardian (London: Guardian Media Group). http://www.guardian.co.uk/books/2010/jun/18/jose-saramago-writer-nobel-dies. Retrieved 18 June 2010. 33. ^ "Nobel-wiining(sic) novelist Saramago dies aged 87". The Hindu (Chennai, India). 18 June 2010. http://beta.thehindu.com/news/international/article472336.ece. Retrieved 18 June 2010. 34. ^ a b c "Portuguese Nobel laureate Saramago's funeral held". Xinhua News Agency. 21 June 2010. http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/culture/2010-06/21/c_13359797.htm. Retrieved 21 June 2010. 35. ^ "Claraboya, novela indita de Saramago, ver la luz". elpais.com. October 3, 2011. http://www.elpais.com/articulo/cultura/Claraboya/novela/inedita/Saramago/vera/luz/elpepucul /20111003elpepucul_4/Tes. Retrieved October 14, 2011.

[edit] Bibliography

Baptista Bastos, Jos Saramago: Aproximao a um retrato, Dom Quixote, 1996 T.C. Cerdeira da Silva, Entre a histria e afico: Uma saga de portugueses, Dom Quixote, 1989 Maria da Conceio Madruga, A paixo segundo Jos Saramago: a paixo do verbo e o verbo da paixo, Campos das Letras, Porto, 1998 Horcio Costa, Jos Saramago: O Perodo Formativo, Ed. Caminho, 1998 Helena I. Kaufman, Fico histrica portuguesa da ps-revoluo, Madison, 1991 O. Lopes, Os sinais e os sentidos: Literatura portuguesa do sculo XX, Lisboa, 1986 B. Losada, Eine iberische Stimme, Liber, 2, 1, 1990, 3 Carlos Reis, Dilogos com Jos Saramago, Ed. Caminho, Lisboa, 1998 M. Maria Seixo, O essential sobre Jos Saramago, Imprensa Nacional, 1987 "Saramago, Jos (19222010)." Encyclopedia of World Biography. Ed. Tracie Ratiner. Vol. 25. 2nd ed. Detroit: Thomson Gale, 2005. Discovering Collection. Thomson Gale. University of Guelph. 25 Sep. 2007.

Music of Portugal
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search Portugal is internationally known in the music scene for its traditions of fado, but the country has seen a recent expansion in musical styles, with modern acts from rock to hip hop becoming popular. If Amlia is still the most recognizable Portuguese name in music, today the biggest exportations are bands like Moonspell (metal), Madredeus (fado and folk inspired), Buraka Som Sistema (electro/kuduro/breakbeat), Da Weasel, Sandro G (hip hop), Blasted Mechanism (experimental electro-rock) or Wraygunn (rock, blues), and artists like Mariza (fado). The musicality of the Portuguese language has also inspired non-native speakers to use it in their recordings, for example Mil i Maria. Regional folk music remains popular too, having been updated and modernized in many cases, especially the northeastern region of Trs-os-Montes. Dance, Rock, pop, kuduro, zouk, kizomba, Heavy metal, house and Hip Hop are among the most popular musical styles in Portugal; however, the recent arrival of revivalist folk bands, such as Deolinda, led to a newfound interest in this type of music.

Contents
[hide]

1 History 2 Classical music 3 Folk music o 3.1 Fado o 3.2 Traditional music 3.2.1 Regional folk music 3.2.2 Azorean folk music 3.2.3 Trs-os-Montes 4 Popular music o 4.1 Pimba music o 4.2 Political music (Msica de Interveno) o 4.3 Romantic o 4.4 Latin 5 Modern acts o 5.1 African o 5.2 Jazz o 5.3 Reggae and Ska o 5.4 Zouk o 5.5 Rock and other o 5.6 Portuguese hip hop o 5.7 Heavy metal o 5.8 Electronic music o 5.9 Experimental and Avantgarde o 5.10 Popular and Rock

o 5.11 Independent music 6 Eurovision participations 7 Singers of Portuguese-descent 8 See also 9 References 10 External links

[edit] History
Main article: Music history of Portugal Portuguese music was influenced by music from Ancient Rome's musical tradition brought into the Iberian Peninsula by the Romans and the rich artistic Europen tradition. Its genres range from classical to popular music. Portugal's music history includes musical history from the medieval Gregorian chants through Carlos Seixas' symphonies era to the composers of the modern era. Musical history of Portugal can be divided in different ways. Portuguese music encompasses musical production of the Middle Ages, Renaissance, Baroque, Classical, Romantic and Modern eras.

[edit] Classical music

Portuguese music reflects its rich history and privileged geographical location. These are evidenced in the music history of Portugal, which despite its firm European roots, nevertheless reflects the intercontinental cultural interactions begun in the Portuguese discoveries. A short list of past and present Portuguese musicians with important contributions must necessarily include the names of composers Pedro de Escobar, Manuel Cardoso, Duarte Lobo, Filipe de Magalhes, Carlos Seixas, Diogo Dias Melgs, Joo Domingos Bomtempo, Marcos Portugal, Jos Vianna da Motta, Lus de Freitas Branco, Joly Braga Santos, Fernando Lopes-Graa, Antnio Fragoso and Emmanuel Nunes; organists such as Antnio Carreira or Manuel Rodrigues Coelho; singers such as Lusa Todi, Elisabete Matos or Jos Carlos Xavier; pianists such as Maria Joo Pires or Sequeira Costa; cellists such as Guilhermina Suggia;

[edit] Folk music

[edit] Fado

Mariza, a Portuguese fado singer Main article: Fado Fado (fate in Portuguese) arose in Lisbon as the music of the urban poor. Fado songs are typically lyrically harsh, with the singer resigned to sadness, poverty and loneliness, but remaining dignified and firmly controlled. Many[who?] claim that fado origins are much older, back to the 15th century, when women cried with longing for their husbands that went to the never sailed seas; others also claim that Arabic inprint in Fado is visible, especially in instruments. Arabs left Portugal in the 13th century, but their influence in crafts and music prevailed. Fado is often sung with a Portuguese guitar.

Fado group Verdes Anos (Coimbra Fado) Late in the 19th century, the city of Coimbra developed a distinctive scene. Coimbra, a literary capital for the country, is now known for being more refined and majestic. The sound has been described as "the song of those who retain and cherish their illusions, not of those who have irretrievably lost them" by Rodney Gallop in 1936. A related form are the guitarradas of the 1920s and 30s, best known for Dr. Antonio Menano and a group of virtuoso musicians he formed, including Artur Paredes and Jos Joaquim Cavalheiro. Student fado, performed by students at Coimbra University, have maintained a tradition since it was pioneered in the 1890s by Augusto Hilrio. Starting in 1939 with the career of Amlia Rodrigues, fado was an internationally popular genre. A singer and film actress, Rodrigues made numerous stylistic innovations that have made her probably the most influential fadista of all time. A new generation of young musicians have contributed to the social and political revival of fado music, adapting and blending it with new trends. Contemporary fado musicians like Mariza, Msia and Caman have introduced the music to a new public. The sensuality of Misia and other female fadistas (fado singers) like Maria Ana Bobone, Cuca Roseta, Cristina Branco, Ana Moura, Katia Guerreiro, and Mariza has walked the fine line between carrying on the tradition of Amlia Rodrigues and trying to bring in a new audience. Msia and Carlos do Carmo are also well known fado singers.Ricardo Ribeiro and Miguel Capucho are one of the best male fado singers of the new generation.

[edit] Traditional music

[edit] Regional folk music Recent events have helped keep Portuguese regional folk (rancho folclrico) traditions alive, most especially including the worldwide roots revival of the 1960s and 70s. [edit] Azorean folk music The people of the Azores islands maintain some distinct musical traditions, such as the traditionally fiddle-driven chamarrita dance. [edit] Trs-os-Montes Trs-os-Montes' musical heritage is closely related to the music of Galicia, Cantabria and Asturias. Traditional bagpipes (gaita-de-fole transmontana), a cappella vocals and a unique musical scale with equal semitones have kept alive a vital tradition. (Miranda de I Douro), some artists such as Galamdum Galundaina sing in Mirandese language. Also the Pauliteiros folk dance is popular. Some residents sing in both Portuguese and Mirandese.

Dazkarieh Fausto Notas e Voltas Roberto Leal Ronda dos Quatro Caminhos Tonicha Oioai*Janita Salom Uxukalhus Frei Fado D'el Rei Gaiteiros de Lisboa Roncos do Diabo Dna Dulce Pontes Tereza Salgueiro Vitorino Xaile

[edit] Popular music

Famous artists and bands included in the past Tonicha, Paco Bandeira, Paulo de Carvalho, Jos Cid, Linda de Suza, Duo Ouro Negro, Roberto Leal and Ornatos Violeta. Nowadays some of the most popular acts are Aurea, Amor Electro, The Legendary Tigerman, Madredeus, GNR, Xutos & Pontaps, The Gift, David Fonseca, Buraka Som Sistema, Mil i Maria and Boss AC.

[edit] Pimba music

Main article: Pimba

Pimba music is the Portuguese version of the euro Schlager or the Balkan Turbo-Folk. Its name cames from a 90s hit Pimba Pimba. Some of its biggest names are Emanuel, gata, Ruth Marlene and Quim Barreiros. This genre mixes traditional sounds with accordion, Latin beats and funny or religious (mainly kitch) lyrics.

[edit] Political music (Msica de Interveno)

During the reign of the fascist regime music was widely used by the left-wing resistance as a way to say what could not be said, singing about freedom, equality and democracy, mainly through metaphors and symbols. Many composers and singers became famous and persecuted by the political police, some of them being arrested or exiled, such as Zeca Afonso, Paulo de Carvalho, Jos Mrio Branco, Srgio Godinho, Adriano Correia de Oliveira, Manuel Freire, Fausto, Vitorino, Jlio Pereira and some others. Jos Afonso began performing in the 1950s; he was a popular roots-based musician that led the Portuguese roots revival. With artists like Srgio Godinho and Lus Clia, Afonso helped form nova cano music, which, after the 1974 revolution, gained socially-aware lyrics and became canto livre. The biggest name in canto livre was Brigada Vctor Jara, a group that seriously studied and were influenced by Portuguese regional music. After the Carnation Revolution, that same music was used to support left-wing parties. Political ideas and causes, like the agrarian reform, socialism, equality, democratic elections, free education and many other were a constant presence in these songs lyrics, often written by well-known poets like Jos Barata-Moura, Manuel Alegre or Ary dos Santos.

[edit] Romantic
The highest exponents of this kind of music in Portugal are Tony Carreira and Marco Paulo (both, and even other performers, have a certain level of overlap with the Pimba genre, even partial or just in certain songs). The poet-singer-songwriter Fausto Bordolo Dias, a significant contributor to the modern romantic genre, can be compared to Leonard Cohen.

[edit] Latin
This is a relatively new sound in Portugal. Despite being an Iberian country, Portugal never had clear influences from the Caribbean beats. This style came to the country in the 90s, following a Spanish and world trend. Examples of Latin music singers in Portuguese are Ana Malhoa and Mil i Maria.

[edit] Modern acts

[edit] African
With immigration from the former colonies, Portugal received many African communities with their different traditional sounds. Some singers were born in Lisbon

but still, were singing African influenced music. Two examples are Lura and Sara Tavares, who sing a mixture that includes sounds from Cape Verde.

[edit] Jazz
People such as Mrio Barreiros (drums), Mrio Laginha and Antnio Pinho Vargas (piano) and the singer Maria Joo have long and noteworthy careers in the field, despite experimenting, sometimes with notable success, other genres of music, and a more recent generation is following their footsteps, notable the pianist Bernardo Sassetti, Carlos Bica, Joo Paulo and the singers Jacinta and Vnia Fernandes.

[edit] Reggae and Ska

More underground but very prominent are Portuguese reggae and ska. Some of the more famous bands of these types include Primitive Reason, Three and a Quarter and Purocracy. This music is popular among young people, with its main roots based in Lisbon and the surrounding areas. In 2004/2005, it was a born a wave of Portuguese bands doing noise rock and psych improvisation music, like Fish & Sheep, Kussondulola, Frango, One Love Family, CAVEIRA, Tropa Macaca, Lobster, Dance Damage and DOPO.

[edit] Zouk
Zouk is a style of rhythmic music originating from the Caribbean islands of Guadeloupe and Martinique. Zouk means 'party' in the local creole of French with English and African influences, all three of which contribute the sound. In Europe, it is particularly popular in France, while on the African countries of Cape Verde and Angola they have developed their own type of Zouk. Zouk was introduced to Portugal by Portuguese speaking immigrants from Angola and Cape Verde. Related styles include, kizomba and kuduro.

[edit] Rock and other

Main article: Portuguese rock The rock in Portugal was born in the 80s of the 20th century. Its beginners were Rui Veloso and Jorge Palma, among others. An example of a popular Portuguese rock band, having a long history, is Xutos & Pontaps who've been playing for over 30 years and are known widely throughout Portugal, as well as Mo Morta, a unique and controversial group with 25 years of existence. Well known solo singers include Rui Veloso, Jorge Palma, and Pedro Abrunhosa. Cl (pop rock), Blasted Mechanism (experimental electro-rock), RAMP (metal), Re:aktor (metal) ThanatoSchizO (metal), Alkateya (metal) Faithfull (soft rock), Suspiria Franklyn (punk-rock/new wave), Riding Pnico (post rock), Linda Martini (post/noise rock), peixe : aviao (post-rock), Ornatos Violeta (indie rock), Stereo Parks (Indie Rock), A Book in the Shelf (grunge rock), Mazgani (alternative) or Green Echo (experimental dub), are other important acts.

[edit] Portuguese hip hop

Main article: Hip hop Tuga The beginning of the 21st century was the origin of a new wave of Portuguese Hip Hop singers, who adapted foreign sounds to the Portuguese reality and who sing in Portuguese. Some of the best examples are Da Weasel, Boss AC and Sam the Kid.

[edit] Heavy metal

The biggest exponent of heavy metal music in Portugal are the bands Moonspell and Corpus Christii, originally from Lisboa and who have achieved some international recognition, mainly in Finland, Germany ,the Netherlands, Italy and Turkey.[citation needed] Others bands like Holocausto Canibal, Heavenwood, Sirius, Decayed, Fili Nigratium Infernallium,Morte Incandescente, Gwydion, Tarantula also achieved some international recognition.

[edit] Electronic music

In electronica, Underground Sound of Lisbon was a musical project that brought international attention to the Portuguese DJs, namely Rui da Silva the only Portuguese musician to reach #1 on the UK charts and DJ Vibe, Pete tha Zouk. Some other important names of this kind of music are Buraka Som Sistema and Micro Audio Waves. In Porto, the hometown to numerous talents such as Nuno Forte, Drum n' Bass styles are immensely popular, and the city has hosted various important international names in the genre such as Noisia, The Panacea and Black Sun Empire. Also, in the Psychedelic Trance genre there are a worldwide famous project: Paranormal Attack.

[edit] Experimental and Avantgarde

Portuguese music has a striving experimental underground musical scene since the 80's, with some exponents attaining international attention. Notable groups and musicians in this genre are Osso Extico, Ocaso pico, Telectu, Carlos Zngaro and Pedro INF.

[edit] Popular and Rock

Other popular music include bands born out of Portuguese 'telenovelas' or 'soapoperas'. The first wave of such bands included 4Taste and DZRT who went on to gain national popularity.

[edit] Independent music

Main article: Finished With My Ex The indie and alternative rock movements are also popular in Portugal. For example, Finished With My Ex is a Portuguese independent music duo, whose genres variate from Alternative rock, garage rock to electronic rock, acoustic, industrial rock, formed in 2012 in Braga. The group consists of singer-songwriter Bruce Buckley (vocals, multi-instrumentalism) and guitarist Chris (guitar, multi-instrumentalism).

The band is influenced by bands such as Marilyn Manson, The White Stripes, etc, of which the two members try to capture some "sounds" while remaining faithful to the bands "originality and visual image." The band also makes use of red and black colors in their visuals.[1][2][3]

[edit] Eurovision participations

Main article: Portugal in the Eurovision Song Contest Portugal has been participating at the Eurovision Song Contest since 1964, its best result being the 6th place achieved by Lucia Moniz's folk inspired song "O meu corao no tem cor" in 1996, penned by Pedro Vaz Osorio. Since then Portugal never had a Top 10 place.

[edit] Singers of Portuguese-descent

Musicians such as Nelly Furtado, Katy Perry, Kenny Rogers and Nuno Bettencourt (the latter actually Portugal-born) are popular in North America, though only Nelly Furtado reflected some of her Portuguese origin, especially in lesser-known songs in her first albums (songs like "Scared" sung by Furtado in English and Portuguese, "Nas Horas do Dia" and "Fora"). Luso-francofonic artists (also of Portuguese origin) include Linda de Suza (Portuguese born and later an immigrant in France) and Marie Myriam. Steve Perry, former lead singer of rock group Journey is American of Portuguese ancestry. The lead singer from Jamiroquai, Jay Kay is descendent from Portugal through his father. Ana da Silva founding member of the cult post-punk band The Raincoats is of Portuguese origin.

[edit] See also

Music history of Portugal Rock em Portugal Category:Portuguese musical instruments

[edit] References
1. ^ "Finished With My Ex's biography". Finished With My Ex. finishedwithmyex.com. http://finishedwithmyex.wix.com/finishedwithmyex#!__page-0/bio. Retrieved 27-072012. 2. ^ "Finished With My Ex". phpbbserver.com. Vimaranes Metallvm. http://www.phpbbserver.com/nehebkau/viewtopic.php?t=3535&mforum=nehebkau& fb_source=message. Retrieved 27-07-2012. 3. ^ Melo, Rui. ""Os motores j aquecem para mais um submarino"". Submarino. Submarino. http://blogdosubmarino.blogspot.pt/2012/07/os-motores-ja-aquecempara-mais-um.html. Retrieved 27-07-2012.

Cronshaw, Andrew and Paul Vernon. "Traditional Riches, Fate and Revolution". 2000. In Broughton, Simon and Ellingham, Mark with McConnachie, James and Duane, Orla (Ed.), World Music, Vol. 1: Africa,

Europe and the Middle East, pp 225236. Rough Guides Ltd, Penguin Books. ISBN 1-85828-636-0

Fado
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search This article is about the Portuguese music genre. For the computer documentation system, see FADO. This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2008)

Fado
Stylistic origins Portuguese music

Cultural origins

Early 19th century Lisbon, Portugal

Typical instruments

Portuguese guitar

Mainstream popularity

Worldwide; mainly Portugal

Derivative forms

Coimbra Fado - Kroncong

Fado (Portuguese pronunciation: [fau], "destiny, fate") is a music genre which can be traced to the 1820s in Portugal, but probably with much earlier origins. Fado historian and scholar, Rui Vieira Nery, states that "the only reliable information on the history of Fado was orally transmitted and goes back to the 1820s and 1830s at best. But even that information was frequently modified within the generational transmission process that made it reach us today."[1] In popular belief, fado is a form of music characterized by mournful tunes and lyrics, often about the sea or the life of the poor, and infused with a characteristic sentiment of resignation, fatefulness and melancholia (loosely captured by the word "saudade", or longing). However, although the origins are difficult to trace, today fado is by many regarded as a simply a form of song which can be about anything, but must follow a certain structure. The music is usually linked to the Portuguese word saudade which symbolizes the feeling of loss (a permanent, irreparable loss and its consequent life lasting damage). Amlia Rodrigues, Carlos do Carmo, Mariza, Mafalda Arnauth, and Cristina Branco are amongst the most famous individuals associated with the genre.

On November 27, 2011, Fado was inscribed in the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists.[2]

Contents
[hide]

1 Etymology 2 History 3 Varieties of fado o 3.1 Lisbon Fado o 3.2 Coimbra fado o 3.3 Fado in North America 4 See also 5 References 6 External links

[edit] Etymology
The word Fado comes from the Latin word fatum,[3] from which the English word fate also originates.[4] The word is linked to the music genre itself and, although both meanings are approximately the same in the two languages, Portuguese speakers seldom utilize the word fado referring to destiny or fate.

[edit] History

Fado, painting by Jos Malhoa (1910)

Amlia Rodrigues "Queen of Fado" Fado only appeared after 1830 in Lisbon. It was introduced in the port districts like Alfama, Mouraria and Bairro Alto. There are many theories about the origin of Fado. Some trace its origins or influences to "cantigas de amigo" (friends songs) from the Middle Ages, or Moorish songs, or also to African-Brazilian rhythms. Since there was very much contact between Portugal and its colonies, particularly Brazil (between 1804 and 1822 the Portuguese court resided in Rio de Janeiro since the king had fled from Portugal after Napoleon's invasion), it is not strange that Portuguese fado has some roots in Afro-Brazilian slave dances[citation needed] and also Spanish and Portuguese songs; like Fandango, Semba, Lundu and Modinha and on the other (notice that these roots are similar to those of the Samba). As a consequence, fado was initially very rhythmical and danceable[citation needed]. Fado performers in the middle of the 19th century were mainly from urban working class and sailors, who not only sang, but also danced and beat the fado. During the second half of the 19th century, the African rhythms would become less important, and the performers became merely singers. Fado was thus generally sung by one person called a fadista, and normally accompanied by the portuguese guitar and the classical guitar. The 19th century's most renowned fadista was Maria Severa. More recently Amlia Rodrigues, known as the "Rainha do Fado" ("Queen of Fado") was most influential in popularizing fado worldwide.[5] Fado performances today may be accompanied by a string quartet or a full orchestra.

[edit] Varieties of fado

There are two main varieties of fado, namely those of the cities of Lisbon and Coimbra. The Lisbon style is the more popular, while Coimbra's is the more classic style. Modern fado is popular in Portugal, and has produced many renowned musicians. According to tradition, to applaud fado in Lisbon you clap your hands, while in Coimbra one coughs as if clearing one's throat.

[edit] Lisbon Fado

Born in the popular contexts of the 1800s Lisbon, Fado was present in convivial and leisure moments. Happening spontaneously, its execution took place indoors or outdoors, in gardens, bullfights, retreats, streets and alley, taverns, cafs de camareiras and casas de meia-porta. Evoking urban emergence themes, singing the daily narratives, Fado is profoundly related to social contexts ruled by marginality and transgression in a first phase, taking place in locations visited by prostitutes, faias, sailors, coachmen and marialvas. Often surprised in prison, its actors - the singers are described in the faia figure, a fado singer guy, a bully of a rough and hoarse voice with tattoos and skilled with a flick knife who spoke using slang. As we will see, fados association to societys most marginal spheres would definitely make the Portuguese intellectuals reject it profoundly. Stating the communion of ludic spaces between the bohemian aristocracy and the most disfavoured fringes of Lisbons population, the history of fado crystallized into myth the episode of the amorous relationship between the Count Vimioso and Maria Severa Onofriana (18201846), a prostitute consecrated by her singing talents, who would soon transform into one of greatest myths of the History of Fado. In successive image and sound reprises, the allusion to the involvement between a bohemian aristocrat with the fado singing prostitute would cross several sung poems and even the cinema and the theatre or the visual arts - beginning with the novel A Severa, by Jlio Dantas, published in 1901 and transported to the silver screen in 1931 - the first Portuguese sound film, directed by Leito de Barros. Fado would also conquer ground in festive events connected to the city's popular calendar, beneficence parties or cegadas - amateur and popular theatrical presentations generally performed by men on the street, in night feats, and popular associations. Although this sort of presentation was a famous entertaining form of Lisbons Carnival, enjoying popular support and often with strong intervening characters, the censorship regulation in 1927 would strongly but irreversibly contribute to the extinction of this type of show. The Teatro de Revista [a sort of vaudeville theatre], a typical theatre genre from Lisbon born in 1851, would soon discover fados potential. In 1870, fado began to appear in its music scenes and from there projects itself to a broader audience. Lisbons social e cultural context, with its typical neighbourhoods, and bohemia, assumed an absolute protagonism in Teatro de Revista. Ascending to the theatre stages, fado would animate the Revista, developing new themes and melodies. Teatro de Revista was orchestrated and filled with refrains. Fado would be sung by famous actresses, and renowned fado singers, singing their repertoires. Two different approaches to fado would become recorded in history: the danced fado stylized by Francis and the spoken fado of Joo Villaret. A central figure in the history of Fado, Hermnia Silva conquered fame on the theatre stages in the 1930s and 1940s, adding her unmistakable singing gifts to those of a comical actress and revisteira. Fados appropriation field broadened in the last quarter of the 19th century. This was the time of the formal stabilization of the poetic form of the ten-verse stanza, a quatrain made of four stanzas of ten verses each, on which fado would get its structure and later develop into other variants. This is also the period of the definition of the Portuguese guitar - progressively diffused from the urban centres to the countrys rural areas - in its specific component as fado companion.

In the first decades of the 20th century, fado began to be gradually divulged and gained popular consecration through the publication of periodicals on the subject and the consolidation of new performing venues in a broad network that began incorporating Fado in its agenda with a commercial perspective, fixating private casts which would often form embassies or artistic groups for tours. In parallel the relationship of Fado with the theatre stages was consolidated and the performances by fado singers at Revistas musical scenes and operettas multiplied. In fact, the appearance of fado singing professional companies in the 1930s allowed promoting shows with great casts and their circulation in theatres north and south of the country, and even in international tours. That was the case of Grupo Artstico de Fados, with Berta Cardoso (19111997), Madalena de Melo (19031970), Armando Augusto Freire, (18911946) Martinho dAssuno (19141992) and Joo da Mata, and Grupo Artstico Propaganda do Fado, with Deonilde Gouveia (19001946), Jlio Proena (19011970) and Joaquim Campos (18991978), or Troupe Guitarra de Portugal, with Erclia Costa (19021985) and Alfredo Marceneiro (18911982) among others. Although the first discographic records produced in Portugal date from the beginning of the 20th century, at this stage the national market was still very incipient since it was quite expensive to buy gramophones and records. Effectively, the fundamental conditions for recording sound appeared after the invention of the electric microphone in 1925. At the same time, gramophones started being made at more competitive prices. And thus were created more favourable conditions to this market among the middle class. In the context of the mediatization instruments of Fado, TSF - wireless telegraphy had a central importance in the first decades of the 20th century. Among the intense activity of radio broadcasting stations between 1925 and 1935, we highlight CT1AA, Rdio Clube Portugus, Rdio Graa and Rdio Luso - this last one quickly becoming popular for favouring fado. The broadcasts of the first Portuguese radio station, CT1AA, began in 1925. Investing on technical and logistic infrastructures which guaranteed it the expansion of its broadcast range and the broadcasts regularity, CT1AA of Ablio Nunes incorporated fado in its broadcasts, conquering a large group of listeners, including in the Portuguese emigration diaspora. With live feeds from the Theatres and musical live presentations at the studios, CT1AA also promoted the broadcast of an experimental fado show directed by the Spanish guitar player Amadeu Ramin. With the military coup of the 28 May 1926 and the implementation of previous censorship on public shows, the press and other publications, the urban song would suffer profound changes. In fact, in the following year the Decree Law Number 13 564 of 6 May 1927 globally regulated the show activities through extensive clauses; defending a superior supervision of all the houses and show venues or public entertaining (...) by the General Inspection of Theatres and its delegates in behalf of the Public Instruction Ministry on its 200 articles. Fado suffered unavoidable changes. The legal instrument regulated on the attribution of licenses to the companies which promoted shows at the most diversified venues, authorship rights, mandatory previous viewing of shows and sung repertoires, specific regulation for attributing the professional card, contracts, and tour travelling, among many other

subjects. Significant mutations were so imposed on the performing venues, on the way interpreters presented themselves, and on the sung repertoires - striped of any improvised character - cementing a professionalization process of several interpreters, instrument players, song writers and composers, who were then performing at several venues before an increasing audience. The hearing of fados would gradually become ritualized at fado houses, places which concentrated in the citys historic neighbourhoods, mainly in Bairro Alto, especially since the 1930s. These transformations in the fado production would necessarily drift it apart from improvise, losing some of its original performing contexts diversity and imposing the specialization of interpreters, authors and musicians. In parallel, the discographic and radio recordings proposed a triage of voices and performing practices that were imposed as models, thus limiting improvise. The next decade, the revivalism trends of the so called typical features would definitely prevail, leading to a replication of the most genuine and picturesque in fados performing venues. Fado was present in the theatre and the radio since their first moments and the same would happen in the Seventh Art. In fact, the appearance of sound films was marked by the musical genre and the Portuguese cinema gave special attention to fado. Proving it, the theme of the first Portuguese sound film, directed by Leito de Barros in 1931, was the misfortunes of the mythical Severa. As a central theme or a mere side note, fado accompanied cinema production until the 1970s. In fact, the Portuguese cinema showed particular interest in the fado universe in 1947 with O Fado, Histria de uma Cantadeira, starred by Amlia Rodrigues or in 1963, with O Mido da Bica, starred by Fernando Farinha. Despite the protagonism of Amlia Rodrigues, the participations of artists like Fernando Farinha, Hermnia Silva, Berta Cardoso, Deolinda Rodrigues, Raul Nery and Jaime Santos in the Seventh Art are also noteworthy. And if radio broadcasting allowed to go beyond geographical barriers, taking the voices of fado to thousands of people, when Rdio Televiso Portuguesa was inaugurated in 1957 and specially when the broadcast became national in the mid1970s - the faces of the artists would become known by the general public. Recreating environments connected to fado themes inside the study, television broadcasted regularly, between 1959 and 1974, with live feeds of fado shows which would undoubtedly contribute to its mediatization. Enjoying the diffusion on the Teatro de Revista stages since the last quart of the 19th century, and the promotion on the specialized press since the first decades of the 20th century, Fado became progressively mediatized by the radio, cinema, and television. It gained great strength between the 1940s and 1960, often called the golden years.. The annual contest Grande Noite do Fado began in 1953, lasting until our days. Gathering hundreds of candidates from several organizations and associations of the city, this contest is traditionally held at Coliseu dos Recreios and is still today an important event to the fado tradition of Lisbon and the promotion of young amateurs who try to rise to the professional status.

The exponents of the national song were at the time attached to a network of typical houses with regular casts. But now they had a broader working market with many possibilities of discographic recording, tours, performances at radio and television. In parallel, there were performances by fado singers at Seres para Trabalhadores, cultural events broadcast by the radio and promoted by FNAT since 1942. Fado programmes were also promoted by the Secretariado Nacional de Informao, Cultura e Turismo which became responsible for the Censhorship, Emissora Nacional, and Inspeco Geral dos Espectculos in 1944. In the 1950s, the regimes approach to the international success of Amlia Rodrigues strengthened the collage of the regime to fado, after changing it deeply. The simplicity of Fados melodic structure values the voice interpretation, and also sublimes the sung repertoires. With a strong evocative inclination, fados poetry appeals to the communion between the interpreter, the musicians and the listeners. In quatrains or improvised quatrains, five-verse stanzas, six-verse stanzas, decasyllables and alexandrine verses, this popular poetry evokes themes related to love, luck, individual fate, and the citys daily narrative. Sensitive to social injustice, Fado gained interventionist contours on many occasions. And although the first Fado lyrics were mostly anonymous, successively transmitted by oral tradition, this would definitely be reverted in the mid-1920s, when several popular poets emerged, such as Henrique Rego, Joo da Mata, Gabriel de Oliveira, Frederico de Brito, Carlos Conde and Joo Linhares Barbosa, who gave special attention to fado. In the 1950s, fado would definitely cross the path of erudite poetry in the voice of Amlia Rodrigues. After the decisive contribution of the composer Alain Oulman, fado began singing texts of poets with academic education and published literary works, such as David Mouro-Ferreira, Pedro Homem de Mello, Jos Rgio, Luiz de Macedo, and later Alexandre O.Neill, Sidnio Muralha, Leonel Neves and Vasco de Lima Couto, among many others. The international divulgation of Fado had begun in the mid-1930s. Fado spread towards the African continent and Brazil, preferred performing destinations of some artists such as Erclia Costa, Berta Cardoso, Madalena de Melo, Armando Augusto Freire, Martinho dAssuno and Joo da Mata, among others. However, the internationalization of fado would only consolidate in the 1950s, especially thanks to Amlia Rodrigues. Surpassing the cultural and language barriers, Fado would definitely become a national culture icon with Amlia. For decades and until her death, in 1999, Amlia Rodrigues was its national and international star. The April 1974 Revolution instituted a democratic State in Portugal, founded on the assumption of the integration of public liberties, respect and guaranty of individual rights with the inherent opening of a more active civic, political and social participation to citizens. As a result of the global society, the mass culture influences would be felt progressively over the following decades. This context modified fados relation with the Portuguese market, centred on popular music with an intervening character while simultaneously absorbing many of the musical forms created abroad.

In the years immediately after the revolution, the two years interruption of the contest Grande Noite do Fado and the radical decrease of fados presence at radio or television broadcasts testify the hostility towards fado. In fact, only when the democratic regime became stable, in 1976, would fado regain its own space. The following year the album Um Homem na Cidade was released by one of the biggest names of Lisbons urban song, a central figure of fados internationalization. As no other, the owner of a solid 45 years career has articulated the most legitimate fado tradition to an unending ability to recreate it. As the ideological debate around fado gradually comes to an end, it was mostly since the 1980s that fado consenso is recognized its central position in the scene of the Portuguese musical patrimony. The market showed a renewed interest for Lisbons urban song, as testified by the increasing attention given by the discographic industry through the re-edition of recorded registries, fados gradual interpretation in the popular festivities circuits at a regional scale, the progressive appearance of a new generation of interpreters, and even the approach of singers from other areas to fado such as Jos Mrio Branco, Srgio Godinho, Antnio Variaes and Paulo de Carvalho. Internationally there is also a renewed interest in local musical cultures. Amlia Rodrigues and Carlos do Carmo are notorious among fado most famous names in the record industry, the media and live shows. In the 1990s, fado would definitely cement its position in the international World Music circuits with Msia and Cristina Branco, in the French and the Dutch circuits, respectively. Another emerging name in Fado.s panorama is Caman. In the 1990s and the turn of the century a new generation of talented interpreters appears: Mafalda Arnauth, Katia Guerreiro, Maria Ana Bobone, Joana Amendoeira, Ana Moura, Ana Sofia Varela, Pedro Moutinho, Helder Moutinho, Gonalo Salgueiro, Antnio Zambujo, Miguel Capucho, Rodrigo Costa Flix, Patrcia Rodrigues, and Raquel Tavares. In the international circuit, however, it is Mariza who conquers an absolute protagonism, drawing a fulgurant pathway during which she has won successive prizes in the World Music category. Excertos do texto: Pereira, Sara (2008), Circuito Museolgico, in Museu do Fado, Lisboa: EGEAC/Museu do Fado.

[edit] Coimbra fado

Main article: Coimbra fado

Fado group Verdes Anos (from Coimbra) This fado is closely linked to the academic traditions of the University of Coimbra and is exclusively sung by men; both the singers and musicians wear the academic outfit (traje acadmico): dark robe, cape and leggings. It is sung at night, almost in the dark, in city squares or streets. The most typical venues are the stair steps of the Santa Cruz Monastery and the Old Cathedral of Coimbra. It is also customary to organize serenades where songs are performed before the window of the woman to be courted. The most sung themes include: student love, love for the city and bohemian life, and the ironic and critical reference to the discipline and conservative nature of the professors and their courses. Noted singers of this style are Augusto Hilrio, Antnio Menano, and Edmundo Bettencourt. The Coimbra fado is accompanied by either a Portuguese guitar or by a classical guitar. The tuning and sound coloring of the Portuguese guitar in Coimbra are quite different from that of Lisbon. Regarding the Portuguese guitar, Artur Paredes revolutionized the tuning and the accompaniment style to the Coimbra fado, adding his name to the most progressive and innovative singers. Artur Paredes was the father of Carlos Paredes, who followed and expanded on his work, making the Portuguese guitar an instrument known around the world. In the 1950s, a new movement led the singers of Coimbra to adopt the ballad and folklore. They began interpreting lines of the great poets, both classical and contemporary, as a form of resistance to the Salazar dictatorship. In this movement names such as Adriano Correia de Oliveira and Jos Afonso (Zeca Afonso) had a leading role in the revolution taking place in popular Portuguese music. Some of the most famous fados of Coimbra include: Fado Hilrio, Saudades de Coimbra (Do Choupal at Lapa), Balada da Despedida (Coimbra tem mais encanto, na hora da despedida - the first phrases are often more recognizable than the song titles), O meu menino doiro, and Samaritana. The "judge-singer" Fernando Machado Soares is an important figure, being the author of some of those famous fados. Curiously, it is not a Coimbra fado but a popular song which is the most known title referring to this city: Coimbra uma lio, which had success with titles such as April in Portugal.

[edit] Fado in North America

Several singers of the traditional Portuguese fado have appeared in Canada and the United States. One of these, Ramana Vieira, regularly performs in the San Francisco Bay Area without a traditional fado ensemble. Ramana received her formal voice training at San Francisco's American Conservatory Theater and considers herself to be "The New Voice of Portuguese World Music."[6]

[edit] See also

Fados - a 2007 movie about fado by Spanish director Carlos Saura Kroncong - a similar music style found in Indonesia, brought by Portuguese traders A list of Fado musicians

[edit] References
1. ^ http://www.fnac.pt/Para-uma-Historia-do-Fado-Rui-Vieira-Nery/a306961 2. ^ "Fado, urban popular song of Portugal". UNESCO Culture Sector. http://www.unesco.org/culture/ich/index.php?lg=en&pg=00011&RL=00563. Retrieved 2011-11-27. 3. ^ Online Etymology Dictionary: fado 4. ^ Online Etymology Dictionary: fate 5. ^ Rohter, Larry (March 25, 2011). "Carving Out a Bold Destiny for Fado". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/27/arts/music/ana-moura-is-amongsingers-reinvigorating-fado.html?_r=1&hp. 6. ^ Ramana Vieira website

Portuguese language
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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Portuguese
portugus Pronunciation

[putue] (EP) [portue(j)s][1] (BP) [potues]1 (G) See geographic distribution of Portuguese

Spoken natively in

Native speakers

203 million Total: 252 million (2011)[2]

Language family

Indo-European
Italic o Romance Western Romance Gallo-Iberian Ibero-Romance West-Iberian Galician-Portuguese Portuguese

Writing system

Latin (Portuguese alphabet) Official status

Official language in 9 countries[show] 1 dependency[show] Numerous international organisations Regulated by International Portuguese Language Institute Academia Brasileira de Letras (Brazil) Academia das Cincias de Lisboa, Classe de Letras (Portugal) CPLP Language codes

ISO 639-1 ISO 639-2 ISO 639-3 Linguasphere

pt por por 51-AAA-a

Native language Official and administrative language Cultural or secondary language Portuguese speaking minorities Portuguese-based creole languages
This page contains IPA phonetic symbols in Unicode. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters.

Portuguese ( portugus (helpinfo) or lngua portuguesa) is a Romance language. It is the official language of Portugal, Brazil, Mozambique, Angola, Cape Verde, Guinea-Bissau, and So Tom and Prncipe.[3] Portuguese has co-official status (alongside the indigenous language) in Macau, East Timor in South East Asia and in Equatorial Guinea in Central Africa; Portuguese speakers are also found in Goa, Daman and Diu in India.[4] With a total of 236 million speakers, Portuguese is the 6th most spoken language in the world, the 3rd most spoken language in the western hemisphere, and the most spoken language in the southern hemisphere. Spanish author Miguel de Cervantes once called Portuguese "the sweet language" and Spanish playwright Lope de Vega referred to it as "sweet", while the Brazilian writer Olavo Bilac poetically described it as a ltima flor do Lcio, inculta e bela (the last flower of Latium, wild and beautiful). Portuguese is also termed "the language of Cames", after one of Portugal's greatest literary figures, Lus Vaz de Cames.[5][6][7] In March 2006, the Museum of the Portuguese Language, an interactive museum about the Portuguese language, was founded in So Paulo, Brazil, the city with the greatest number of Portuguese-language speakers in the world.[8]

Contents

[hide]

1 History 2 Geographic distribution o 2.1 Official status o 2.2 Population of countries and jurisdictions of Portuguese official or co-official language o 2.3 Portuguese as a foreign language o 2.4 Future 3 Dialects o 3.1 Angola o 3.2 Brazil o 3.3 Portugal o 3.4 Other countries o 3.5 Characterization 4 Vocabulary 5 Classification and related languages o 5.1 Galician and the Fala o 5.2 Influence on other languages o 5.3 Derived languages 6 Phonology o 6.1 Vowels o 6.2 Consonants 7 Examples of different pronunciation 8 Grammar 9 Writing system o 9.1 Spelling reforms o 9.2 Usual statements and numbers 10 See also 11 Notes 12 References o 12.1 Literature o 12.2 Phonology, orthography and grammar o 12.3 Reference dictionaries o 12.4 Linguistic studies 13 External links

[edit] History
Main article: History of the Portuguese language When Romans arrived in the Iberian Peninsula in 216 BC, they brought the Latin language, from which all Romance languages descend. The language was spread by arriving Roman soldiers, settlers, and merchants, who built Roman cities mostly near the settlements of previous civilizations. Between AD 409 and 711, as the Roman Empire collapsed in Western Europe, the Iberian Peninsula was conquered by Germanic peoples (Migration Period). The

occupiers, mainly Suebi and Visigoths, quickly adopted late Roman culture and the Vulgar Latin dialects of the peninsula. After the Moorish invasion of 711, Arabic became the administrative language in the conquered regions, but most of the population continued to speak a form of Romance commonly known as Mozarabic. The influence exerted by Arabic on the Romance dialects spoken in the Christian kingdoms was mainly restricted to affecting their lexicon.

Medieval Portuguese poetry

Das que vejo

nom desejo

outra senhor se vs nom,

e desejo

tam sobejo,

mataria um leon,

senhor do meu coraom:

fim roseta,

bela sobre toda fror,

fim roseta,

nom me meta

em tal coita voss'amor!

Joo Lobeira (c. 12701330)

Portuguese evolved from the medieval language, known today by linguists as Galician-Portuguese or Old Portuguese or Old Galician, of the north-western medieval Kingdom of Galicia. It is in Latin administrative documents of the 9th century that written Galician-Portuguese words and phrases are first recorded. This phase is known as Proto-Portuguese, which lasted from the 9th century until the 12thcentury independence of the County of Portugal from the Kingdom of Galicia, then a subkingdom of Len. In the first part of Galician-Portuguese period (from the 12th to the 14th century), the language was increasingly used for documents and other written forms. For some time, it was the language of preference for lyric poetry in Christian Hispania, much as Occitan was the language of the poetry of the troubadours in

France. Portugal became an independent kingdom in 1139, under King Afonso I of Portugal. In 1290, King Denis of Portugal created the first Portuguese university in Lisbon (the Estudos Gerais, later moved to Coimbra) and decreed that Portuguese, then simply called the "common language", be known as the Portuguese language and used officially. In the second period of Old Portuguese, in the 15th and 16th centuries, with the Portuguese discoveries, the language was taken to many regions of Africa, Asia and the Americas. Nowadays, the great majority of Portuguese speakers live in Brazil, in South America, Portugal's biggest former colony. By the mid 16th century Portuguese had become a lingua franca in Asia and Africa, used not only for colonial administration and trade but also for communication between local officials and Europeans of all nationalities. Its spread was helped by mixed marriages between Portuguese and local people, and by its association with Roman Catholic missionary efforts, which led to the formation of a creole language called Kristang in many parts of Asia (from the word cristo, "Christian"). The language continued to be popular in parts of Asia until the 19th century. Some Portuguese-speaking Christian communities in India, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, and Indonesia preserved their language even after they were isolated from Portugal. The end of the Old Portuguese period was marked by the publication of the Cancioneiro Geral by Garcia de Resende, in 1516. The early times of Modern Portuguese, which spans a period from the 16th century to the present day, were characterized by an increase in the number of learned words borrowed from Classical Latin and Classical Greek since the Renaissance, which greatly enriched the lexicon.

[edit] Geographic distribution

Main article: Geographic distribution of Portuguese Portuguese is the language of majority of people in Angola (80%),[9] Brazil,[10] Portugal,[11] and So Tom and Prncipe (95%).[12] Although only just over 10% of the population are native speakers of Portuguese in Mozambique, the language is spoken by about 50.4% there according to the 2007 census.[13] It is also spoken by 11.5% of the population in Guinea-Bissau.[14] No data is available for Cape Verde, but almost all the population is bilingual, and the monolingual population speaks Cape Verdean Creole. There are also significant Portuguese-speaking immigrant communities in many countries including Andorra (15.4%),[15] Australia,[16] Bermuda,[17] Canada (0.72% or 219,275 persons in the 2006 census[18] but between 400,000 and 500,000 according to Nancy Gomes),[19] Curaao, France,[20] Japan,[21] Jersey,[22] Luxembourg (9%),[11] Namibia (about 4-5% of the population, mainly refugees from Angola in the North of the country)[23] Paraguay (10.7% or 636,000 persons),[24] Macau (0.6% or 12,000 persons),[25] South Africa,[26] Switzerland (196,000 nationals in 2008),[27] Venezuela (1 to 2% or 254,000 to 480,000),[28] and the USA (0.24% of the population or 687,126 speakers according to the 2007 American Community Survey),[29] mainly in Connecticut,[30] Florida,[31] Massachusetts (where it is the second most spoken language in the state),[32] New Jersey,[33] New York[34] and Rhode Island.[35]

In some parts of the former Portuguese India, i.e. Goa,[36] Daman and Diu,[37] the language is still spoken.

[edit] Official status

Main article: List of countries where Portuguese is an official language

Countries and regions where Portuguese has official status The Community of Portuguese Language Countries[3] (with the Portuguese acronym CPLP) consists of the eight independent countries that have Portuguese as an official language: Angola, Brazil, Cape Verde, East Timor, Guinea-Bissau, Mozambique, Portugal and So Tom and Prncipe.[3] Equatorial Guinea made a formal application for full membership to the CPLP in June 2010 and should add Portuguese as its third official language (alongside Spanish and French) since this is one of the conditions. The President of Equatorial Guinea, Obiang Nguema Mbasog, and Prime-Minister Cheaf of State, Ignacio Milam Tang, have approved on 20 July 2011 the new Constitutional bill that intends to add Portuguese as an official language of the country. The bill is now waiting for ratification by the People's Representative Chamber and it shall come into force 20 days after its publication at the official state's gazette.[38][39][40] Portuguese is also one of the official languages of the Chinese special administrative region of Macau (alongside Chinese) and of several international organizations, including the Mercosur,[41] the Organization of Ibero-American States,[42] the Union of South American Nations,[43] the Organization of American States,[44] the African Union[45] and the European Union.[46]

[edit] Population of countries and jurisdictions of Portuguese official or co-official language

According to statistical and credible data from each government and their statistical national bureaus the population of each of the nine jurisdictions is as follows (by descending order):

Brazil: 190,755,799 (definite results of the 2010 Census);[47] Mozambique: 20,366,795 (definite results of the 2007 Census);[48][49] Angola: 15,116,000 (government's estimate. Angola hasn't had a census counting for a few decades, the next one is scheduled for 2013);[50] Portugal: 10,555,853 (preliminary results of the 2011 Census);[51][52] Guinea-Bissau: 1,520,830 (definite results of the 2009 Census);[53]

Timor-Leste: 1,066,582 (preliminary results of the 2010 Census);[54] Macau: 558,100 (estimate of the DSEC of SAR Macau. The countings of the 2011 Census are now being made.[55][56][57] Cape Verde: 491,575 (preliminary results of the 2010 Census);[58] So Tom and Principe: 137,599 (results of the 2001 Census published in 2003)[59]

This means that the population living in the lusophone official area is of 240,569,133 inhabitants. To this number there is yet to add the big diaspora of lusophone nations spread throughout the world, estimated in little less than 10 million people (4.5 million Portuguese, 3 million Brazilians, half a million Cape Verdeans, etc.) although it is hard to obtain official accurate numbers including the percentage of this diaspora that can actually speak Portuguese, because a significative portion of these citizens are Portuguese or non-Portuguese citizens born outside of lusophone territory, descendants of immigrants, and who do not speak the language. It is also important to refer that a big part of these national diasporas is a part of the already counted population of the Portuguese-speaking countries and territories, like the high number of Brazilian and PALOP's emigrant citizens in Portugal, or the high number of Portuguese emigrant citizens in the PALOP's and Brazil. So being, the Portuguese language serves daily little more than 240 million people, who have direct or indirect legal, juridic and social contact with it, varying from the only language used in any contact, to only education, contact with local or international administration, commerce and services or the simple sight of road signs, public information and advertising in Portuguese. It's also noticeable the growing numbers of these countries and jurisdictions' population to raw numbers easily identified: Continental Portugal with 10 million speakers and Azores and Madeira counting already half a million together; Brazil reaches 190 million, Mozambique 20 million, Angola 15 million, Guinea-Bissau an accurate 1 and a half million, Cape Verde and So Tom and Prncipe count for half a million together as well, Macau reaches half a million and Timor reaches finally the group of countries with one million inhabitants leaving the list of thousands. These are recent and real numbers that individually and all together strengthen the lusophone identities and the Portuguese language on an international basis.

[edit] Portuguese as a foreign language

The mandatory offering of Portuguese in school curricula is observed in Uruguay[60] and Argentina.[61] Other countries where Portuguese is taught at schools or is being introduced now include Venezuela,[62] Zambia,[63] Congo,[64] Senegal,[64] Namibia,[23] Swaziland,[64] Ivory Coast,[64] and South Africa.[64]

[edit] Future
According to estimates by UNESCO, Portuguese and Spanish are the fastest-growing European languages after English and the language has, according to newspaper The Portugal Press, the highest potential for growth as an international language in

southern Africa and South America.[65] The Portuguese-speaking African countries are expected to have a combined population of 83 million by 2050. In total, the Portuguese-speaking countries will have 335 million people by the same year.[65] Since 1991, when Brazil signed into the economic community of Mercosul with other South American nations, such as Argentina, Uruguay, and Paraguay, there has been an increase in interest in the study of Portuguese in those South American countries. The demographic weight of Brazil in the continent will continue to strengthen the presence of the language in the region. Although early in the 21st century, after Macau was ceded to China, the use of Portuguese was in decline in Asia, it is once again becoming a language of opportunity there; mostly because of increased Chinese diplomatic and financial ties with Portuguese-speaking countries.[66]

[edit] Dialects
Main article: Portuguese dialects Modern Standard Portuguese (portugus padro) is based on the Portuguese spoken in the area including and surrounding the city of Coimbra, in Central Portugal. Standard Portuguese is also the preferred standard by the Portuguese-speaking African countries, as such and despite the fact that its speakers are dispersed around the world, Portuguese has only two dialects used for learning: the European and the Brazilian. Some aspects and sounds found in dialects in Brazil are exclusive to South America, and cannot be found in Europe. However, the Santomean Portuguese in Africa may be confused with a Brazilian accent. Some aspects link some Brazilian accents with the ones spoken in Africa, such as the pronunciation of "menino", which is pronounced as [mininu] compared to [meninu] in Standard Portuguese. Dialects from inland Northern Portugal have significant similarities with Galician. Audio samples of some dialects and accents of Portuguese are available below.[67] There are some differences between the areas but these are the best approximations possible. IPA transcriptions refer to the names in local pronounce.

[edit] Angola

Portuguese dialects of Angola.

1. BenguelenseBenguela province. 2. LuandenseLuanda province. 3. SulistaSouth of Angola. 4. HuambenseHuambo province.

[edit] Brazil

Baiano (3) Bahia and Sergipe range of accents. Nordestino (2) [nhd tinu], more markedly in the Serto (7) and less distinctive in the cities, includes all the dialectal variations found in Northeastern Brazil from Alagoas to Maranho.[68] Nortista (8) [nhtit ], most of Amazon Basin states i.e. Northern Brazil. Sertanejo (10) Center-Western states, and also much of Tocantins and Rondnia. It is closer to mineiro, caipira, nordestino or nortista depending on the location. Mineiro (6) Minas Gerais (not prevalent in the Tringulo Mineiro). Southern, Southeastern and Northern areas of the state have fairly distinctive accents as well, approximanting to caipira, fluminense (popularly called, often pejoratively, carioca do brejo, "marsh carioca") and baiano respectively there. Areas adjacent to Belo Horizonte also have a peculiar accent.

Variants and sociolects of Brazilian Portuguese.

Caipira (1) Both [k jpi ] and [kajpi ], in the states of So Paulo (most markedly on the countryside and rural areas); southern Minas Gerais, northern Paran, southeastern Mato Grosso do Sul. Depending on the vision of what constitutes caipira, Tringulo Mineiro, Southern Gois, the remaining parts of Mato Grosso do Sul, and the frontier of caipira in Minas Gerais is expanded some further northerly, sufficiently to include localities in the "Zona da Mata Mineira", nevertheless does not reach Belo Horizonte expanded metropolitan area. It is often said that caipira appeared by decreolization of So Paulo's[citation needed] lngua braslica and its related lngua geral paulista, a former lingua franca in most of the contemporary Centro-Sul of Brazil before the 18th

century, spoken by most of the bandeirantes, interior pioneers of Colonial Brazil, closely related to its Northern counterpart Nheengatu, and that is why the dialect shows many general differences from other variants of the language.[69] Nevertheless, its most marked difference from fluminense and many other Brazilian dialects, the postalveolar "r" instead of the usual guttural "r", is often said do derivate from the transmutation of the traditional paulista feature alveolar flap in combination with the presence of American immigrants. In Greater Campinas, which happens to be the center of American immigration in Brazil, caipira accent is particularly distinctive.

Cafund (Cuppia) [kafd], a 'secret' variant with a large number of Bantu words, called by some linguists an anti-creole, spoken in the quilombo of Cafund, in the rural area of Salto de Pirapora, 121 km west of So Paulo city (9). Cafund is in itself a Vernacular Brazilian Portuguese placeholder name for a very distant, isolated or hardly accessible place.

Share of Portuguese speakers among different countries.

Paulistano (9)Variants spoken around Greater So Paulo in its maximum definition and some eastern areas of So Paulo state, and most cultivated speakers from anywhere in the state of So Paulo. Inside the paulistano area, there is a continuum from the variants which most closely resemble standard forms of Brazilian Portuguese (most famously the one closer to the early and mid-20th century standard, which is called quatrocento, "the big 400", in reference to the elite said to have roots in So Paulo as old as the foundation of the city itself) to the ones most closer to the caipira variant. Caipira is the inland sociolect of much of the Central-Southern half of Brazil, stronger in the rural areas, and it has historically low prestige in cities as Rio de Janeiro, Curitiba, Belo Horizonte, and until some years ago, in So Paulo itself. Sociolinguistics, or what by times is described as 'linguistic prejudice', often correlated with classism,[70][71][72] is a polemic topic in the entirety of the country since the times of Adoniran Barbosa. Sulista (11) The variants spoken in the areas between the northern regions of Rio Grande do Sul and southern regions of So Paulo state, encompassing most of Southern Brazil. The city of Curitiba do have a fairly distinct accent as well, and a minority of speakers in Florianpolis speak the variant (most of them make part of a continuum which ends in manezinho da ilha, related to the European Portuguese dialects spoken in Azores and Madeira).

Gacho (5) [gau], in Rio Grande do Sul. There are many distinct accents in Rio Grande do Sul, mainly due to the heavy influx of European immigrants of diverse origins, who have settled in colonies throughout the state and to the proximity to Spanish-speaking nations. The gacho word in itself is a Spanish loanword into Portuguese of obscure Indigenous Amerindian origins. Capixaba (4) [upward][kap(i)ab ], the variants spoken throughout Esprito Santo. Continuum between the most typically rural accents, in its extreme in the Southern region close to Rio de Janeiro state but to some extent also distancing a little from the coast which approximate to mineiro and to some extent caipira (which nevertheless weakened in cities as Cachoeiro do Itapemirim), and the more cultivated speech which slightly resembles standard Brazilian Portuguese spoken in Minas Gerais while being more European Portuguese-like, nevertheless by far not as intense as it is in Rio de Janeiro, typical of many speakers in Greater Vitria and mid to big municipalities.

Dialects of European Portuguese, the Galician language plus the Fala, excluding those spoken outside the continental area (Azores and Madeira).

FlorianopolitanoVariants heavily influenced by European Portuguese spoken in Florianpolis city (due to a heavy immigration movement from Portugal, mainly its autonomous regions) and much of its metropolitan area, Grande Florianpolis, said to be a continuum between those whose speech most resemble sulista dialects and those whose speech most resemble fluminense and EP ones, called, often pejoratively, manezinho da ilha.

Fluminense (4) [downward] and brasilienseVariants spoken in the state of Rio de Janeiro, and the related variant spoken in the Federal District. It appeared after locals came in contact with the Portuguese aristocracy amidst the Portuguese royal family fled in early 19th century. Some sources do not include the city of Rio de Janeiro and its adjacent metropolitan area, which have their own accents, collectively called carioca. CariocaSociolect of the fluminense variant spoken in an area roughly corresponding to Greater Rio de Janeiro. There is actually a continuum between countryside accents, the carioca sociolect, generally used colloquially, and the educated speech (the norma culta) which most closely resembles other Brazilian Portuguese standards but with markedly European Portuguese-like features, the nearer ones among the country's dialects along manezinho da ilha sociolect of florianopolitano.

[edit] Portugal

Dialects of Portuguese in Portugal. 1. 2. 3. Micaelense (Aores) (So Miguel)Azores. AlentejanoAlentejo (Alentejan Portuguese) AlgarvioAlgarve (there is a particular dialect in a small part of western Algarve). 4. Alto-MinhotoNorth of Braga (hinterland). 5. Baixo-Beiro; Alto-AlentejanoCentral Portugal (hinterland). 6. Beiro Central Portugal. 7. EstremenhoRegions of Coimbra, Leiria and Lisbon (this is a disputed denomination, as Coimbra is not part of "Estremadura", and the Lisbon dialect has some peculiar features that not only are not shared with the one of Coimbra, as make it significantly distinct and recognizable to most native speakers from elsewhere in Portugal). 8. Madeirense (Madeiran)Madeira. 9. NortenhoRegions of the districts of Braga, Porto and parts of Aveiro. 10. TransmontanoTrs-os-Montes e Alto Douro.

[edit] Other countries

Cape Verde Portugus cabo-verdiano (Cape Verdean Portuguese) Daman and Diu, IndiaDamaense (Damanese Portuguese) Goa, IndiaGos (Goan Portuguese) Guinea-Bissau Guineense (Guinean Portuguese) Macau, China Macaense (Macanese Portuguese) Mozambique Moambicano (Mozambican Portuguese) So Tom and Prncipe Santomense (So Tomean Portuguese) SpainOliventian Portuguese, and controversially other varieties sometimes deemed as separate languages. UruguayDialectos Portugueses del Uruguay (DPU) Timor-Leste Timorense (East Timorese Portuguese)

Differences between dialects are mostly of accent and vocabulary, but between the Brazilian dialects and other dialects, especially in their most colloquial forms, there can also be some grammatical differences. The Portuguese-based creoles spoken in various parts of Africa, Asia, and the Americas are independent languages.

[edit] Characterization
Portuguese, like Catalan and Sardinian, preserved the stressed vowels of Vulgar Latin, which became diphthongs in most other Romance languages; cf. Port., Cat., Sard. pedra ; Fr. pierre, Sp. piedra, It. pietra, Ro. piatr, from Lat. petram ("stone"); or Port. fogo, Cat. foc, Sard. fogu; Sp. fuego, It. fuoco, Fr. feu, Ro. foc, from Lat. focus ("fire"). Another characteristic of early Portuguese was the loss of intervocalic l and n, sometimes followed by the merger of the two surrounding vowels, or by the insertion of an epenthetic vowel between them: cf. Lat. salire ("to leave"), tenere ("to have"), catenam ("chain"), Sp. salir, tener, cadena, Port. sair, ter, cadeia. When the elided consonant was n, it often nasalized the preceding vowel: cf. Lat. manum ("hand"), ranam ("frog"), bonum ("good"), Port. mo, ra, bo (now mo, r, bom). This process was the source of most of the language's distinctive nasal diphthongs. In particular, the Latin endings -anem, -anum and -onem became -o in most cases, cf. Lat. canem ("dog"), germanum ("brother"), rationem ("reason") with Modern Port. co, irmo, razo, and their plurals -anes, -anos, -ones normally became -es, -os, -es, cf. ces, irmos, razes.

[edit] Vocabulary
Main article: Portuguese vocabulary

Library of the Mafra National Palace, Portugal.

Baroque Library of the Coimbra University, Portugal. Most of the lexicon of Portuguese is derived from Latin. Nevertheless, because of the Moorish occupation of the Iberian Peninsula during the Middle Ages, and the participation of Portugal in the Age of Discovery, it has adopted loanwords from all over the world. Very few Portuguese words can be traced to the pre-Roman inhabitants of Portugal, which included the Gallaeci, Lusitanians, Celtici and Cynetes. The Phoenicians and Carthaginians, briefly present, also left some scarce traces. Some notable examples are abbora "pumpkin" and bezerro "year-old calf", from the nearby Celtiberian language (probably through the Celtici); cerveja "beer", from Celtic; through Latin "cervisia." In the 5th century, the Iberian Peninsula (the Roman Hispania) was conquered by the Germanic Suebi and Visigoths. As they adopted the Roman civilization and language, however, these people contributed only a few words to the lexicon, mostly related to warfaresuch as espora "spur", estaca "stake", and guerra "war", from Gothic

*spara, *stakka, and *wirro, respectively. The influence also exists in toponymic and patronymic surnames borne by Visigoth sovereigns and their descendants, and it dwells on placenames such has Ermesinde, Esposende and Resende where sinde and sende are derived from the Germanic "sinths" (military expedition) and in the case of Resende, the prefix re comes from Germanic "reths" (council). Between the 9th and 13th centuries, Portuguese acquired about 800 words from Arabic by influence of Moorish Iberia. They are often recognizable by the initial Arabic article a(l)-, and include many common words such as aldeia "village" from alai`a, alface "lettuce" from alkhass, armazm "warehouse" from almakhzan, and azeite "olive oil" from azzait. From Arabic came also the grammatically peculiar word oxal nacibmazoM ehT ."yllufepoh" currency name metical was derived from the word mitql, a unit of weight. The word Mozambique itself is from the Arabic name of sultan Mua Alebique (Musa Alibiki). Starting in the 15th century, the Portuguese maritime explorations led to the introduction of many loanwords from Asian languages. For instance, catana "cutlass" from Japanese katana and ch "tea" from Chinese ch. From South America came batata "potato", from Taino; anans and abacaxi, from TupiGuarani nan and Tupi ib cati, respectively (two species of pineapple), and tucano "toucan" from Guarani tucan. From the 16th to the 19th centuries, because of the role of Portugal as intermediary in the Atlantic slave trade, and the establishment of large Portuguese colonies in Angola, Mozambique, and Brazil, Portuguese got several words of African and Amerind origin, especially names for most of the animals and plants found in those territories. While those terms are mostly used in the former colonies, many became current in European Portuguese as well. From Kimbundu, for example, came kifumate cafun "head caress", kusula caula "youngest child", marimbondo "tropical wasp", and kubungula bungular "to dance like a wizard". Finally, it has received a steady influx of loanwords from other European languages. For example, melena "hair lock", fiambre "wet-cured ham" (in contrast with presunto "dry-cured ham" from Latin prae-exsuctus "dehydrated"), and castelhano "Castilian", from Spanish; colchete/croch "bracket"/"crochet", palet "jacket", batom "lipstick", and fil/filete "steak"/"slice", rua "street" respectively, from French crochet, paletot, bton, filet; macarro "pasta", piloto "pilot", carroa "carriage", and barraca "barrack", from Italian maccherone, pilota, carrozza, baracca; and bife "steak", futebol, revlver, estoque, folclore, from English beef, football, revolver, stock, folklore.

[edit] Classification and related languages

Map showing the historical retreat and expansion of Portuguese (Galician-Portuguese) within the context of its linguistic neighbours between the year 1000 and 2000 Main articles: Iberian Romance languages, Galician-Portuguese, and Differences between Spanish and Portuguese Portuguese belongs to the West Iberian branch of the Romance languages, and it has special ties with the following members of this group:

Galician and Fala, its closest relatives. Mirandese, Leonese and Asturian (Astur-Leonese linguistic group). Mirandese is the only recognised regional language spoken in Portugal (beside Portuguese, the only official language in Portugal). Spanish.

Despite the obvious lexical and grammatical similarities between Portuguese and other Romance languages, it is not mutually intelligible with them. Apart from Galician and Spanish, Portuguese speakers will usually need some formal study of basic grammar and vocabulary before attaining a reasonable level of comprehension in the other Romance languages, and vice versa.

[edit] Galician and the Fala

The closest language to Portuguese is Galician, spoken in the autonomous community of Galicia (northwestern Spain). The two were at one time a single language, known today as Galician-Portuguese, but since the political separation of Portugal from Galicia they have diverged, especially in pronunciation and vocabulary. Nevertheless, the core vocabulary and grammar of Galician are still noticeably closer to Portuguese than to those of Spanish. In particular, like Portuguese, it uses the future subjunctive, the personal infinitive, and the synthetic pluperfect. Mutual intelligibility (estimated at 85% by R. A. Hall, Jr., 1989)[73] is very good between Galicians and northern Portuguese, but poorer between Galicians and speakers from central Portugal.

Nevertheless, many renowned linguists still consider Galician to be a dialect of the Portuguese language. The Fala language is another descendant of Galician-Portuguese, spoken by a small number of people in the Spanish towns of Valverde del Fresno, Eljas and San Martn de Trevejo (autonomous community of Extremadura, near the border with Portugal).

[edit] Influence on other languages

See also: List of English words of Portuguese origin, Loan words in Indonesian, Japanese words of Portuguese origin, List of Malay loanwords, Portuguese loanwords in Sinhala, Loan words in Sri Lankan Tamil#Portuguese, and Sri Lanka Indo-Portuguese language Portuguese has provided loanwords to many languages, such as Indonesian, Manado Malay, Sri Lankan Tamil and Sinhalese, Malay, Bengali, English, Hindi, Swahili, Afrikaans, Konkani, Marathi, Tetum, Xitsonga, Papiamentu, Japanese, Lanc-Patu (spoken in northern Brazil), Esan and Sranan Tongo (spoken in Suriname). It left a strong influence on the lngua braslica, a TupiGuarani language, which was the most widely spoken in Brazil until the 18th century, and on the language spoken around Sikka in Flores Island, Indonesia. In nearby Larantuka, Portuguese is used for prayers in Holy Week rituals. The JapanesePortuguese dictionary Nippo Jisho (1603) was the first dictionary of Japanese in a European language, a product of Jesuit missionary activity in Japan. Building on the work of earlier Portuguese missionaries, the Dictionarium Anamiticum, Lusitanum et Latinum (AnnamitePortugueseLatin dictionary) of Alexandre de Rhodes (1651) introduced the modern orthography of Vietnamese, which is based on the orthography of 17th-century Portuguese. The Romanization of Chinese was also influenced by the Portuguese language (among others), particularly regarding Chinese surnames; one example is Mei. During 1583 88 Italian Jesuits Michele Ruggieri and Matteo Ricci created a PortugueseChinese dictionarythe first ever EuropeanChinese dictionary.[74][75]

[edit] Derived languages

Main article: Portuguese-based creole languages Beginning in the 16th century, the extensive contacts between Portuguese travelers and settlers, African and Asian slaves, and local populations led to the appearance of many pidgins with varying amounts of Portuguese influence. As each of these pidgins became the mother tongue of succeeding generations, they evolved into fully fledged creole languages, which remained in use in many parts of Asia, Africa and South America until the 18th century. Some Portuguese-based or Portuguese-influenced creoles are still spoken today, by over 3 million people worldwide, especially people of partial Portuguese ancestry.

[edit] Phonology
Main article: Portuguese phonology

There is a maximum of 9 oral vowels and 19 consonants, though some varieties of the language have fewer phonemes (Brazilian Portuguese is usually analyzed as having 8 oral vowels). There are also five nasal vowels, which some linguists regard as allophones of the oral vowels, ten oral diphthongs, and five nasal diphthongs. In total, Brazilian Portuguese has 13 vowel phonemes.[76][77]

[edit] Vowels

To the seven vowels of Vulgar Latin, European Portuguese has added two near central vowels, one of which tends to be elided in rapid speech, like the e caduc of French (/ /, but commonly represented as []). The functional load of these two additional vowels is very low. The high vowels /e o/ and the low vowels / / are four distinct phonemes, and they alternate in various forms of apophony. Like Catalan, Portuguese uses vowel quality to contrast stressed syllables with unstressed syllables: isolated vowels tend to be raised, and in some cases centralized, when unstressed. Nasal diphthongs occur mostly at the ends of words.

[edit] Consonants
Consonant phonemes of Portuguese[78][79] Labio- Dental/ PostUvular/ Bilabial Palatal Velar dental Alveolar alveolar Glottal m n Nasal t d k Plosive p b f v s z Fricative l Lateral Flap The consonant inventory of Portuguese is fairly conservative. The medieval affricates /ts/, /dz/, /t/, /d/ merged with the fricatives /s/, /z/, //, //, respectively, but not with each other, and there have been no other significant changes to the consonant phonemes since then. However, some notable dialectal variants and allophones have appeared, among which:

In most regions of Brazil and some rural Portuguese accents, /t/ and /d/ have the affricate allophones [t] and [d], respectively, before /i/ and //.

At the end of a syllable, the phoneme /l/ is velarized to [] in European Portuguese and vocalized to [w] in Brazilian Portuguese. In all of Brazil and parts of Angola, // is pronounced as a nasal palatal approximant [ ], which nasalizes the preceding vowel, so that, for instance, ninho /niu/ (nest) is pronounced [n u]. In parts of Brazil, the alveolar sibilants /s/ and /z/ occur in complementary distribution at the ends of syllables, depending on whether the consonant that follows is voiceless or voiced, as in English. But in European, African and Asian Portuguese, and some parts of Brazil (always in nearly all sociolects of florianopolitano and fluminense, and nearly always in some sociolects of nortista, nordestino, mineiro, brasiliense and capixaba), sibilants are postalveolar at the ends of syllables, // before voiceless consonants, and // before voiced consonants (in Judeo-Spanish, /s/ is often replaced with // at the ends of syllables, too). In rural caipira speech, // is nearly always replaced with /j/, as such mulher (woman) becomes "mui", os olhos (the eyes) becomes "os oio" (but not leos, oils, which is homophone with olhos in most of Brazil, and always pronounced with a lateral) and there goes, but it is also present in the colloquial speech of a number of sociolects, including carioca. Some Galician speakers also present this feature as an influence from yesmo, a phenomenon of the Spanish language in which // merges with // (the latter phoneme is absent in all Portuguese and Galician dialects), although it is discouraged by the Real Academia Galega. Although there are two rhotic phonemes, they contrast only between vowels. Word-initially and after /n l s/ only // occurs; after other consonants only // occurs. No contrast occurs at the end of a syllable, but the actual sound in this position varies greatly depending on the dialect, especially in Brazil. There is also considerable dialectal variation in the actual pronunciation of the rhotic phoneme //. The actual pronunciation of [ ~ ], [] is common in Portugal, although the older trill [r] is also heard. In Brazil, an unvoiced fricative (e.g. [ x h]) is most commonly heard (although a few sociolects preserved European [] or more commonly present a variation). In many Brazilian dialects, the same unvoiced fricative occurs before a consonant, although in other dialects the sound of [], [] or even [r] occurs. Word-finally in Brazil, the rhotic is often dropped entirely when speaking colloquially; when preserved, the same variation occurs as before a consonant. In Portugal, the voiced stops [b d ] are pronounced as the corresponding voiced fricatives [ ] between vowels. Voiced fricatives are a much more common feature in Lisbon and surrounding areas than among rural and older speakers of Southern and Insular Portugal at the other end.

[edit] Examples of different pronunciation

Excerpt from the Portuguese national epic Os Lusadas, by author Lus de Cames (I, 33) IPA (So IPA (Santiago Original IPA (Lisbon) Translation Paulo) de Compostela) Sustentava suttav kt susttav kt sustentaa Held against contra ele el v nu l ei vnuz b l konta el him the

Vnus bela, Afeioada gente Lusitana, Por quantas qualidades via nela Da antiga to amada sua Romana; Nos fortes coraes, na grande estrela, Que mostraram na terra Tingitana, E na lngua, na qual quando imagina, Com pouca corrupo cr que a Latina.

nuz la f jsuaa t luzit n pu kw t kw ia vi n l d ti t w ma su um n nu ft ku s n dtel k muta w n t tit n i n w n kwa kw dim in k pok kuups w ke ki l tin fe sada t luzit n p kw t s kw idad z vi n l dti t w mad su hom n

beautiful Venus Fondly to the afejoaa Lusitanian ente lusitana people, po kantas For many kwaliaez ia qualities she saw n la in her dantia ta From his old amaa sua beloved Roman; romana

ns ft s nos ftes In the stout ko s s koaons hearts, in the big n d stel na andestela star k msta w n t h tit n n w n kwaw kw d im in k pok kohup(i)s w ke kj l tin That showed in ke mostara na the Tingitana t ra tinitana land, e na liwa na kal kando jmaina kom powka korupo ke ke a latina And in the language, which when it is imagined With little corruption, believes that it is Latin.[80]

[edit] Grammar
Main article: Portuguese grammar A notable aspect of the grammar of Portuguese is the verb. Morphologically, more verbal inflections from classical Latin have been preserved by Portuguese than by any other major Romance language. It has also some innovations not found in other Romance languages (except Galician and the Fala):

The present perfect has an iterative sense unique to the Galician-Portuguese language group. It denotes an action or a series of actions that began in the past and are expected to keep repeating in the future. For instance, the sentence Tenho tentado falar com ela would be translated to "I have been trying to talk to her", not "I have tried to talk to her". On the other hand, the correct translation of the question "Have you heard the latest news?" is not *Tem ouvido a ltima notcia?, but Ouviu a ltima notcia?, since no repetition is implied.[81] Vernacular Portuguese still uses the future subjunctive mood, which developed from medieval West Iberian Romance and in present-day Spanish and Galician has almost entirely fallen into disuse. The future subjunctive appears in dependent clauses that denote a condition that must be fulfilled in

the future so that the independent clause will occur. English normally employs the present tense under the same circumstances: Se eu for eleito presidente, mudarei a lei. If I am elected president, I will change the law. Quando fores mais velho, vais entender. When you grow older, you will understand.

The personal infinitive: infinitives can inflect according to their subject in person and number, often showing who is expected to perform a certain action; cf. melhor voltares "It is better [for you] to go back", melhor voltarmos "It is better [for us] to go back." Perhaps for this reason, infinitive clauses replace subjunctive clauses more often in Portuguese than in other Romance languages.

[edit] Writing system

Written varieties
Portugal and non1990 Agreement countries direco Brazil and 1990 Agreement countries translation

direo

direction best,

ptimo

timo

excellent, optimal

Main articles: Portuguese alphabet and Portuguese orthography Portuguese is written with 26 letters of the Latin script, making use of five diacritics to denote stress, vowel height, contraction, nasalization, and other sound changes (acute accent, grave accent, circumflex accent, tilde, and cedilla). Accented characters and digraphs are not counted as separate letters for collation purposes.

Museum of the Portuguese Language in So Paulo, Brazil.

[edit] Spelling reforms

Main article: Reforms of Portuguese orthography

[edit] Usual statements and numbers

The IPA transcriptions below reflect the Portuguese language's de facto standard dialects, Coimbra's in Portugal and Rio de Janeiro's in Brazil, also chosen for the sake of simplicity as they differ perceptibly less in phonology than the variants spoken in Lisboa and So Paulo, and these variants are both clearly understood throughout the Lusophone world. Also for the sake of simplicity, affrication of Brazilian [ti], [di] and gutturalization/aspiration/deletion of coda // in Brazil (that thus shifts to be represented by //) will be ignored and lenition of [b], [d], [g] to [], [], [] will be omnipresent in the transcriptions below, albeit a trait non-existent in Southern dialects of European Portuguese, and all dialects of Brazilian Portuguese (except for eventual rural betacisms), while unstressed final /e/ will be transcribed as [i], the pronunciation in Rio de Janeiro (and nearly all Portuguese speakers outside Portugal), albeit it is a rare sound closer to [ ] in Coimbra, hard for beginner English-speaking foreign reproduction. Greetings

Hi/Hello: Oi [oj], Ol [ola] How are you?: Como voc est? [komu vuse ta ~ kmu voseta], Como vai? [komu vaj], Tudo bem? [tuu j] [I am] fine/Not very well: Estou bem [tow j], No estou muito bem [n w tow mjtu j] Bye: Tchau [taw], Adeus [ ew] See you soon: At mais [ t maj], At logo [ t lu] See you tomorrow: At amanh [ t m ] What's your name?: Como se chama? [komu si m ], Qual o seu nome? [kwa w sew nomi] My name is ... : (Eu) Me chamo... [ew mi mu], Meu nome ... [mew nomj ] Please call me...: Pode me chamar de... [pdi mi ma di]

How are the things going?: Como esto as coisas? [komu t w kojz ] Please: Por favor [pu f vo] Thank you: Obrigado (male) [uiau ~ obigadu], Obrigada (female) [uia ~ obigad ] You're welcome: De nada [di nad ], No h de qu [n w a di ke] Sir: Senhor [sio] Lady, Madam: Senhora/Madame [si ] - [m m ~ mad mi], Dona [dn ] Miss: Senhorita [sioit ] Good morning, sir: Bom dia, senhor [b di. sio] Good afternoon: Boa tarde [bw tad ~ bow. tadi] Good evening, Good night: Boa noite [bw nojt ~ bow. nojti] What about you, where are you from?: E voc, de onde ? [i vose djdj ] I'm American: (Eu) sou estadunidense [ew sow itadunidsi], norteamericano [ntj meik nu], cidado americano [sid w meik nu] I'm Canadian: (Eu) sou canadense [ew sow k n dsi], canadiano [k n dj nu] I'm English/Canadian/Australian/Newzealander/Scottish/Welsh: (Eu) sou ingls/australiano/neozelands/escocs/irlands/gals [ew sow gle], [awt j nu], [n ozel de], [ikose], [il de], [g le ~ ew sow le]

Note: *The pronoun Eu(I) can be omitted or not Days of the Week

Sunday: Domingo [dumgu] Monday: Segunda-feira [sigd fej ] Tuesday: Tera-feira [tes fej ] Wednesday: Quarta-feira [kwat fej ] Thursday: Quinta-feira [kt fej ] Friday: Sexta-feira [set fej ] Saturday: Sbado [sa u] Week: Semana [sim n ] Weekend: Final de semana [finaw di sim n ] Today: Hoje [oi] Tomorrow: Amanh [ m ] Yesterday: Ontem [tj] The day before yesterday: Anteontem [ tjtj] The day after tomorrow: Depois de amanh [dipoj dj m ]

Numbers

1 um, uma (feminine) [ ~ um ] 2 dois, duas (fem) [doj ~ du. ] 3 trs [te] 4 quatro [kwatu] 5 cinco [sku] 6 seis [sej] 7 sete [s ti] 8 oito [ojtu]


[82]

9 nove [nvi] 10 dez [d ] 11 onze [zi] 12 doze [dozi] 13 treze [tezi] 14 quatorze/catorze [k(w) tozi] 15 quinze [kzi] 16 dezesseis [dizesej] 17 dezessete [dizes ti] 18 dezoito [dizojtu] 19 dezenove [dizenvi] 20 vinte [vti] 21 vinte e um [vtj] 30 trinta [tt ] 40 quarenta [kw t ] 50 cinquenta [skwt ] 60 sessenta [s st ~ sest ] 70 setenta [sett ] 80 oitenta [ojtt ] 90 noventa [nuvt ~ novt ] 100 cem [sj] 101 cento e um [stwi ] 102 cento e dois [stwi doj] 200 duzentos [duztu] 201 duzentos e um [duztuzi ] 300 trezentos [tiztu] 400 quatrocentos [kw tustu] 500 quinhentos [kitu] 600 seiscentos [se(j)stu] 700 setecentos [s tistu] 800 oitocentos [ojtustu] 900 novecentos [nvistu] 1,000 mil [mi ~ miw] 1,001 mil e um [mi i ] 2,000 dois mil [doj mi] 1,000,000 um milho [ mi w] 2,000,000 dois milhes [doj mij] 3,000,000 trs milhes [te mij] 1,000,000,000 um bilho [ bi w]

[edit] See also

Angola portal Brazil portal Cape Verde portal East Timor portal

Galicia portal Goa portal Guinea-Bissau portal Macau portal Malacca portal Mozambique portal Portugal portal So Tom and Prncipe portal Language portal

Portuguese literature Portuguese poetry List of Portuguese language poets List of international organisations which have Portuguese as an official language Brazilian literature List of Brazilian poets Lusophone Anglophone pronunciation of foreign languages (Portuguese section) Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP) Instituto Cames International Portuguese Language Institute Museum of the Portuguese Language Portuol Portuguese in the United States

[edit] Notes
1.^ also pronounced [potues] by speakers featuring gheada

[edit] References
1. ^ Regional pronunciation in Brazil: [putuge(j)] (BP-carioca, colloquial), [potue ~ puhtue] (BP-florianopolitano), (BP-fluminense), [potues] (BP-paulistano), (BP-curitibano), (BP-catarinense), [potuejs] (BP-caipira), (BP-sulista, colloquial), (BP-sertanejo), [potues ~ pohtues] (BP-capixaba), (BP-mineiro), (BP-brasiliense), [phtuejs] (BP-nordestino), (BP-baiano), (BP-nortista), [potues] (BP-gacho), [portues] (BP-gacho da pampa), (riverense portuol). In this discussion of a female politician from Alagoas state it is possible to notice that the "r" in this position is an [h] sound http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oKoGPP0ntz0 ^ "The 100 most spoken languages on the world | World's Observatory". Frankherles.wordpress.com. 2009-06-28. http://frankherles.wordpress.com/2009/06/28/the100-most-spoken-languages-on-the-world/. Retrieved 2012-07-23. ^ a b c "Estados-membros da CPLP" (in Portuguese). 28 February 2011. http://www.cplp.org/id-22.aspx. ^ Michael Swan, Bernard Smith (2001). "Portuguese Speakers". Learner English: a Teacher's Guide to Interference and Other Problems. Cambridge University Press.

2.

3. 4.

5. 6. 7.

8.

9. 10. 11.

12. 13. 14. 15. 16.

17. 18. 19.

20. 21.

22.

23.

24. 25. 26.

27.

28.

^ Henry Edward Watts. Miguel de Cervantes: His Life & Works. ^ Joseph T. Shipley (1946). Encyclopedia of Literature. Philosophical Library. p. 1188. ^ Prem Poddar, Rajeev S. Patke, Lars Jensen (2008). "Introduction: The Myths and Realities of Portuguese (Post) Colonial Society". A historical companion to postcolonial literatures: continental Europe and its empires. Edinburgh University Press. p. 431. http://books.google.com/books?id=Ghah5S3usnsC&pg=PA431&lpg=PA431&dq=%22langua ge+of+Cam%C3%B5es%22#v=onepage&q=%22language%20of%20Cam%C3%B5es%22&f =false. ^ NOVAimagem.co.pt / Portugal em LInha (2006-03-08). "Museu da Lngua Portuguesa aberto ao pblico no dia 20". Noticiaslusofonas.com. http://www.noticiaslusofonas.com/view.php?load=arcview&article=13562&catogory=CPLP. Retrieved 2012-07-23. ^ Medeiros, Adelardo Portuguese in Africa Angola ^ "Portuguese language in Brazil". Countrystudies.us. http://countrystudies.us/brazil/39.htm. Retrieved 2012-07-23. ^ a b "Special Eurobarometer 243 "Europeans and their Languages"". European Commission. 2006. p. 6. http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_243_en.pdf. Retrieved 11 May 2011. ^ 99.8% declared speaking Portuguese in the 1991 census ^ Medeiros, Adelardo Portuguese in Africa Moambique ^ Medeiros, Adelardo Portuguese in Africa Guin-Bissau ^ 13,100 Portuguese nationals in 2010 according to Population par nationalit on the site of the "Dpartement des Statistiques d'Andorre" ^ 0.13% or 25,779 persons speak it at home in the 2006 census, see Spoken at Home (full classification list) by Sex&producttype=Census Tables&method=Place of Usual Residence&areacode=0 "Language Spoken at Home from the 2006 census". Australian Bureau of Statistics. http://www.censusdata.abs.gov.au/ABSNavigation/download?format=xls&collection=Census &period=2006&productlabel=Language Spoken at Home (full classification list) by Sex&producttype=Census Tables&method=Place of Usual Residence&areacode=0. ^ "Bermuda". World InfoZone. http://www.worldinfozone.com/country.php?country=Bermuda. Retrieved 21 April 2010. ^ "Population by mother tongue, by province and territory (2006 Census)". Statistics Canada. http://www40.statcan.ca/l01/cst01/demo11a-eng.htm. ^ Gomes, Nancy (2001), "Os portugueses nas Amricas: Venezuela, Canad e EUA", Actualidade das migraes, Janus, http://janusonline.pt/2001/2001_3_2_5.html, retrieved 13 May 2011 ^ 580,000 estimated to use it as their mother tongue in the 1999 census and 490,444 nationals in the 2007 census, see Rpartition des trangers par nationalit ^ "Japo: imigrantes brasileiros popularizam lngua portuguesa" (in pt). 2008. http://www.correiodoestado.com.br/noticias/japao-imigrantes-brasileiros-popularizam-linguaportuguesa_43355/. ^ "4.6% according to the 2001 census, see". Cia.gov. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/je.html. Retrieved 2012-0723. ^ a b "www.namibian.com.na". www.namibian.com.na. 2011-08-15. http://www.namibian.com.na/index.php?id=28&tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=85817&no_cach e=1. Retrieved 2012-07-23. ^ "Languages of Paraguay". http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=Paraguay. ^ "Languages of Macau". http://www.pagef30.com/2008/10/how-much-portuguese-is-spokenin-macau.html. ^ Between 300,000 and 600,000 according to Pina, Antnio (2001), "Portugueses na frica do Sul", Actualidade das migraes, Janus, http://www.janusonline.pt/2001/2001_3_2_11.html, retrieved 13 May 2011 ^ Fibbi, Rosita (2010), Les Portugais en Suisse, Office fdral des migrations, http://www.bfm.admin.ch/content/dam/data/migration/publikationen/diasporastudie-portugalf.pdf, retrieved 13 May 2011 ^ See "Languages of Venezuela". http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=VE.and Gomes, Nancy (2001), "Os

29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37.

38.

39.

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42. 43. 44. 45. 46.

47.

48.

49. 50. 51. 52.

53.

portugueses nas Amricas: Venezuela, Canad e EUA", Actualidade das migraes, Janus, http://janusonline.pt/2001/2001_3_2_5.html, retrieved 13 May 2011 ^ Carvalho, Ana Maria (2010), "Portuguese in the USA", in Potowski, Kim, Language Diversity in the USA, Cambridge University Press, p. 346, ISBN 978-0-521-74533-8 ^ "''The Portuguese Foundation, Inc.''". Pfict.org. 2011-05-01. http://www.pfict.org. Retrieved 2012-07-23. ^ "''Jornal Brasileiras & Brasileiros''". Jornalbb.com. http://www.jornalbb.com/quem_somos.html. Retrieved 2012-07-23. ^ An immigration phenomenon: Why Portuguese is the second language of Massachusetts from www.boston.com Fall 2007 ^ Hispanic Reading Room of the U.S. Library of Congress Web site, Twentieth-Century Arrivals from Portugal Settle in Newark, New Jersey, ^ "Brazucas (Brazilians living in New York)". Nyu.edu. http://www.nyu.edu/classes/blake.map2001/brazil.html. Retrieved 21 April 2010. ^ Hispanic Reading Room of the U.S. Library of Congress Web site, Whaling, Fishing, and Industrial Employment in Southeastern New England ^ "Portuguese Language in Goa". Colaco.net. http://www.colaco.net/1/port.htm. Retrieved 21 April 2010. ^ "The Portuguese Experience: The Case of Goa, Daman and Diu". Rjmacau.com. http://www.rjmacau.com/english/rjm1996n3/ac-mary/portuguese.html. Retrieved 21 April 2010. ^ Factoria Audiovisual S.R.L. (2010-07-20). "El portugus ser el tercer idioma oficial de la Repblica de Guinea Ecuatorial - Pgina Oficial del Gobierno de la Repblica de Guinea Ecuatorial". Guineaecuatorialpress.com. http://www.guineaecuatorialpress.com/noticia.php?id=703. Retrieved 2012-07-23. ^ "Decreto sobre el portugues como idioma oficial - Pgina Oficial del Gobierno de la Repblica de Guinea Ecuatorial" (PDF). http://www.guineaecuatorialpress.com/imgdb/2010/20-72010Decretosobreelportuguescomoidiomaoficial.pdf. Retrieved 2012-07-23. ^ Factoria Audiovisual S.R.L. (2010-07-25). "El Presidente Obiang asiste a la Cumbre de la CPLP - Pgina Oficial del Gobierno de la Repblica de Guinea Ecuatorial". Guineaecuatorialpress.com. http://www.guineaecuatorialpress.com/noticia.php?id=712. Retrieved 2012-07-23. ^ "Official languages of Mercosul as agreed in the ''Protocol of Ouro Preto''". Actrav.itcilo.org. http://actrav.itcilo.org/actravenglish/telearn/global/ilo/blokit/mercopro.htm#Chapter%20VIII. Retrieved 2012-07-23. ^ "Official statute of the organization". Oei.es. http://www.oei.es/estatutos.htm. Retrieved 2012-07-23. ^ Artculo 23 for the official languages[dead link] ^ General Assembly of the OAS, Amendments to the Rules of Procedure of the General Assembly, 5 June 2000 ^ Article 11, Protocol on Amendments to the Constitutive Act of the African Union [1] ^ "Languages in Europe Official EU Languages". EUROPA web portal. http://ec.europa.eu/education/languages/languages-of-europe/doc135_en.htm. Retrieved 12 October 2009. ^ "Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatstica". Ibge.gov.br. http://www.ibge.gov.br/home/presidencia/noticias/noticia_visualiza.php?id_noticia=1866&id _pagina=1. Retrieved 2012-07-23. ^ "Informao geral sobre Moambique - Portal do Governo de Moambique" (in (Portuguese)). Portaldogoverno.gov.mz. http://www.portaldogoverno.gov.mz/Mozambique. Retrieved 2012-07-23. ^ 3 recenseamento geral da populao e habitao - Instituto Nacional de Estatstica[dead link] ^ Governo da Repblica de Angola[dead link] ^ "Aplicao interativa do Instituo Nacional de Estatstica sobre os resultados preliminares do Censos 2011". Ine.pt. http://www.ine.pt/scripts/flex_v10/Main.html. Retrieved 2012-07-23. ^ ITDS, Rui Campos, Pedro Senos. "Instituo Nacional de Estatstica". Ine.pt. http://www.ine.pt/xportal/xmain?xpid=INE&xpgid=ine_indicadores&indOcorrCod=0005889 &selTab=tab0. Retrieved 2012-07-23. ^ Apresentao dos resultados definitivos do Censos 2009 do Instituto Nacional de Estatstica[dead link]

54. ^ "Resultados do Censos 2010 - Governo de Timor Leste". Timor-leste.gov.tl. http://timorleste.gov.tl/?p=4144&n=1. Retrieved 2012-07-23. 55. ^ "Estimativas da populao de Macau - Direo dos Servios de Estatstica e Censos do Governo da RAE de Macau". Dsec.gov.mo. http://www.dsec.gov.mo/TimeSeriesDatabase.aspx?KeyIndicatorID=12. Retrieved 2012-0723. 56. ^ "Direo dos Servios de Estatstica e Censos do Governo da RAE de Macau". Dsec.gov.mo. http://www.dsec.gov.mo/default.aspx?lang=pt-PT. Retrieved 2012-07-23. 57. ^ "Censos 2011 de Macau - Direo dos Servios de Estatstica e Censos do Governo da RAE de Macau". Censos.dsec.gov.mo. http://censos.dsec.gov.mo/default.aspx?lang=pt-PT. Retrieved 2012-07-23. 58. ^ Apresentao de dados preliminares do IV RGPH 2010 - Instituto Nacional de Estatstica, Cabo Verde[dead link] 59. ^ RGPH 2001 Estado e estrutura da populao de So Tom e Prncipe - Instituto Nacional de Estatstica, So Tom e Prncipe - 2003[dead link] 60. ^ "Uruguayan government makes Portuguese mandatory." (in Portuguese). 5 November 2007. http://noticias.uol.com.br/ultnot/lusa/2007/11/05/ult611u75523.jhtm. Retrieved 13 July 2010. 61. ^ "Portuguese will be mandatory in high school." (in Spanish). 21 January 2009. http://portal.educ.ar/noticias/educacion-y-sociedad/el-portugues-sera-materia-obli.php. Retrieved 13 July 2010. 62. ^ "Portuguese language will be option in the official Venezuelan teachings." (in Portuguese). 24 May 2009. http://www.letras.etc.br/joomla/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=93:linguaportuguesa-sera-opcao-no-ensino-oficial-venezuelano&catid=6:noticia&Itemid=13/. Retrieved 13 July 2010. 63. ^ "Zambia will adopt the Portuguese language in their Basic school." (in Portuguese). 26 May 2009. http://movv.org/2009/05/26/a-zambia-vai-adotar-a-lingua-portuguesa-no-seu-ensinobasico/. Retrieved 13 July 2010. 64. ^ a b c d e "Congo will start to teach Portuguese in schools." (in Portuguese). 4 June 2010. http://www.estadao.com.br/noticias/arteelazer,congo-passara-a-ensinar-portugues-nasescolas,561666,0.htm/. Retrieved 13 July 2010. 65. ^ a b "Portuguese language gaining popularity". Anglopress Edices e Publicidade Lda. 5 May 2007. http://www.theportugalnews.com/cgi-bin/article.pl?id=906-9. Retrieved 18 May 2011. 66. ^ Leach, Michael (2007), "talking Portuguese; China and East Timor", Arena Magazine, http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb6469/is_92/ai_n29406744/, retrieved 18 May 2011 67. ^ From Audio samples of the dialects of Portuguese at the Instituto Cames website. 68. ^ Note: the speaker of this sound file is from Rio de Janeiro, and he is talking about his experience with Nordestino and Nortista accents. 69. ^ "Nheengatu and caipira dialect". Sosaci.org. http://www.sosaci.org/balaio2.htm. Retrieved 2012-07-23. 70. ^ por Caipira Z Do Mr dia 17 de maio de 2011, 6 Comentrios. "O MEC, o "portugus errado" e a linguistica | Imprena". Imprenca.com. http://www.imprenca.com/2011/05/mec-portugues-errado-e-linguistica.html. Retrieved 201207-23. 71. ^ "Cartilha Do Mec Ensina Erro De Portugus". Saindo da Matrix. http://www.saindodamatrix.com.br/archives/2011/05/cartilha_do_mec.html. Retrieved 201207-23. 72. ^ None (2011-05-26). "Livro do MEC ensina o portugus errado ou apenas valoriza as formas lingusticas? - Jornal de Beltro" (in (Portuguese)). Jornaldebeltrao.com.br. http://www.jornaldebeltrao.com.br/educacao/livro-do-mec-ensina-o-portugues-errado-ouapenas-valoriza-as-formas-linguisticas-63414/. Retrieved 2012-07-23. 73. ^ "Ethnologue". Ethnologue. http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=glg. Retrieved 21 April 2010. 74. ^ Yves Camus, "Jesuits' Journeys in Chinese Studies" 75. ^ "Dicionrio PortugusChins : Pu Han ci dian: PortugueseChinese dictionary", by Michele Ruggieri, Matteo Ricci; edited by John W. Witek. Published 2001, Biblioteca Nacional. ISBN 972-565-298-3. Partial preview available on Google Books 76. ^ http://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portugu%C3%AAs_brasileiro 77. ^ Handbook of the International Phonetic Association pg. 126130; the reference applies to the entire section

78. ^ Cruz-Ferreira (1995:91) 79. ^ Barbosa & Albano (2004:228229) 80. ^ White, Landeg. (1997). The LusiadsEnglish translation. Oxford World's Classics. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-280151-1 81. ^ Squartini, Mario (1998) Verbal Periphrases in RomanceAspect, Actionality, and Grammaticalization ISBN 3-11-016160-5 82. ^ http://www.easyportuguese.com/Portuguese-Phrasebook/Greetings/Greetings.htm http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zVwvxnnClKs http://www.languageguide.org/portuguese/vocabulary/

Histria da Lingua Portuguesa Instituto Cames A Lngua Portuguesa in Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil (...)

[edit] Literature

Poesia e Prosa Medievais, by Maria Ema Tarracha Ferreira, Ulisseia 1998, 3rd ed., ISBN 978-972-568-124-4. Bases TemticasLngua Portuguesa in Instituto Cames Portuguese Literature in The Catholic Encyclopedia

[edit] Phonology, orthography and grammar

Barbosa, Plnio A.; Albano, Eleonora C. (2004), "Brazilian Portuguese", Journal of the International Phonetic Association 34 (2): 227232, doi:10.1017/S0025100304001756 Cruz-Ferreira, Madalena (1995), "European Portuguese", Journal of the International Phonetic Association 25 (2): 9094, doi:10.1017/S0025100300005223 Mateus, Maria Helena & d'Andrade, Ernesto (2000) The Phonology of Portuguese ISBN 0-19-823581-X (Excerpt available at Google Books) Bergstrm, Magnus & Reis, Neves Pronturio Ortogrfico Editorial Notcias, 2004. A pronncia do portugus europeuEuropean Portuguese Pronunciation Dialects of Portuguese at the Instituto Cames Audio samples of the dialects of Portugal Audio samples of the dialects from outside Europe Portuguese Grammar

[edit] Reference dictionaries

Antnio Houaiss (2000), Dicionrio Houaiss da Lngua Portuguesa (228,500 entries). Aurlio Buarque de Holanda Ferreira, Novo Dicionrio da Lngua Portuguesa (1809pp) EnglishPortugueseChinese Dictionary (Freeware for Windows/Linux/Mac)

[edit] Linguistic studies

Cook, Manuela. Uma Teoria de Interpretao das Formas de Tratamento na Lngua Portuguesa, Hispania, vol 80, nr 3, AATSP, 1997

Cook, Manuela. On the Portuguese Forms of Address: From "Vossa Merc" to "Voc", Portuguese Studies Review 3.2, Durham: University of New Hampshire, 1995 Lindley Cintra, Lus F. Nova Proposta de Classificao dos Dialectos Galego-Portugueses (PDF) Boletim de Filologia, Lisboa, Centro de Estudos Filolgicos, 1971.

Lisbon
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search For other uses, see Lisbon (disambiguation).
Coordinates: 384249.72N 9821.79W38.7138111N 9.1393861W

Lisbon (Lisboa)
Capital

From top to right: Praa do Comrcio; Teatro Nacional D. Maria II; Belm Palace; Parque das Naes

Flag

Symbol

Official name: Concelho de Lisboa Name origin: Lisboa, Portuguese derivative of the Phoenician Allis Ubbo for safe harbour; Latin Ulyssippo after Ulysses; and/or Roman

Olissipona, for the name of the Tagus Nickname: A Cidade das Sete Colinas (The City of Seven Hills), Rainha do Mar (Queen of the Sea) Country Region Subregion District Municipality Civil Parishes River Location - elevation Portugal Lisboa Greater Lisbon Lisbon Lisbon (see text) Tagus River Lisbon 2 m (7 ft) 384249.72N - coordinates 9821.79W38.7138111N 9.1393861W Highest point 227 m Serra de Monsanto, Benfica, Lisbon 199 m (653 ft) 384342.97N - coordinates 9114.80W38.7286028N 9.184667W Lowest point Sea level

- location

- elevation

- location - elevation Area - urban - metro Population - urban - metro

Atlantic Ocean 0 m (0 ft) 84.8 km2 (33 sq mi) 958 km2 (370 sq mi) 2,957 km2 (1,142 sq mi) 547,631 (2011) 3,051,000 3,035,000 6,458 / km2 (16,726 / sq mi) fl. 719 c. 1256 Concelho/Cmara Municipal Praa do Municpio, Lisbon, Grande Lisboa 33 m (108 ft) 384229N

Density

Settlement - City

LAU

- location

- elevation

- coordinates

9818W38.70806N 9.13833W

President

Antnio Costa (PS) Maria Simonetta Bianchi

Municipal Chair Aires de Carvalho Luz Afonso (PS)

Timezone - summer (DST)

WET (UTC0) WEST (UTC+1)

ISO 3166-2 code PTPostal Zone 1149-014 Lisboa

Area Code & Prefix (+351) 21 XXX-XXXX Demonym Patron Saint Lisboeta and Alfacinha So Vicente Praa do Municpio, 1 1149-014 Lisboa

Municipal Address

Location of the municipality of Lisbon in Portugal Wikimedia Commons: Lisbon Website: http://www.cm-lisboa.pt/

Lisbon (/l zbn/; Portuguese: Lisboa, IPA: [ibo ][1]) is the capital city and largest city of Portugal with a population of 547,631 within its administrative limits[2] on a land area of 84.8 km2 (33 sq mi). The urban area of Lisbon extends beyond the administrative city limits with a population of over 3 million[3] on an area of 958 km2 (370 sq mi),[3] making it the 9th most populous urban area in the European Union. About 2,831,000[4][5] people live in the Lisbon Metropolitan Area (which represents approximately 27% of the population of the country). Lisbon is the westernmost large city located in Europe, as well as its westernmost capital city and the only one along the Atlantic coast. It lies in the western Iberian Peninsula on the Atlantic Ocean and the Tagus River. Lisbon is recognised as a global city because of its importance in finance, commerce, media, entertainment, arts, international trade, education, and tourism.[6][7] It is one of the major economic centres on the continent, with a growing financial sector and the largest/second largest container port on Europe's Atlantic coast.[8] Lisbon Portela Airport serves about 13 million passengers per year; the motorway network and the high-speed rail system of (Alfa Pendular) link the main cities of Portugal.[9] Lisbon is the 25th most livable city in the World according to lifestyle magazine Monocle.[10] The city is the seventh-most-visited city in Southern Europe, after Istanbul, Rome, Barcelona, Madrid, Athens, and Milan, with 1,740,000 tourists in 2009.[11] The Lisbon region is the wealthiest region in Portugal, GDP PPP per capita is 26,100 euros (4.7% higher than the average European Union's GDP PPP per capita). It is the tenth richest metropolitan area by GDP on the continent amounting to 98 billion euros and thus 34,850 per capita, [12] 40% higher than the average European Union's GDP per capita. The city occupies 32nd place of highest gross earnings in the world.[13] Most of the headquarters of multinationals in the country are located in the Lisbon area and it is the ninth city in the world in terms of quantity of international conferences.[14] It is also the political centre of the country, as seat of Government and residence of the Head of State. The seat of the district of Lisbon and the centre of the Lisbon region. Lisbon is one of the oldest cities in the world, predating other modern European capitals such as London, Paris and Rome by hundreds of years. Julius Caesar made it a municipium called Felicitas Julia, adding to the name Olissipo. Ruled by a series of Germanic tribes from the fifth century, it was captured by the Moors in the eighth century. In 1147, the Crusaders under Afonso Henriques reconquered the city and since then it has been a major political, economic, and cultural centre of Portugal. Unlike most capital cities, Lisbon's status as the capital of Portugal has never been granted or confirmed officially by statute or in written form. Its position as the capital has formed through constitutional convention, making its position as de facto capital a part of the Constitution of Portugal. Lisbon hosts two agencies of the European Union: the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) and the European Maritime Safety Agency (EMSA). Called the "Capital of the Lusophone world", the Community of Portuguese Language Countries has its headquarters in the city, in the Palace of the Counts of Penafiel. Lisbon has two sites listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site: Belm Tower and Jernimos Monastery. Furthermore, in 1994, Lisbon was the European Capital of Culture and in 1998 organised an Expo '98 (1998 Lisbon World Exposition).

Lisbon enjoys a Mediterranean climate. Among all the metropolises in Europe, it has the warmest winters, with average temperatures 15 C (59 F) during the day and 8 C (46 F) at night from December to February. The typical summer's season lasts about six months, from May to October, although also in November, March and April temperatures sometimes reach around 20 C (68.0 F).

Contents
[hide]

1 History o 1.1 Pre-Roman o 1.2 Roman era o 1.3 Middle Ages o 1.4 Early Modern o 1.5 Late modern and contemporary 2 Geography o 2.1 Physical geography o 2.2 Climate o 2.3 Civil parishes o 2.4 Districts 2.4.1 Alcntara 2.4.2 Alfama 2.4.3 Bairro Alto 2.4.4 Baixa 2.4.5 Belm 2.4.6 Chiado 2.4.7 Estrela 2.4.8 Parque das Naes 3 Demographics o 3.1 Historical population o 3.2 Metropolitan area 4 Economy 5 Transport o 5.1 Trams o 5.2 Trains o 5.3 Automobiles o 5.4 Bridges o 5.5 Ferries o 5.6 Air travel 6 Education o 6.1 Higher education 7 Culture 8 Sports o 8.1 Association football o 8.2 Varied sports o 8.3 Facilities 9 Twin cities 10 See also

11 References 12 External links

[edit] History
Main article: History of Lisbon

Phoenician archaeological dig in the Lisbon Cathedral cloisters.

[edit] Pre-Roman
During the Neolithic period, the region was inhabited by Pre-Celtic tribes, who built religious and funerary monuments, megaliths, dolmens and menhirs, which still survive in areas on the periphery of Lisbon[citation needed]. The Indo-European Celts invaded in the first millennium BC, mixing with the Pre-Indo-European population, thus giving rise to Celtic-speaking local tribes such as the Cempsi. Archaeological findings suggest there were Phoenician influences dating back to 1200 BC, leading some historians to believe that a Phoenician trading post might have occupied the centre of the present city (on the southern slope of the Castle hill). The sheltered harbour in the Tagus River estuary was an ideal spot for a settlement and provided a secure port for provisioning of Phoenician ships travelling to the Islands of Tin (modern Isles of Scilly) and Cornwall. The new city might have been named Allis Ubbo, Phoenician for "safe harbour", according to one of several theories on the origin of Lisbon's toponymy.[15] Another theory suggests that the settlement took the name of the pre-Roman word for the Tagus (Lisso or Lucio). The Tagus settlement was also an important centre of commercial trade with inland tribes, providing an outlet for the valuable metals, salt, and salted-fish they collected, and for the sale of the Lusitanian horses renowned in antiquity. Although Phoenician remains from the 8th century BC were found beneath the Mediaeval S Cathedral, modern historians believe,[16] however, that Lisbon was an ancient autochthonous settlement (Roman oppidum) and that, at most, it maintained commercial relations with the Phoenicians (accounting Phoenician pottery and artefacts). Lisbon's name was written Ulyssippo in Latin by the geographer Pomponius Mela, a native of Hispania. It was later referenced as "Olisippo" by Pliny the Elder, and to the Greeks as Olissipo () and Olissipona ().[17] According to legend, the location was named for Ulysses, who founded the settlement after he left

Troy to escape the Greek coalition.[18][19] Later, the Greek name appeared in Vulgar Latin in the form Olissipona.

[edit] Roman era

Part of the ancient Roman walls. Following the defeat of Hannibal during the Punic wars, the Romans determined to deprive Carthage of its most valuable possession: Hispania (the Iberian Peninsula). The defeat of Carthaginian forces by Scipio Africanus in Eastern Hispania allowed the pacification of the west, led by Consul Decimus Junius Brutus Callaicus. Decimus obtained the alliance of Olissipo (which sent men to fight alongside the Roman Legions against the northwestern Celtic tribes) by integrating it into the Empire, as the Municipium Cives Romanorum Felicitas Julia. Local authorities were granted selfrule over a territory that extended 50 kilometres (31 mi); exempt from taxes, its citizens were given the privileges of Roman citizenship, and it was then integrated with the Roman province of Lusitania (whose capital was Emerita Augusta). Lusitanian raids and rebellions during Roman occupation necessitated the construction of a wall around the settlement. During Augustus' reign, the Romans also built a great theatre; the Cassian Baths (underneath Rua da Prata); temples to Jupiter, Diana, Cybele, Tethys, and Idea Phrygiae (an uncommon cult from Asia Minor), in addition to temples to the Emperor; a large necropolis under Praa da Figueira; a large forum and other buildings such as insulae (multi-storied apartment buildings) in the area between the Castle Hill and the historic city core.[20] The city prospered as piracy was eliminated, technological advances were introduced and as Felicitas Julia became a centre of trade with the Roman provinces of Britannia (particularly Cornwall) and the Rhine. Economically strong, Olissipo was known for its garum (a fish sauce highly prized by the elites of the Empire and exported in amphorae to Rome), wine, salt and horse-breeding, while Roman culture permeated the hinterland. The city was connected by a broad road to Western Hispania's two other large cities, Bracara Augusta in the province of Tarraconensis (Portuguese Braga), and Emerita Augusta, the capital of Lusitania (Mrida, Spain). The city was ruled by an oligarchical council dominated by two families, the Julii and the Cassiae, although regional authority was administered by the Roman Governor of Emerita or directly by Emperor Tiberius. Among the majority of Latin speakers lived a large minority of Greek traders and slaves.

Around 80 BCE, the Roman Quintus Sertorius led a rebellion against the dictator Sulla. During this period, he organized the tribes of Lusitania and Hispania and was on the verge of forming an independent province in the Sertorian War when he died. Olissipo, like most great cities in the Western Empire, was a centre for the dissemination of Christianity. Its first attested Bishop was Potamius (c. 356), and there were several martyrs during the period of persecution of the Christians: Maxima, Verissimus and Eulalia of Mrida are the most significant examples. By the time of the Fall of Rome, Olissipo had become a notable Christian centre.

The Moorish fortifications at the Castle of So Jorge, in the Alfama. Following the disintegration of the Roman empire there were barbarian invasions; between 409 and 429 the city was occupied successively by Sarmatians, Alans, and Vandals. The Germanic Suebi, who established a kingdom in Gallaecia (modern Galicia and northern Portugal), with its capital in Bracara Augusta, also controlled the region of Lisbon until 585. In 585, the Suebi Kingdom was integrated into the Germanic Visigothic Kingdom of Toledo, which comprised all of the Iberian Peninsula: Lisbon was then called Ulishbona.

[edit] Middle Ages

On 6 August 711, Lisbon was taken by Muslim forces. These conquerors, who were mostly Berbers and Arabs from North Africa and the Middle East, built many mosques and houses, rebuilt the city wall (known as the Cerca Moura) and established administrative control, while permitting the diverse population (Muladi, Christians, Berbers, Arabs, Jews, and Saqalibas) to maintain their socio-cultural lifestyles. Mozarabic was the mother language spoken by most of the Christian population. Islam was the official religion practised by the Arabs and Muladi (muwallad); the Christians were allowed to keep their religion under the status as Dhimmi subjects, and were allowed rights of residence in return for jizyah taxes. In return for paying this surtax, Christians and Jews were excluded from specific duties assigned to Muslims like joining the Islamic army, and their security was guaranteed by the Islamic state, but otherwise, the Christians and Jews were equal to Muslims under the laws of property, contract and obligation. The Muslim influence is still present in the Alfama, an old quarter of Lisbon that survived the 1755 Lisbon earthquake: many place-names are derived from Arabic and the Alfama (the oldest existing district of Lisbon) was derived from the Arabic "alhamma".

For a brief time, Lisbon was the central town in the Regulo Eslavo of the Taifa of Badajoz, and then as an independent Taifa, as the Taifa of Lisbon.

The Moorish surrender to Afonso Henriques at the Siege of Lisbon of 1147. In 1108 the city was conquered by Norwegian crusaders led by Sigurd I on their way to the Holy Land as part of the Norwegian Crusade, but was reconquered by Moorish Almoravids in 1111. In 1147, as part of the Reconquista, crusader knights led by Afonso I of Portugal besieged and reconquered Lisbon. The city, with around 154,000 residents at the time, was returned to Christian rule. The reconquest of Portugal and re-establishment of Christianity is one of the most significant events in Lisbon's history, described in the chronicle Expugnatione Lyxbonensi, telling that the local bishop was killed by the crusaders and that its residents were praying to the Virgin Mary. As spoken Arabic lost its place in the everyday life of the city, many of the remaining Muslim residents were converted to Roman Catholicism by force, or were expelled, and the mosques were either destroyed or converted into churches. Although Lisbon received its first charter (foral) in 1179, periodically Muslim raiders from Al-Andalus challenged the control of the Iberian Christian kingdoms, capturing slaves and seizing local treasures. In a raid against Lisbon in 1189, the Almohad caliph Yaqub al-Mansur took 3,000 female and child captives.[21] Due to its central location, Lisbon became the capital city of the new Portuguese territory in 1255. The first Portuguese university was founded in Lisbon in 1290 by King Denis I; for many years the Studium Generale (General Study) was transferred intermittently to Coimbra, where it was installed permanently in the 16th century as the University of Coimbra. During the last centuries of the Middle Ages, the city expanded substantially and became an important trading post with both northern European and Mediterranean cities.

[edit] Early Modern

The oldest known image of Lisbon (15001510) from the Crnica de Dom Afonso Henriques by Duarte Galvo Most of the Portuguese expeditions of the Age of Discovery left from Lisbon during the 15th to 17th centuries, including Vasco da Gama's expedition to India in 1497. In 1506, 3000 Jews were massacred in Lisbon.[22] The 16th century was Lisbon's golden era: the city was the European hub of commerce between Africa, India, the Far East and, later, Brazil, and acquired great riches by exploiting the trade in spices, slaves, sugar, textiles, and other goods. This period saw the rise of the exuberant Manueline style in architecture, which left its mark in many 16th century monuments (including Lisbon's Belm Tower and Jernimos Monastery, which were declared UNESCO World Heritage Sites). A description of Lisbon in the 16th century was written by Damio de Gis and published in 1554.[23] Portugal lost its independence to Spain after the succession crisis of 1580; the Portuguese Restoration War, which began with a coup d'tat organized by the nobility and bourgeoisie in Lisbon and executed on 1 December 1640, restored Portuguese independence. The revolution of 1640 ended the sixty-year period of dual monarchy in Portugal and Spain under the Spanish Habsburgs,[24][25] although the period from 1640 to 1668 was marked by periodic skirmishes between Portugal and Spain, as well as short episodes of more serious warfare, until the Treaty of Lisbon was signed in 1688. In the early 18th century, gold from Brazil allowed King John V to sponsor the building of several Baroque churches and theatres in the city.

The Ribeira Royal Palace in the 18th-century, prior to its destruction. Prior to the 18th century, Lisbon had experienced several significant earthquakes eight in the 14th century, five in the 16th century (including the 1531 earthquake that

destroyed 1,500 houses, and the 1597 earthquake in which three streets vanished), and three in the 17th century. On 1 November 1755, the city was destroyed by another devastating earthquake, which killed an estimated 30,000 to 40,000 Lisbon residents[26] of a population estimated at between 200,000 and 275,000,[27][28] and destroyed 85 percent of the city's structures.[29] Among several important buildings of the city, the Ribeira Palace and the Hospital Real de Todos os Santos were lost. In coastal areas, such as Peniche, situated about 80 km (50 mi) north of Lisbon, many people were killed by the following tsunami. In Setbal, 30 km (19 mi) south of Lisbon, the water reached the first floor (second floor, in U.S. terms) of buildings. The destruction was also great in the Algarve of southern Portugal, where the tsunami dismantled some coastal fortresses and, in the lower parts, leveled many houses. In some places the waves crested at more than 30 m (98.43 ft). Almost all the coastal towns and villages of the Algarve were heavily damaged, except Faro, which was protected by sandy banks. In Lagos, the waves reached the top of the city walls. For many Portuguese coastal regions, the destructive effects of the tsunami were more disastrous than those of the earthquake proper.

The Marquis of Pombal's enlightened plans for rebuilding Lisbon. By 1755, Lisbon was one of the largest cities in Europe; the catastrophic event shocked the whole of Europe and left a deep impression on its collective psyche. In southwestern Spain, the tsunami caused damage to Cadiz and Huelva, and the waves penetrated the Guadalquivir River, reaching Seville. In Gibraltar, the sea rose suddenly by about two metres. In Ceuta the tsunami was strong, but in the Mediterranean Sea, it decreased rapidly. On the other hand, it caused great damage and casualties to the western coast of Morocco, from Tangier, where the waves reached the walled fortifications of the town, to Agadir, where the waters passed over the walls, killing many. The tsunami also reached Cornwall, in the present United Kingdom, at a height of three metres. Along the coast of Cornwall, the sea rose rapidly in vast waves, and then ebbed equally rapidly. A two metre tsunami also hit Galway in Ireland, and did some considerable damage to the Spanish Arch section of the city wall. Voltaire wrote a long poem, Pome sur le dsastre de Lisbonne, shortly after the quake, and mentioned it in his 1759 novel Candide (indeed, many argue that this critique of optimism was inspired by that earthquake). Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr. also mentions it in his 1857 poem, The Deacon's Masterpiece, or The Wonderful One-Hoss Shay. In the town of Cascais, some 30 km (19 mi) west of Lisbon, the waves wrecked several boats and when the water withdrew, large stretches of sea bottom were left uncovered. After the 1755 earthquake, the city was rebuilt largely according to the plans of Prime Minister Sebastio Jos de Carvalho e Melo, the 1st Marquess of Pombal; the lower

town began to be known as the Baixa Pombalina (Pombaline Downtown). Instead of rebuilding the medieval town, Pombal decided to demolish what remained after the earthquake and rebuild the downtown in accordance with principles of modern urban design. It was reconstructed in an open rectangular plan with two great squares: the Praa do Rossio and the Praa do Comrcio. The first, the central commercial district, is the traditional gathering place of the city and the location of the older cafs, theatres and restaurants; the second became the city's main access to the Tagus River and point of departure and arrival for sea-going vessels, adorned by a triumphal arch (1873) and monument to King Joseph I.

[edit] Late modern and contemporary

The construction of the Rossio Train Station, at Rossio Square, in 1886. In the first years of the 19th century, Portugal was invaded by the troops of Napolon Bonaparte, forcing Queen Maria I and Prince-Regent John (future John VI) to flee temporarily to Brazil. By the time the new King returned to Lisbon, many of the buildings and properties were pillaged, sacked or destroyed by the invaders. During the 19th century, the Liberal movement introduced new changes into the urban landscape. The principal areas were in the Baixa and along the Chiado district, where shops, tobacconists shops, cafs, bookstores, clubs and theatres proliferated. The development of industry and commerce determined the growth of the city, extending north along the Avenida da Liberdade (1879), distancing itself from the Tagus River. Lisbon was the site of the regicide of Carlos I of Portugal in 1908, an event which culminated two years later in the First Republic. The city refounded its university in 1911 after centuries of inactivity in Lisbon, incorporating reformed former colleges and other non-university higher education schools of the city (such as the Escola Politcnica now Faculdade de Cincias). Today there are 3 public universities in the city (University of Lisbon, Technical University of Lisbon and New University of Lisbon), a public university institute (ISCTE - Lisbon University Institute) and a polytechnic institute (IPL Instituto Politcnico de Lisboa).

The Proclamation of the Portuguese Republic in Lisbon's Municipal Square. During World War II Lisbon was one of the very few neutral, open European Atlantic ports, a major gateway for refugees to the U.S. and a haven for spies. More than 100,000 refugees were able to flee Nazi Germany via Lisbon.[30] During the Estado Novo regime (19261974), Lisbon was expanded at the cost of other districts within the country, resulting in nationalist and monumental projects. New residential and public developments were constructed; the zone of Belm was modified for the 1940 Portuguese Exhibition, while along the periphery new neighborhoods appeared to house the growing population. The inauguration of the bridge over the Tagus allowed rapid connection between the two sides of the river. Lisbon was the site of three revolutions in the 20th-century. The first, the 5 October 1910 revolution, brought an end to the Portuguese monarchy and established the highly unstable and corrupt Portuguese First Republic. The 6 June 1926 revolution would see the end of that first republic and firmly establish the Estado Novo, or the Portuguese Second Republic, as the ruling regime. The final revolution, the Carnation Revolution, would take place on 25 April 1974 and would end the right-wing Estado Novo and reform the country as the current Portuguese Third Republic.

The Treaty of Lisbon was signed at the Jernimos Monastery in 2007. In the 1990s, many of the neighborhoods were renovated and projects in the historic quarters were established to modernize those areas; architectural and patrimonial buildings were recuperated; the northern margin of the Tagus was re-purposed for leisure and residential use; the Vasco da Gama bridge was constructed; and the eastern part of the municipality was re-purposed for Expo '98, to commemorate the 500th anniversary of Vasco da Gama's sea voyage to India, a voyage that would bring immense riches to Lisbon and cause many of Lisbon's landmarks to be built. In 1988, a fire in the historical district of Chiado saw the destruction of many 18thcentury Pombaline style buildings. A series of restoration works has brought the area back to its former self and made it a high-scale shopping district.

The Lisbon Agenda was a European Union agreement on measures to revitalize the EU economy, signed in Lisbon in March 2000. In October 2007 Lisbon hosted the 2007 EU Summit, where agreement was reached regarding a new EU governance model. The resulting Treaty of Lisbon was signed on 13 December 2007 and came into force on 1 December 2009. Lisbon has been the site for many international events and programs. In 1994, Lisbon was the European Capital of Culture. On 3 November 2005, Lisbon hosted the MTV European Music Awards. On 7 July 2007, Lisbon held the ceremony of the "New 7 Wonders Of The World"[31] election, in Luz stadium, with live transmission for millions of people all over the world. Lisbon alternates with Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, hosting the Rock in Rio music festival, the largest in the world. Lisbon hosted the NATO summit (1920 November 2010), a summit meeting that is regarded as a periodic opportunity for Heads of State and Heads of Government of NATO member states to evaluate and provide strategic direction for Alliance activities.[32]

[edit] Geography

A orthophotograph of Lisbon's Metropolitan area, from a SPOT Satellite.

[edit] Physical geography

Lisbon is located at 384249.75N 9821.79W38.7138194N 9.1393861W, situated at the mouth of the Tagus River and is the westernmost capital of a mainland European country. The westernmost part of Lisbon is occupied by the Parque Florestal de Monsanto (English: Monsanto Forest Park), an 10 km2 (4 sq mi) urban park, one the largest in Europe, and occupying ten per cent of the municipality. The city occupies an area of 84.94 km2 (33 sq mi), and its city boundaries, unlike those of most major cities, are narrowly defined by its historical centre.[33] The rest of the urbanized area of the Lisbon Metropolitan Area, known generically as Greater

Lisbon (Portuguese: Grande Lisboa), is actually several administratively defined cities and municipalities, such as Amadora, Queluz, Agualva-Cacm, Odivelas, Loures, Sacavm, Almada, Barreiro, Seixal and Oeiras

[edit] Climate
Lisbon has a Subtropical-Mediterranean climate (Kppen climate classification: Csa)[34] with mild winters and warm to hot summers. The average annual temperature is 21.5 C (70.7 F) during the day and 13.5 C (56.3 F) at night. Average annual temperature of the sea is 17.5 C (63.5 F). In the coldest month January the high temperature during the day typically ranges from 11 to 19 C (52 to 66 F), the low teperature at night ranges from 3 to 13 C (37 to 55 F) and the average sea temperature is 15 C (59 F).[35] In the warmest month August the high temperature during the day typically ranges from 26 to 34 C (79 to 93 F), the low temperature at night ranges from 16 to 21 C (61 to 70 F) and the average sea temperature is 20 C (68 F).[35] Generally, a summer season lasts about 6 months, from May to October. Three months March, April and November are transitional, sometimes the temperature exceeds 20 C (68 F), with an average temperature in these three months of 18.9 C (66 F) during the day and 12.0 C (53.6 F) at night. December, January and February are the coldest months, with an average temperature of 15.5 C (59.9 F) during the day and 8.9 C (48.0 F) at night. Among all metropolises (together with Valencia) and capitals (together with Malta) in Europe, Lisbon has the warmest winters, and the mildest nighttime temperatures in Europe: among the warmest in the winter from an average of 8.3 C (46.9 F) in the coldest month, and comfortable 18.6 C (65.5 F) in the warmest month. Rain occurs mainly in winter, the summers being generally dry. Sunshine hours are about 2,800 per year, from an average of 4.6 hours of sunshine duration at day in December to an average of 11.4 hours of sunshine duration at day in July.
[hide]Climate data for Lisbon Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep

Month Record high C (F) Averag e high C (F) Daily mean C (F) Averag e low C (F) Record low C (F) Rainfal l mm (inches)

Jan

Oct

Nov

Dec Year

34.8 41.5 40.6 41.8 41.8 22.6 24.8 29.4 32.2 37.3 32.6 25.3 23.2 (94.6 (106.7 (105.1 (107.2 (107.2 (72.7) (76.6) (84.9) (90.0) (99.1) (90.7) (77.5) (73.8) ) ) ) ) ) 22.1 14.8 16.2 18.8 19.8 25.7 27.9 28.3 26.5 22.5 18.2 15.3 21.5 (71.8 (58.6) (61.2) (65.8) (67.6) (78.3) (82.2) (82.9) (79.7) (72.5) (64.8) (59.5) (70.7) ) 18.0 11.6 12.7 14.9 15.9 21.2 23.1 23.5 22.1 18.8 15.0 12.4 17.5 (64.4 (52.9) (54.9) (58.8) (60.6) (70.2) (73.6) (74.3) (71.8) (65.8) (59.0) (54.3) (63.5) ) 13.9 8.3 9.1 11.0 11.9 16.6 18.2 18.6 17.6 15.1 11.8 9.4 13.5 (57.0 (46.9) (48.4) (51.8) (53.4) (61.9) (64.8) (65.5) (63.7) (59.2) (53.2) (48.9) (56.3) ) 6.8 1.0 1.2 0.2 5.5 10.4 14.1 14.7 12.1 9.2 4.3 2.1 0.2 (44.2 (33.8) (34.2) (32.4) (41.9) (50.7) (57.4) (58.5) (53.8) (48.6) (39.7) (35.8) (32.4) ) 99.9 84.9 53.2 68.1 53.6 15.9 4.2 6.2 32.9 100.8 127.6 126.7 774 (3.933 (3.343 (2.094 (2.681 (2.11 (0.626 (0.165 (0.244 (1.295 (3.969 (5.024 (4.988 (30.47 ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) )

Avg. rainy days (

0.1 mm)

15.0

15.0

13.0

12.0

8.0

5.0

2.0

2.0

6.0

11.0

14.0

14.0

117.0

Mean 2,806. monthly 142.6 156.6 207.7 234.0 291.4 303.0 353.4 344.1 261.0 213.9 156.0 142.6 3 sunshin e hours
Source: Instituto de Meteorologia[36], Hong Kong Observatory[37] for data of avg. precipitation days & sunshine hours

[edit] Civil parishes

Location of the civil parishes (Portuguese: freguesias) of Lisbon The municipality of Lisbon includes 53 freguesias (civil parishes):

Ajuda Alcntara Alto do Pina Alvalade Ameixoeira Anjos Beato Benfica Campo Grande Campolide Carnide Castelo Charneca Corao de Jesus

Encarnao Graa Lapa Lumiar Madalena Mrtires Marvila Mercs Nossa Senhora de Ftima Pena Penha de Frana Prazeres Sacramento Santa Catarina

Santa Engrcia Santa Isabel Santa Justa Santa Maria de Belm Santa Maria dos Olivais Santiago Santo Condestve l Santo Estevo Santos-oVelho So Cristvo e

So Joo de Deus So Jorge de Arroios So Jos So Mamede So Miguel So Nicolau So Paulo So Sebastio da Pedreira So Vicente de Fora

So Loureno So Domingos de Benfica So Francisco Xavier So Joo So Joo de Brito

S Socorro

[edit] Districts

The Alcntara docks, an up and coming trendy hangout. Locally, Lisbon inhabitants may more commonly refer the spaces of Lisbon in terms of historic bairros (neighborhoods). These communities have no clearly defined boundaries and represent special quarters with a common historical culture, identifiable architectural landmarks, livings standards and/or local personality, such as Bairro Alto, Alfama, Chiado, and so forth. [edit] Alcntara Main article: Alcntara Although today it is quite central, it was once a mere suburb of Lisbon, comprising mostly farms and palaces. In the 16th century, there was a brook there which the nobles used to promenade in their boats. Through the late 19th century, Alcntara became a popular industrial area, with lots of small factories and warehouses. Through the centuries, this area has lost all of its charm and old buildings, as well as its brook (where the women of the village would do their laundry). In the early 1990s, Alcntara began to attract youth because of the number of pubs and discothques. This was mainly due its outer area of mostly commercial buildings, which acted as barriers to the noise-generating nightlife (which acted as a buffer to the residential communities surrounding it). In the meantime, some of these areas began to become gentrified, attracting loft developments and new apartments, which have profited from its river views and central location.

A tram in Alfama's Portas do Sol. [edit] Alfama Main article: Alfama The oldest district of Lisbon, it spreads down the southern slope from the Castle of So Jorge to the Tagus river. Its name, derived from the Arabic Al-hamma, means fountains or baths. During the Islamic invasion of Iberia, the Alfama constituted the largest part of the city, extending west to the Baixa neighbourhood. Increasingly, the Alfama became inhabited by fishermen and the poor: its fame as a poor neighbourhood continues to this day. While the 1755 Lisbon Earthquake caused considerable damage throughout the capital, the Alfama survived with little damage, due to its compact labyrinth of narrow streets and small squares. It is a historical quarter of mixed-use buildings of homes with small shops, Fado bars and restaurants. Modernizing trends have invigorated the district: old houses have been re-purposed or remodelled, while new buildings have been constructed. Fado, the typically Portuguese-style of melancholy music, is common (but not obligatory) in the restaurants of the district. [edit] Bairro Alto Main article: Bairro Alto Bairro Alto (literally the upper quarter in Portuguese) is an area of central Lisbon. It functions as a residential, shopping and entertainment district: it is the heart of the Portuguese capital's nightlife, attracting its youth. Lisbon's Punk, Gay, Metal, Goth, Hip Hop and Reggae scenes, all count the Bairro as their home, due to the specialization of its clubs and bars. Although fado, Portugal's national music still survives in the new nightlife, the crowds in the Bairro Alto area are a multicultural mix of cultures and entertainment.

The Baixa's Rua Augusta, which leads to Lisbon's famous Terreiro do Pao. [edit] Baixa Main article: Baixa Pombalina The heart of the city is the Baixa (Downtown) or city centre; the Pombaline Baixa is an elegant district, primarily constructed after the 1755 Lisbon earthquake, taking its name from its benefactor, 1st Marquess of Pombal, Sebastio Jos de Carvalho e Melo, who was the minister of Joseph I of Portugal (17501777) and a key figure during the Portuguese Enlightenment. Following the 1755 disaster, Pombal took the lead in rebuilding Lisbon, imposing strict conditions and guidelines on the construction of the city, and transforming the organic street plan that characterised the district before the earthquake into its current grid pattern. As a result, the Pombaline Baixa is one of the first examples of earthquake-resistant construction. Architectural models were tested by having troops march around them to simulate an earthquake. Notable features of Pombaline structures include the Pombaline cage, a symmetrical wood-lattice framework aimed at distributing earthquake forces, and inter-terrace walls that were built higher than roof timbers to inhibit the spread of fires. [edit] Belm

The Jernimos Monastery, a Belm landmark and one of the most visited buildings in all of Portugal. Main article: Belm Belm is famous as the place from which many of the great Portuguese explorers set off on their voyages of discovery. In particular, it is the place from which Vasco da Gama departed for India in 1497. It is also a former royal residence and features the 17th18th century Belm Palace, former royal residence and now occupied by the President of Portugal, and the Ajuda Palace, begun in 1802 but never completed. Perhaps Belm's most famous feature is its tower, Torre de Belm, whose image is much used by Lisbon's tourist board. The tower was built as a fortified lighthouse late in the reign of Dom Manuel (15151520) to guard the entrance to the port. It stood on a little island in right side of the Tagus, surrounded by water. Belm's other major historical building is the Mosteiro dos Jernimos (Jernimos Monastery), which the Torre de Belm was built partly to defend. Belm's most notable modern feature is the Padro dos Descobrimentos (Monument to the Discoveries).In the heart of Belm is the Praa do Imprio: gardens centred upon a large fountain, laid out during World

War II. To the west of the gardens lies the Centro Cultural de Belm. Belm is one of the most visited Lisbonite districts.

Lus de Cames Square, the center of activity in the Chiado district. [edit] Chiado Main article: Chiado The Chiado is a traditional shopping area that mixes old and modern commercial establishments, concentrated specially in the Carmo's and Garrett's streets. Locals as well as tourists visit the Chiado to buy books, garments, and pottery as well as to have a cup of coffee. The most famous caf of Chiado is A Brasileira, famous for having had poet Fernando Pessoa among its customers. The Chiado is also an important cultural area, with several museums and theatres. Several buildings of the Chiado were destroyed in a fire in 1988, an event that deeply shocked the country. Thanks to a renovation project that lasted more than 10 years, coordinated by celebrated architect Siza Vieira, the affected area is now recovered. [edit] Estrela The Baroque-Neoclassical Estrela Basilica is the main attraction of this district. The huge church has a giant dome, and is located on a hill in what was at the time the western part of Lisbon and can be viewed from great distances. The style is similar to that of the Mafra National Palace, in late baroque and neoclassical. The faade has two twin bell towers and includes statues of saints and some allegoric figures. Sao Bento Palace, the seat of Portuguese parliament and the official residences of the Prime Minister of Portugal and the President of the Assembly of the Republic of Portugal, is in this district.

A view of the Parque das Naes.

[edit] Parque das Naes Main article: Parque das Naes Parque das Naes is the newest district in Lisbon, having emerged from an urban renewal programme leading to the World Exhibition of Lisbon 1998, also known as Expo'98. The area suffered massive changes giving Parque das Naes a futuristic look. A long lasting legacy of the same, the area has become another commercial and higher end residential area for the city. Central to this is the Gare do Oriente (Orient Station), one of the main transportation hubs of Lisbon for trains, buses, taxis, and the metro. Its glass and steel columns are inspired by Gothic Architecture, lending the whole structure a visual fascination (especially in sunlight or when illuminated at night). It was designed by the architect Santiago Calatrava from Valencia, Spain. Across the street, through Vasco da Gama Mall, is Parque das Naes (Park of the Nations), site of the 1998 World Expo. The area is pedestrian-friendly with new buildings, restaurants, gardens, the Lisbon Casino, the FIL building (International Exhibition and Fair), the Cames Theatre, as well as the Oceanrio de Lisboa (Lisbon Oceanarium), the second largest in the world. The district's Pavilho Atlntico has become Lisbon's "jack-of-all-trades" performance arena. Seating 20,000, it has staged events from concerts to basketball tournaments.

[edit] Demographics
The population of the city proper is, as of 2011, 547,631 and the metropolitan area (Lisbon Metropolitan Area) more than 2,800,000 according to the Instituto Nacional de Estatstica[5] (National Institute of Statistics). The Lisbon Metropolitan Area incorporates two NUTS II (European statistical subdivisions): Grande Lisboa (Greater Lisbon), along the northern bank of the Tagus River, and Pennsula de Setbal (Setbal Peninsula), along the southern bank (which represents the Portuguese sub-regions of Regio Lisboa (Lisbon Region). The population density of the city itself is 6,458 inhabitants per square kilometre (16,730 /sq mi).

[edit] Historical population

Demographic evolution of Lisbon 155 159 172 175 175 180 184 190 193 196 198 199 200 201 43 900 2 8 0 5 6 1 9 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 30, 100, 200, 150, 185, 180, 165, 203, 174, 350, 591, 801, 807, 663, 564, 545, 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 999 668 919 939 155 937 394 657 245

[edit] Metropolitan area

Like most metropolitan cities, Lisbon is surrounded by many satellite cities or suburbs, and it is estimated that more than one million people enter Lisbon every day for business or employment from these communities. Cascais and Estoril are among the most vibrant neighbouring towns for night life. Beautiful palaces, landscapes and

historical sites can be found in Sintra and Mafra. Other major municipalities around Lisbon include Amadora, Oeiras, Odivelas, Loures, Vila Franca de Xira and, in the south bank of the Tagus river estuary, Almada, Barreiro and Seixal.

[edit] Economy

Lisbon's port, one of the largest and most important in Europe. The Lisbon region is the wealthiest region in Portugal and it is well above the European Union's GDP per capita average it produces 45% of the Portuguese GDP. Lisbon's economy is based primarily on the tertiary sector. Most of the headquarters of multinationals operating in Portugal are concentrated in the Grande Lisboa Subregion, specially in the Oeiras municipality. The Lisbon Metropolitan Area is heavily industrialized, especially the south bank of the Tagus river (Rio Tejo). The Lisbon region is rapidly growing, each year are higher Gross Domestic Product (GDP) PPP per capita: 22,745 (2004)[38] 23,816 (2005)[39] 25,200 (2006)[40] 26,100 (2007).[41]

The Caixa Geral de Depsitos, Portugal's largest bank, is based in Lisbon. The country's chief seaport, featuring one of the largest and most sophisticated regional markets on the Iberian Peninsula, Lisbon and its heavily populated surroundings are also developing as an important financial centre and a dynamic technological hub. Lisbon has the largest and most developed mass media sector of Portugal, and is home to several related companies ranging from leading television networks and radio stations to major newspapers.

The Euronext Lisbon stock exchange, part of the pan-European Euronext system together with the stock exchanges of Amsterdam, Brussels and Paris, is tied with the New York Stock Exchange since 2007, forming the multinational NYSE Euronext group of stock exchanges. Lisbonite industry has very large sectores in oil, as refineries are found just across the Tagus, textile mills, shipyards and fishing. Before Portugal's sovereign debt crisis and a EU-IMF rescue plan, for the decade of 2010 Lisbon was expecting to receive many state funded investments, including building a new airport, a new bridge, an expansion of 30 km (18.64 mi) underground, the construction of a mega-hospital (or central hospital), the creation of two lines of a TGV to join Madrid, Porto, Vigo and the rest of Europe, the restoration of the main part of the town (between the Marqus de Pombal roundabout and Terreiro do Pao), the creation of a large number of bike lanes, as well as modernization and renovation of various facilities.[42]

[edit] Transport

A Lisbon electric tram in the Chiado. Lisbon's public transport network is extremely far-reaching and reliable. The Lisbon Metro as its main artery, connecting the city centre with the upper and eastern districts, and now reaching the suburbs. Ambitious expansion projects will increase the network by almost one third, connecting the airport, and the northern and western districts. Bus, funicular and tram services have been supplied by the Companhia de Carris de Ferro de Lisboa (Carris), for over a century.

[edit] Trams
A traditional form of public transport in Lisbon is the tram. Introduced in the 19th century, the trams were originally imported from the USA, rarely called the

americanos. The earliest trams can still be seen in the Museu da Carris (the Public Transport Museum) (Carris). Other than on the modern Line 15, the Lisbon tramway system still employs small (four wheel) vehicles of a design dating from the early part of the twentieth century. These distinctive yellow trams are one of the tourist icons of modern Lisbon, and their size is well suited to the steep hills and narrow streets of the central city.[43][44]

Lisbon's Rossio Train Station, a hub.

[edit] Trains
There are four commuter train lines departing from Lisbon: the Cascais, Sintra and Azambuja lines (operated by CP Comboios de Portugal), as well as a fourth line to Setbal (operated by Fertagus) crossing the Tagus river, over the 25 de Abril Bridge. The major railway stations are Santa Apolnia, Rossio, Gare do Oriente, Entrecampos, and Cais do Sodr. The city does not offer a light rail service (tram line 15, although running with new and faster trams does not fall onto this category), but there are plans to build light rail lines to provide service along the city's periphery.

[edit] Automobiles
There are other commuter bus services from the city: Vimeca,[45] Rodoviaria de Lisboa,[46] Transportes Sul do Tejo,[47] Boa Viagem,[48] Barraqueiro[49] are the main ones, operating from different terminals in the city. Lisbon is connected to its suburbs as well as throughout Portugal by an extensive motorway network. There are three circular motorways around the city; the 2 Circular, the CRIL, and the CREL.

[edit] Bridges
The city is connected to the far side of the Tagus by two important bridges:

Lisbon's 25 de Abril Bridge, the first bridge built across the Tagus at Lisbon.

The 25 de Abril Bridge, inaugurated (as Ponte Salazar) on 6 August 1966, and later renamed after the date of the Carnation Revolution, was the longest suspension bridge in Europe. The Vasco da Gama Bridge, inaugurated on May 1998 is, at 17.2 km (10.7 mi), the longest bridge in Europe.

The foundations for a third bridge across the Tagus have already been laid, but the overall project has been postponed as per the economic crisis in Portugal and all of Europe.

[edit] Ferries
Another way of crossing the river is by taking the ferry. The company is TranstejoSoflusa,[50] which operates from different points in the city to Cacilhas, Seixal, Montijo, Porto Brando and Trafaria under the brand Transtejo and to Barreiro under the brand Soflusa.

[edit] Air travel

Lisbon's Portela Airport is located within the city limits. It is the headquarters and hub for TAP Portugal as well as a hub for SATA International, Luzair, EuroAtlantic Airways, Portuglia, White Airways, and High Fly airlines. It has been proposed that a New Lisbon Airport should be built. The project has been put on hold due to the Portuguese, and overall European, economic crisis and also because of the long discussion on whether there is a need for a new airport at all.

[edit] Education

The rectory and main campus of the New University of Lisbon. The city has several private and public secondary schools, primary schools as well as Kindergrten. In Greater Lisbon area there are also international schools such as Saint Julian's School, the Carlucci American International School of Lisbon, Saint Dominic's International School, Deutsche Schule Lissabon, Instituto Espaol de Lisboa, and Lyce Franais Charles Lepierre.

[edit] Higher education

There are three major public universities in Lisbon: the University of Lisbon (Lisbon's oldest university in operation, founded in 1911, also called the Classic University of Lisbon), the Technical University of Lisbon (founded in 1930) and the New University of Lisbon (founded in 1973), providing degrees in all academic disciplines. There is also one state-run university institute the ISCTE - Lisbon University Institute, and a polytechnic institute the Polytechnical Institute of Lisbon. Major private institutions of higher education include the Portuguese Catholic University, as well as the Lusada University, the Universidade Lusfona, and the Universidade Autnoma de Lisboa, among others. The total number of enrolled students in higher education in Lisbon was, for the 20072008 school year, of 125,867 students, of whom 81,507 in the Lisbon's public institutions.[51]

[edit] Culture

The monument to the Great War on the Avenida da Liberdade. The city of Lisbon is rich in architecture; Romanesque, Gothic, Manueline, Baroque, Modern and Postmodern constructions can be found all over Lisbon. The city is also crossed by historical boulevards and monuments along the main thoroughfares, particularly in the upper districts; notable among these are the Avenida da Liberdade (Avenue of Liberty), Avenida Fontes Pereira de Melo, Avenida Almirante Reis and Avenida da Repblica (Avenue of the Republic). There are several substantial museums one can visit in the city. The most famous ones are the Museu Nacional de Arte Antiga (National Museum of Ancient Art), the

National Azulejo Museum, the Museu Calouste Gulbenkian (Calouste Gulbenkian Museum), containing varied collections of ancient and modern art, the Museu Nacional do Traje e da Moda (National Museum of Costume and Fashion), the Berardo Collection Museum (Modern Art) at the Belm Cultural Center, the Museu da Electricidade (Electricity Museum), the Museu Nacional dos Coches (National Coach Museum, containing the largest collection of royal coaches in the world), the Museum of Pharmacy, Museum of the Orient, the Museu do Teatro Romano (The Roman Theatre Museum), and the Lisbon City Museum. Lisbon's Opera House, the Teatro Nacional de So Carlos, hosts a relatively active cultural agenda, mainly in autumn and winter. Other important theatres and musical houses are the Centro Cultural de Belm, the Teatro Nacional D. Maria II, the Gulbenkian Foundation, and the Teatro Cames.

Lisbon's Teatro Nacional de So Carlos in the upscale Chiado district. The monument to Christ the King (Cristo-Rei) stands on the southern bank of the Tagus River, in Almada. With open arms, overlooking the whole city, it resembles the Corcovado monument in Rio de Janeiro, and was built after World War II, as a memorial of thanksgiving for Portugal's being spared the horrors and destruction of the war. 13 June is Lisbons holiday in honour of the citys saint Anthony of Lisbon (Portuguese: Santo Antnio). Saint Anthony, also known as Saint Anthony of Padua, was a wealthy Portuguese bohemian who was canonised and made Doctor of the Church after a life preaching to the poor. Ironically, although Lisbons patron saint is Saint Vincent of Saragossa, whose remains are housed in the S Cathedral, there are no festivities associated with this saint. Eduardo VII Park, the second largest park in the city following the Parque Florestal de Monsanto (Monsanto Forest Park), extends down the main avenue (Avenida da Liberdade), with many flowering plants and greenspaces, that includes the permanent collection of subtropical and tropical plants in the winter garden (Portuguese: Estufa Fria). Originally named Parque da Liberdade, it was renamed in honour of Edward VII of England who visited Lisbon in 1903.

The Pavilho Atlntico, Lisbon's largest and a popular entertainment venue. Lisbon is home every year to the Lisbon Gay & Lesbian Film Festival,[52] the Lisboarte, the DocLisboa Lisbon International Documentary Film Festival,[53] the Arte Lisboa Contemporary Art Fair,[54] the Festival of the Oceans,[55] the International Organ Festival of Lisbon,[56] the MOTELx Lisbon International Horror Film Festival,[57] the Lisbon Village Festival,[58] the Festival Internacional de Mscaras e Comediantes, the Lisboa Mgica Street Magic World Festival, the Monstra Animated Film Festival, the Lisbon Book Fair,[59] the Peixe em Lisboa Lisbon Fish and Flavours,[60] the Lisbon International Handicraft Exhibition,[61] the Lisbon Photo Marathon, the IndieLisboa International Independent Film Festival,[62] the Alkantara Festival,[63] the Temps dImages Festival[64] and the Jazz in August festival.[65] Lisbon has been home five times (in 2004, 2006, 2008, 2010 and 2012) to Rock in Rio, one of the world's largest pop-rock festivals. Annual popular music events within the metropolitan area include the Optimus Alive! and Super Bock Super Rock festivals. Lisbon is also home to the Lisbon Architecture Triennial,[66] the Moda Lisboa (Fashion Lisbon),[67] ExperimentaDesign Biennial of Design[68] and LuzBoa Biennial of Light.[69] In addition, the mosaic Portuguese pavement (Calada Portuguesa) was born in Lisbon, in the mid-1800s. The art has since spread to the rest of the Portuguese Speaking world. The city remains one of the most expansive examples of the technique, nearly all walkways and even many streets being created and maintained in this style. In terms of Portuguese cities, Lisbon was considered the most livable in a survey of living conditions published yearly by Expresso.[70]

[edit] Sports

Sport Lisboa e Benfica's Estadio da Luz, Lisbon's largest stadium. Lisbon has a long sporting tradition. It was one of the Portuguese cities that hosted the UEFA Euro 2004 Championship. The city also played host to the final of the 2001 IAAF World Indoor Championships and 1983, 1992 European Fencing Championships, 2003 World Men's Handball Championship, 2008 European Judo Championships. From 2006 to 2008, Lisbon hosted the starting point for the Dakar Rally.

[edit] Association football

Sport Lisboa e Benfica (commonly known as "Benfica") is a sports club best known worldwide for its football team, one of the major clubs in Portugal, one of the Big Three, two-times winner and five-times runners-up of the European Cup, one-time runners-up of the UEFA Cup and one-time runners-up of the Intercontinental Cup. Sporting Clube de Portugal (commonly known as "Sporting") is one of the major clubs in Portugal, one of the Big Three, having won the UEFA Cup Winners' Cup (1964) and was runners-up of the UEFA Cup (2005). The third most important club is C.F. Os Belenenses (commonly "Belenenses" also "Belenenses Lisbon").

[edit] Varied sports

Other sports, such as indoor football, handball, basketball and roller hockey are also popular. There are many other sport facilities in Lisbon, ranging from athletics to sailing to golf to mountain-biking. Every March the city hosts the Lisbon Half Marathon, while in September Portugal Half Marathon.

[edit] Facilities
Lisbon has two UEFA category four stadiums; the Estdio da Luz (Stadium of Light), with a capacity of over 65,000 and the Estdio Jos Alvalade, with a capacity of over 50,000. There is also Estdio do Restelo, with a capacity of over 30,000. In the neighborhood exist Estdio Nacional, with a capacity of over 37,000 (in Oeiras) and Estdio do Bonfim, with a capacity of nearly 20,000 (in Setbal).

[edit] Twin cities

Lisbon is twinned, sistered, or partnered with the following:

Bethlehem, Palestinian National Authority

[71]

Budapest, Hungary
[72]

Damascus, Syrian Arab Republic

Madrid, Kingdom of Spain

[73]

Bissau, Republic of GuineaBissau Cacheu, Republic of GuineaBissau

La Paz, Plurinational State of Bolivia San Diego, California, United States of America Luanda, Republic of Angola Paris, French Republic Maputo, Republic of Mozambique So Paulo, Federative Republic of Brazil [74][75] Braslia, Federative Republic of Brazil

Buenos Aires, Argentine Republic Beijing, People's Republic of China [76] Macau, Macau Special Administrative Region Praia, Republic of Cabo Verde Tunis, Republic of Tunisia Waterbury, Connecticut, United States of America Ruse, Republic of Bulgaria

Rio de Janeiro, Federative Republic of Brazil Fairfield, California, United States of America Salvador, Federative Republic of Brazil Zagreb, Republic of Croatia [77] Mexico City, United Mexican States Pontelandolfo , Italian Republic

Malacca, Malaysia

[edit] See also

Portugal portal

List of people from Lisbon List of tallest buildings in Lisbon History of Lisbon

[edit] References
1. 2. 3. 4. ^ Wells, John C.. "Portuguese". http://phonetic-blog.blogspot.com/2010/07/portuguese.html. Retrieved 2012-06-17. ^ Censos 2011 Resultados Preliminares ^ a b Demographia: World Urban Areas, March 2010 ^ United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, World Urbanization Prospects (2009 revision), (United Nations, 2010), Table A.12. Data for 2007.

5. 6.

7. 8. 9. 10.

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13. 14. 15.

16. 17. 18. 19.

20. 21.

22.

23. 24.

25. 26.

27.

28.

^ a b ITDS, Rui Campos, Pedro Senos (2009-06-30). "Statistics Portugal". Ine.pt. http://www.ine.pt/. Retrieved 2009-07-08. ^ "The World According to GaWC 2010". Globalization and World Cities Study Group and Network, Loughborough University. http://www.lboro.ac.uk/gawc/world2010t.html. Retrieved 3 March 2009. ^ "Inventory of World Cities". Globalization and World Cities (GaWC) Study Group and Network. http://www.lboro.ac.uk/gawc/citylist.html. Retrieved 2007-12-01. ^ "Avance del Plan Territorial Sectorial de la Red Intermodal y Logstica del Transporte de la Comunidad Autnoma del Pas Vasco" Eusko Jaurlaritza Gobierno Vasco ^ "Alta Velocidade em Sntese". Rave.pt. http://www.rave.pt/tabid/233/Default.aspx. Retrieved 2010-11-21. ^ "Monocle, Issue June 2009". Monocle.com. 2009-06-11. http://www.monocle.com/sections/affairs/Magazine-Articles/The-Worlds-top-25-mostliveable-cities/. Retrieved 2010-06-26. ^ Bremner, Caroline (10 January 2011). "Euromonitor International's Top City Destination Ranking". Euromonitor International. http://www.euromonitor.com/euromonitorinternationals-top-city-destinations-ranking/article. Retrieved 10 January 2011. ^ "Global city GDP rankings 20082025". Pricewaterhouse Coopers. https://www.ukmediacentre.pwc.com/Content/Detail.asp?ReleaseID=3421&NewsAreaID=2. Retrieved 16 December 2009.[dead link] ^ "Ranking: The richest cities in the world" City Mayors.com ^ "Lisboa 9 cidade que mais recebe congressos internacionais" Agncia LUSA ^ Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (5 November 2008). "Lisbon, Portugal Where the Land Ends and the Sea Begins". http://www.eorc.jaxa.jp/en/imgdata/topics/2008/tp081105.html. Retrieved 7 December 09. ^ Jos Mattoso, ed. (1992) (in Portuguese), Histria de Portugal. Primeiro Volume: Antes de Portugal, 1, Crculo de Leitores ^ Smith, William (1854), Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography, illustrated by numerous engravings on wood, London, England: Walton and Maberly ^ Cailleux, Thophile (1879) (in French), Pays atlantiques dcrits par Homre, Ibrie, Gaule, Bretagne, Archipels, Amriques: Thorie nouvelle, Paris, France: Maisonneuve et cie ^ If all of Odysseus' travels were in the Atlantic as Cailleux argued, then this could mean that Odysseus founded the city coming from the north, before trying to round Cape Malea, (which Cailleux located at Cabo de So Vicente), in a southeasterly direction, to reach his homeland of Ithaca, supposedly present Cadiz. ^ Many of these ruins were first unearthed during the middle 18th century (when the recent discovery of Pompeii made Roman archaeology fashionable among Europe's upper classes). ^ Brodman, James William. "Ransoming Captives in Crusader Spain: The Order of Merced on the Christian-Islamic Frontier". Libro.uca.edu. http://libro.uca.edu/rc/rc1.htm. Retrieved 21 November 2010. ^ Rabbi Jules Harlow (2011), "A 500-Year-Old Memory Another tragic date in Jewish history" (in Portuguese), Jewish Week, Lisbon, Portugal: Comunidade Judaica Masorti Lisboa ^ Jeffrey S. Ruth, ed. (1996) [1554], "Urbis Olisiponis descriptio", Lisbon in the Renaissance, New York, New York ^ EncyclopdiaBritannica. "John IV (king of Portugal)". http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/304794/John-IV. "king of Portugal from 1640 as a result of the national revolution, or restoration, which ended 60 years of Spanish rule." ^ Geoffrey Parker The army of Flanders and the Spanish road, London, 1972 ISBN 0-52108462-8, p. 35 ^ Pereira, A.S. (March 2006). "The Opportunity of a Disaster: The Economic Impact of the Lisbon 1755 Earthquake" (PDF). Centre for Historical Economics and Related Research at York, York University. http://www.york.ac.uk/res/cherry/docs/Alvaro3.pdf. Retrieved 201011-21. ^ "The Economic Impact of the Lisbon 1755 Earthquake p. 8, estimates a population of 200,000" (PDF). March 2006. http://www.york.ac.uk/res/cherry/docs/Alvaro3.pdf. Retrieved 2010-11-21. ^ "Historical Depictions of the 1755 Lisbon Earthquake, citing an unreferenced estimate of 275,000". Nisee.berkeley.edu. 1998-11-12. http://nisee.berkeley.edu/lisbon/index.html. Retrieved 2010-11-21.

29. ^ "Historical Depictions of the 1755 Lisbon Earthquake". Nisee.berkeley.edu. 1998-11-12. http://nisee.berkeley.edu/lisbon/index.html. Retrieved 2010-11-21. 30. ^ "Portugal". The Virtual Jewish History Tour. 31. ^ "Welcome to the official global voting platform of". New7Wonders. http://www.new7wonders.com/index.php?id=315&L=0. Retrieved 2009-07-08. 32. ^ NATO, NATO Summit Meetings, 4 December 2006 33. ^ IGP, ed. (2011) (in Portuguese), Carta Administrativa Oficial de Portugal, Lisbon, Portugal: Instituto Geogrfico Portugus 34. ^ "World Map of KppenGeiger Climate Classification". http://koeppen-geiger.vuwien.ac.at/. 35. ^ a b "Weather2Travel.com: Lisbon Climate Guide". http://www.weather2travel.com/climateguides/portugal/lisbon.php. 36. ^ "Monthly Averages for Lisbon, Portugal (1981-2010)". Instituto de Meteorologia. http://www.meteo.pt/pt/oclima/normais.clima/1981-2010/012/. Retrieved 2012-08-10. 37. ^ "Climatological Information for Lisbon, Portugal" (1961-1990) - Hong Kong Observatory 38. ^ "GDP per inhabitant in 2004". Eurostat. http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/pls/portal/docs/PAGE/PGP_PRD_CAT_PREREL/PGE_CAT _PREREL_YEAR_2007/PGE_CAT_PREREL_YEAR_2007_MONTH_02/1-19022007-ENAP.PDF. 39. ^ "GDP per inhabitant in 2005". Eurostat. http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/pls/portal/docs/PAGE/PGP_PRD_CAT_PREREL/PGE_CAT _PREREL_YEAR_2008/PGE_CAT_PREREL_YEAR_2008_MONTH_02/1-12022008-ENAP.PDF. 40. ^ "GDP per inhabitant in 2006". Eurostat. http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/pls/portal/docs/PAGE/PGP_PRD_CAT_PREREL/PGE_CAT _PREREL_YEAR_2009/PGE_CAT_PREREL_YEAR_2009_MONTH_02/1-19022009-ENAP.PDF. 41. ^ "GDP per inhabitant in 2007". Eurostat. http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY_PUBLIC/1-18022010-AP/EN/1-18022010-APEN.PDF. 42. ^ "Pequeno Resumo Histrico de Lisboa" Cmara Municipal de Lisboa 43. ^ [1] Information from Carris, Lisbon transportation company. 44. ^ [2] Details of Lisbon's trams, from Luso Pages 45. ^ "vimeca". Vimeca.pt. http://www.vimeca.pt. Retrieved 2009-07-08. 46. ^ "Bem vindo ao site da Rodoviria de Lisboa". Rodoviariadelisboa.pt. http://www.rodoviariadelisboa.pt. Retrieved 2009-07-08. 47. ^ "TST Transportes Sul do Tejo". Tsuldotejo.pt. http://www.tsuldotejo.pt. Retrieved 200907-08. 48. ^ "Boa Viagem". Boa-viagem.pt. http://www.boa-viagem.pt. Retrieved 2009-07-08. 49. ^ "Barraqueiro Transportes". Barraqueirotransportes.pt. http://www.barraqueirotransportes.pt. Retrieved 2009-07-08. 50. ^ "Transtejo e Soflusa". Transtejo.pt. http://www.transtejo.pt. Retrieved 2009-07-08. 51. ^ [3] Statistics on enrollment from GPEARI/Ministry of Science, Technology and Higher Education (MCES) (Excel spreadsheet, 2007/08 school year) 52. ^ "Official web-site.". Lisbon Gay and Lesbian Film Festival. http://www.lisbonfilmfest.org/. Retrieved 2006-11-06. 53. ^ "::: doclisboa 2009 :::". Doclisboa.org. http://www.doclisboa.org/. Retrieved 2009-07-08. 54. ^ "ARTE LISBOA 2009 Feira de Arte Contempornea". Artelisboa.fil.pt. http://www.artelisboa.fil.pt/. Retrieved 2010-04-30. 55. ^ Webcomum. "Festival Dos Oceanos". Festival Dos Oceanos. http://www.festivaldosoceanos.com/. Retrieved 2009-07-08. 56. ^ "Juventude Musical Portuguesa". Jmp.pt. http://www.jmp.pt. Retrieved 2009-07-08. 57. ^ two. "MOTELx Festival Internacional de Cinema de Terror de Lisboa = {LISBON INTERNATIONAL HORROR FILM FESTIVAL}". Motelx.org. http://www.motelx.org. Retrieved 2009-07-08. 58. ^ "lisbon village festival". lisbon village festival. http://lisbon.villagefestival.net/. Retrieved 2009-07-08. 59. ^ "Feira do Livro de Lisboa". Feiradolivrodelisboa.pt. http://www.feiradolivrodelisboa.pt. Retrieved 2010-04-30.

60. ^ "Peixe em Lisboa". Peixemlisboa.com. http://www.peixemlisboa.com. Retrieved 2009-0708. 61. ^ "Feira Internacional do Artesanato". Artesanato.fil.pt. http://www.artesanato.fil.pt/. Retrieved 2010-04-30. 62. ^ "Festival IndieLisboa". Indielisboa.com. http://www.indielisboa.com. Retrieved 2009-0708. 63. ^ "alkantara". Alkantara.pt. http://www.alkantara.pt. Retrieved 2009-07-08. 64. ^ "Festival Temps d'Images Portugal". Tempsdimages-portugal.com. http://www.tempsdimages-portugal.com/. Retrieved 2009-07-08. 65. ^ "Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation / Music Department". Musica.gulbenkian.pt. http://www.musica.gulbenkian.pt/. Retrieved 2009-07-08. 66. ^ "Trienal de Arquitectura de Lisboa". trienaldelisboa.com. http://www.trienaldelisboa.com. Retrieved 2009-07-08. 67. ^ "ModaLisboa LisboaFashionWeek Semana oficial da moda portuguesa". Modalisboa.pt. http://www.modalisboa.pt/. Retrieved 2009-07-08. 68. ^ "Experimentadesign". Experimentadesign.pt. http://www.experimentadesign.pt/. Retrieved 2009-07-08. 69. ^ "Luzboa 2008". Luzboa.com. http://www.luzboa.com. Retrieved 2009-07-08. 70. ^ Classificao Expresso das melhores cidades portuguesas para viver em 2007, Expresso 71. ^ "::Bethlehem Municipality::". bethlehem-city.org. http://www.bethlehemcity.org/Twining.php. Retrieved 2009-10-10. 72. ^ "Sister cities of Budapest" (in Hungarian). Official Website of Budapest. http://www.budapest.hu/engine.aspx?page=20030224-cikk-testvervarosok. Retrieved 200907-01.[dead link] 73. ^ city council webpage "Mapa Mundi de las ciudades hermanadas". Ayuntamiento de Madrid. http://www.munimadrid.es/portal/site/munimadrid/menuitem.dbd5147a4ba1b0aa7d245f019fc 08a0c/?vgnextoid=4e84399a03003110VgnVCM2000000c205a0aRCRD&vgnextchannel=4e9 8823d3a37a010VgnVCM100000d90ca8c0RCRD&vgnextfmt=especial1&idContenido=1da69 a4192b5b010VgnVCM100000d90ca8c0RCRDMadrid city council webpage. 74. ^ Prefeitura.Sp Descentralized Cooperation[dead link] 75. ^ "International Relations So Paulo City Hall Official Sister Cities". Prefeitura.sp.gov.br. http://www.prefeitura.sp.gov.br/cidade/secretarias/relacoes_internacionais/cidadesirmas/index .php?p=1066. Retrieved 2010-11-21. 76. ^ "Sister cities of Beijing". Official Website of Beijing. http://www.ebeijing.gov.cn/Sister_Cities/Sister_City/. Retrieved 2009-07-11. 77. ^ "Intercity and International Cooperation of the City of Zagreb". 20062009 City of Zagreb. http://www1.zagreb.hr/mms/en/index.html. Retrieved 2009-06-23

Saudade
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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Saudade (1899), by Almeida Jnior. Saudade (European Portuguese: [s wa], Brazilian Portuguese: [sawdadi] or [sawdadi], [1] Galician: [sawae]; plural saudades) is a unique Galician-Portuguese word that has no immediate translation in English. Saudade describes a deep emotional state of nostalgic longing for an absent something or someone that one loves. It often carries a repressed knowledge that the object of longing might never return. It's related to the feelings of longing, yearning. Saudade has been described as a "...vague and constant desire for something that does not and probably cannot exist ... a turning towards the past or towards the future."[2] A stronger form of saudade may be felt towards people and things whose whereabouts are unknown, such as a lost lover, or a family member who has gone missing. Saudade was once described as "the love that remains" after someone is gone. Saudade is the recollection of feelings, experiences, places or events that once brought excitement, pleasure, well-being, which now triggers the senses and makes one live again. It can be described as an emptiness, like someone (e.g., one's children, parents, sibling, grandparents, friends, pets) or something (e.g., places, things one used to do in childhood, or other activities performed in the past) should be there in a particular

moment is missing, and the individual feels this absence. In Portuguese, 'tenho saudades tuas', translates as 'I have saudades of you' meaning 'I miss you', but carries a much stronger tone. In fact, one can have 'saudades' of someone whom one is with, but have some feeling of loss towards the past or the future. In Brazil, the day of saudade is officially celebrated on January 30.[3][4]

Contents
[hide]

1 History o 1.1 Origins 2 Definition 3 Elements o 3.1 In music 4 Variations 5 Similar words in other languages 6 See also 7 References 8 External links

[edit] History
[edit] Origins
The word saudade was used in the Cancioneiro da Ajuda (13th-century), Cancioneiro da Vaticana and by poets of the time of by King Denis of Portugal.[5] Some specialists say the word may have originated during the Great Portuguese Discoveries, giving meaning to the sadness felt about those who departed on journeys to unknown seas and disappeared in shipwrecks, died in battle, or simply never returned. Those who stayed behindmostly women and childrensuffered deeply in their absence; However, the Portuguese discoveries only started in 1415 and since the word has been found earlier this does not constitute a very good explanation. The Reconquista is also a plausible explanation. The state of mind has subsequently become a "Portuguese way of life": a constant feeling of absence, the sadness of something that's missing, wishful longing for completeness or wholeness and the yearning for the return of that now gone, a desire for presence as opposed to absenceas it is said in Portuguese, a strong desire to matar as saudades (lit. to kill the saudades). In the latter half of the 20th century, saudade became associated with the feeling of longing for one's homeland, as hundreds of thousands of Portuguese-speaking people left in search of better futures in South America, North America and Western Europe. Besides the implications derived from an emigratory trend from the motherland, historically speaking saudade is the term associated with the decline of Portugal's role

in world politics and trade. During the so-called 'Golden Age', synonymous with the era of discoveries, Portugal undeniably rose to the status of a world power, and its monarchy was one of the richest in Europe at the time. But with the rise of competition from other European nations, the country went both colonially and economically into a prolonged period of decay. This period of decline and resignation from the world's cultural stage marked the rise of saudade, aptly described by a sentence of its national anthem'Levantai hoje de novo o esplendor de Portugal' (Let us once again lift up the splendour of Portugal).

[edit] Definition
The "Dicionrio Houaiss da lngua portuguesa" defines saudade (or saudades) as "A somewhat melancholic feeling of incompleteness. It is related to thinking back on situations of privation due to the absence of someone or something, to move away from a place or thing, or to the absence of a set of particular and desirable experiences and pleasures once lived."[6] The Dictionary from the Royal Galician Academy, on the other hand, defines saudade as an "intimate feeling and mood caused by the longing for something absent that is being missed. This can take different aspects, from concrete realities (a loved one, a friend, the motherland, the homeland...) to the mysterious and transcendant. It's quite prevalent and characteristic of the galician-portuguese world, but it can also be found in other cultures."

[edit] Elements

Saudades de Npoles (Missing Naples), 1895 by Bertha Worms. Saudade is similar to nostalgia, a word that also exists in Portuguese. In the book In Portugal of 1912, A. F. G. Bell writes:

The famous saudade of the Portuguese is a vague and constant desire for something that does not and probably cannot exist, for something other than the present, a turning towards the past or towards the future; not an active discontent or poignant sadness but an indolent dreaming wistfulness.[2] A stronger form of saudade may be felt towards people and things whose whereabouts are unknown, such as old ways and sayings; a lost lover who is sadly missed; a faraway place where one was raised; loved ones who have died; feelings and stimuli one used to have; and the faded, yet golden memories of youth. Although it relates to feelings of melancholy and fond memories of things/people/days gone by, it can be a rush of sadness coupled with a paradoxical joy derived from acceptance of fate and the hope of recovering or substituting what is lost by something that will either fill in the void or provide consolation. Although the word is Portuguese in origin, saudade is a universal feeling related to love. It occurs when two people are in love or like each other, but apart from each other. Saudade occurs when we think of a person who we love and we are happy about having that feeling while we are thinking of that person, but he/she is out of reach, making us sad and crushing our hearts. The pain and these mixed feelings are saudade. It also refers to the feeling of being far from people one does love, e.g., one's sister, father, grandparents, friends; it can be applied to places or pets one misses, things one used to do in childhood, or other activities performed in the past. What sets saudade apart is that it can be directed to anything that is personal and moving. It can also be felt for unrequited love in that the person misses something he or she never really had, but for which might hope, regardless of the possible futility of said hope.

[edit] In music
As with all emotions, saudade has been an inspiration for many songs and compositions. "Sodade" ("saudade" in Cape Verdean Creole) is the title of the Cape Verde singer Cesria vora's most famous song; French singer tienne Daho also produced a song of the same name. The Good Son, a 1990 album by Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds, was heavily informed by Cave's mental state at the time, which he has described as saudade. He told journalist Chris Bohn that, "When I explained to someone that what I wanted to write about was the memory of things that I thought were lost for me, I was told that the Portuguese word for this feeling was saudade. It's not nostalgia but something sadder." The usage of saudade as a theme in Portuguese music goes back to the 16th century, the golden age of Portugal. Saudade, as well as love suffering, is a common theme in many villancicos and cantigas composed by Portuguese authors; for example: "Lgrimas de Saudade" (tears of saudade), which is an anonymous work from the Cancioneiro de Paris. Fado is a Portuguese music style, generally sung by a single person (the fadista) along with a Portuguese guitar. The most popular themes of fado are saudade, nostalgia, jealousy, and short stories of the typical city quarters. Fado, and Saudade are two key and intertwined ideas in Portuguese culture. The word fado comes from Latin fatum meaning fate or destiny. Fado is a musical cultural expression and recognition of this unassailable determinism which compels the resigned yearning of saudade, a bittersweet, existential yearning and hopefulness towards something over which one has no control.

Spanish singer Julio Iglesias, whose father is a Galician, speaks of saudade in his song Un Canto a Galicia (which roughly translates as a song/chant for Galicia). In the song, he passionately uses the phrase to describe a deep and sad longing for his motherland, Galicia. He also performs a song called Morrias, which the describes the Galicians as having a deeply strong saudade. The Paraguayan guitarist Agustin Barrios wrote several pieces invoking the feeling of saudade including Choro de Saudade and Preludio Saudade. The term is prominent in Brazilian popular music, including the first bossa nova song, "Chega de Saudade" (No more saudade, sometimes translated as "No More Blues"), written by Tom Jobim. Due to the difficulties of translating the word saudade, the song is often translated to English as No more Blues. In 1919, on returning from two years in Brazil, the French composer Darius Milhaud composed a suite, Saudades do Brasil, which exemplified the concept of saudade. "Saudade (Part II)" is also the title of a flute solo by the band Shpongle. The singer Amlia Rodrigues typified themes of saudade in some of her songs. J-Rock band Porno Graffitti has a song titled ", "Saudaaji" transliterated ("Saudade"). The alternative rock band Love And Rockets has a song named "Saudade" on their album Seventh Dream of Teenage Heaven. The Dutch jazz/rock guitarist Jan Akkerman recorded a composition called "Saudade", the centerpiece of his 1996 album Focus In Time. The jazz fusion group Trio Beyond, consisting of John Scofield, Jack DeJohnette, and Larry Goldings released in 2006 an album dedicated to drummer Tony Williams (19451997), called Saudades. Dance music artist Peter Corvaia released a progressive house track entitled "Saudade" on HeadRush Music, a sub-label of Toes in the Sand Recordings. New York City post-rock band Mice Parade released an album entitled Obrigado Saudade in 2004. Chris Rea also recorded a song entitled "Saudade" as a tribute to Ayrton Senna the Brazilian three-times Formula One world champion killed on the track. There is an ambient/noise/shoegazing band from Portland, OR named Saudade. The rock band Extreme has a Portuguese guitarist Nuno Bettencourt; the influence of his heritage can be seen in the band's album titled Saudades de Rock. During recording, the mission statement was to bring back musicality to the medium. Nancy Spain, a song by Barney Rush, made famous by an adaptation by Christy Moore, is another example of the use of saudade in contemporary Irish music, the chorus of which is: "No matter where I wander I'm still haunted by your name The portrait of your beauty stays the same Standing by the ocean wondering where you've gone If you'll return again Where is the ring I gave to Nancy Spain?" There was also a multi-artist compilation of music in the late 1990s, released in the US as an introduction to Brazilian music, entitled Saudade. There is a Spanish pop-rock group called Saudade.[7]

[edit] Variations

Saudade is also associated with Galicia, where it is used similarly to the word morria (longingness). Yet, morria often implies a deeper stage of saudade, a "saudade so strong it can even kill," as the Galician saying goes. Morria was a term often used by emigrant Galicians when talking about the Galician motherland they left behind. Although saudade is also a Galician word, the meaning of longing for something that might return is generally associated with morria. A literary example showing the understanding of the difference and the use of both words is the song Un canto a Galicia by Julio Iglesias. The word used by Galicians speaking Spanish has spread and become common in all Spain and even accepted by the Academia.[8] In northern Portugal, morrinha is a regional word to describe sprinkles, while morrinhar means "to sprinkle." (The most common Portuguese equivalents are chuvisco and chuviscar, respectively.) Morrinha is also used in this region for referring to sick animals, for example of sheep dropsy,[8] and occasionally to sick or sad people, often with irony. It is also used in some Brazilian regional dialects for the smell of wet or sick animals. In Goa, India, which was a Portuguese colony until 1961, some Portuguese influences are still retained. A suburb of Margo, Goa's largest city, has a street named "Rua de Saudades." It was aptly named because that very street has the Christian cemetery, the Hindu smarshant (cremation ground) and the Muslim quabrastan (cemetery). Most people living in the city of Margo who pass by this street would agree that the name of the street could not be any other, as they often think fond memories of a friend, loved one, or relative whose remains went past that road. The word 'saudade' takes on a slightly different form in Portuguesespeaking Goan families for whom it implies the once-cherished but never-to-return days of glory of Goa as a prized possession of Portugal, a notion since then made redundant by the irrevocable cultural changes that occurred with the end of the Portuguese regime in these parts. In Cape Verdean Creole there is the word sodadi (also spelled sodade), originated in the Portuguese "saudade" and exactly with the same meaning. There is also a tune Saudade de Brasil recorded numerous times by Bill Evans and his trio. It is far better known than any of the previous mentions.

[edit] Similar words in other languages

There are other words in other languages with similar meaning. Depending on the context, saudade can relate to the feeling of nostalgia or melancholy (melancolia in Portuguese), in which one feels an interior satisfaction because it is impossible to find something, but one never stops thinking that one is searching for it. It is an incompleteness that one unconsciously wants to never completely resolve. Saudade relates to the French regret, in which one feels a hard sentiment, but in a nostalgic sense. Saudade relates to the Spanish extraar, in which one feels a missing part of oneself, which can never be completely filled by the thing you cannot have or get back. The word can also translate into the Spanish expression echar de menos, or extraarroughly equivalent to the Portuguese ter saudades: missing something or someone. The Greek word closest to saudade is (nostalgia). Nostalgia also appears in the Portuguese language as in the many other languages with a IndoEuropean origin, bearing the same meaning of the Greek word "". There is yet another word that, like 'saudade', has no immediate translation in English:

 (lakhtara). This word encompasses sadness, longing and hope, as does the term saudade.

La Mlancolie (detail), by Lucas Cranach the Elder, 1532 In Albanian, a direct translation of saudade is the word mall, which encompasses feelings of passionate longing, sadness, and at the same time an undefined laughter from the same source. Other variations which give different nuances to this word are: pmallim, prmallje, etc. In the Torlak dialect of Bulgarian, spoken today in the easternmost part of Serbia and the remote southern mountains of Kosovo, there is an expression which corresponds more closely to the Japanese and Greek examples below, but can be compared to saudade in the broader sense of longing for the past. It is () / al za mlados(t) i.e., "yearning for one's youth." (Since the dialect has not been standardised as a written language it has various forms.) The term and the concept have been popularised in standard Serbian through short prose and plays by Vranje born fin-desicle writer Borisav Stankovi. Bosnian language has a term for the same type of feeling, sevdah, which comes from the Turkish term sevda, which in Turkish means "black bile." In Bosnian language, the term sevdah represents pain and longing for a loved one. Sevdah is also a genre of traditional music originating from Bosnia and Herzegovina. Sevdah songs are very elaborate, emotionally charged and are traditionally sung with passion and fervor. The combination of Sephardic, European and Turkish elements make this type of music different from all other types of traditional folk music from the Balkans. One translation of "saudade" into German is Wehmut (in Dutch weemoed); a fuzzy form of nostalgia. Or Weltschmerz, which is the general pain caused by an imperfect state of being or state of the world. The German word Sehnsucht, generally translated as "yearning" or "craving" deals with a deep, bittersweet sense of something lost, missing, or unattainable. Sehnsucht can also have a more positive, goal oriented connotation; an "aspirational saudade" that may drive one to reclaim, pursue or define the absent something. In the Romanian language, the word dor bears a close meaning to "saudade". It can also stand for love or "desire" having a derivation in the noun dorin and the verb dori, both of them being translated usually by wish and to wish. Saudade is said to be the only exact equivalent of the Welsh hiraeth and the Cornish hireth.[9] It connotes homesickness tinged with grief or sadness over the lost or

departed. Esperanto borrows the word directly, changing the spelling to accommodate Esperanto grammar, as sadado.[10] In English, the verb "to pine": To pine for somebody, something or some place that you miss deeply, to wish you could be there or have it again. A nostalgic yearning for something that may no longer exist, melancholic, fatalist overtone that the object of longing may never return. The Slovenian language has a large number of words expressing the feeling of 'longing' hrepeneti, koprneti, pogreati (literally to miss someone), nostalgija, melanholija. The verb koprneti and thereof derived noun koprnenje are the closest translations to embrace the fatalistic undertones of saudade. The Finnish language has a word whose meaning corresponds very closely with saudade: kaiho. Kaiho means a state of involuntary solitude in which the subject feels incompleteness and yearns for something unattainable or extremely difficult and tedious to attain. Ironically, the sentiment of kaiho is central to the Finnish tango, in stark contrast to the Argentine tango, which is predominantly sensuous. Kaiho has religious connotations in Finland as well, since the large Lutheran sect called the Awakening (Finnish hernniset, or krttiliset more familiarly) consider central to their faith a certain kaiho towards Zion, as expressed in their central book Siionin Virret (Hymns of Zion). However, saudade does not involve tediousness. Rather, the feeling of saudade accentuates itself: the more one thinks about the loved person or object, the more one feels saudade. The feeling can even be creative, as one strives to fill in what is missing with something else or to recover it altogether. In Korean, keurium () is probably closest to saudade. It reflects a yearning for anything that has left a deep impression in the hearta memory, a place, a person, etc. In Japan, saudade expresses a concept similar to the Japanese word natsukashii. Although commonly translated as "dear, beloved, or sweet," in modern conversational Japanese natsukashii can be used to express a longing for the past. It connotes both happiness for the fondness of that memory and goodness of that time, as well as sadness that it is no longer. It is an adjective for which there is no quite fitting English translation. It can also mean "sentimental," and is a wistful emotion. The character used to write natsukashii can also be read as futokoro [] and means "bosom," referring to the depth and intensity of this emotion that can even be experienced as a physical feeling or pang in one's chesta broken heart, or a heart feeling moved. In Armenian, "Saudade" is represented by "" (karot) that describes the deep feeling of missing of something or somebody. In Arabic, the word ( Wajd) means a state of transparent sadness caused by the memory of a loved one who is not near, it's widely used in ancient Arabic poetry to describe the state of the lover's heart as he or she remembers the long gone love. It's a mixed emotion of sadness for the loss, and happiness for having loved that person. In Turkish, the feeling of saudade is somewhat similar to hzn. Its position in Turkey is similar to saudade in Portugal in that it's a melancholic feeling popular in art and

culture following the fall of a great empire. However hzn is closer to melancholy and depression in that it's associated with a sense of failure in life and lack of initiative. The closest word to "saudade" in Indonesian is the "galau", which is a feeling or mood in which the person who has it feels sad and usually misses someone. It is often used by the Indonesian youth today and, although the word itself may be caused by various things (such as failing a exam), the most common causes are love-related, such as missing someone. Often, the person who is feeling it is nostalgic as well. It can last for hours, but it is almost always temporary. In Hebrew, "Saudade" can be translated to "Ergah" which means yearning/longing/desire coupled with deep sadness.

[edit] See also

Grief List of autostereotypes by nation Mono no aware Nostalgia Sehnsucht

[edit] References

(Portuguese) Lourceno, Eduardo. (1999) Mitologia da saudade (Seguido de Portugal como destino). So Paulo: Companhia das Letras . ISBN 85-7164922-7 (Portuguese) Ribeiro, Bernardim (Torrao, ~1482 - Lisboa, ~1552). Livro das Saudades.

1. ^ Dicionrio Priberam da Lngua Portuguesa 2. ^ a b Bell, A.F. (1912) In Portugal. London and New York: The Bodley Head. Quoted in Emmons, Shirlee and Wilbur Watkins Lewis (2006) Researching the Song: A Lexicon. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, p. 402. 3. ^ Portoalegre.rs.gov.br 4. ^ Brasilescola.com 5. ^ Saudade em portugus e galego. Basto, Cludio. Revista Lusitana, Vol XVII,Livraria Clssica Editora, Lisboa 1914 6. ^ Dicionrio Houaiss da lngua portuguese (Brazilian Portuguese Dictionary) 7. ^ Saudade.es 8. ^ a b morria in the Spanish-language Diccionario de la Real Academia. 9. ^ Williams, Robert. Lexicon Cornu-britannicum. p. .217 10. ^ (Portuguese) Aprenda algumas palavras e frases em esperanto - Veja.com

Sebastianism
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

(Redirected from Sebastianismo) Jump to: navigation, search This article does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2008) Sebastianism, one aspect of the sleeping king folk-motif, is part of the Portuguese and Brazilian mythology and culture. It means waiting for a hero that will save Portugal and lead it to the Fifth Empire, and known as Eu nacional (national Self). In Brazil the most important presence of Sebastianism happened in context of Proclamation of Republic, to lead movements such as the War of Canudos that defended the divine rights of D. Pedro II to rule Brazilian Empire. Fernando Pessoa also wrote about this hero-to-come in his epic Mensagem (The Message) supporting his ideas on predictions and myths.

Contents
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1 Sebastian, the Child King 2 The birth of a hero and a myth 3 Late Sebastianism o 3.1 Late Sebastianism in Brazil 4 See also

[edit] Sebastian, the Child King

The mythical Portuguese king, with whose death the house of Aviz lost its throne. Sebastianists hold that he will return to rule Portugal's Fifth Empire. The name 'Sebastianism' derives from King Sebastian of Portugal (January 20, 1554 August 4, 1578), grandson of John III, who became heir to the throne due to the death of his father, Joo, Crown Prince of Portugal in 1554 two weeks before his birth, and who succeeded to the throne three years later. This period saw continued Portuguese colonial expansion in Africa, Asia and Brazil. Lus de Cames wrote the Lusiads in his honour. The young King grew up under the guidance of the Jesuits. He also convinced himself that he was to be Christ's captain in a crusade against Muslims in Africa.

[edit] The birth of a hero and a myth

Almost immediately upon coming of age, Sebastian began plans for a great crusade against the Moroccans of Fez. The Portuguese crusaders crossed into Morocco in 1578 and, against the advice of his commanders, Sebastian marched deep inland. At Ksar El Kebir (Field of the Three Kings) the Portuguese were routed by Ahmed Mohammed of Fez, and Sebastian was almost certainly killed in battle or subsequently executed. But for the Portuguese people, he had just disappeared and would return home one day, to such an extent that, in 1640, King John IV of Portugal had to swear to yield his throne to Sebastian, in case Sebastian (who would have been 86 years old) were to return. After his death (or disappearance), Portuguese nobility saw its independence gone (1580). In the time of Habsburg rule (1580-1640), impostors claimed to be King Sebastian in 1584, 1585, 1595 and 1598. Because of these events, Sebastian passed into legend as a great Portuguese patriot and hero - the "sleeping King" who would return to help Portugal in its darkest hour, on a misty day.

[edit] Late Sebastianism

In the present day, Sebastianism is used by some intellectuals and politicians in Portugal to criticize the Portuguese society in general and in particular fields such as the economy, saying it is Sebastianist, that is, they are assuming Sebastian will return and solve all their problems so they can ignore them.

[edit] Late Sebastianism in Brazil

With the Proclamation of Republic in 1889 the Brazilian state became a Secular state, contrasting with Brazilian Empire, where Catholicism was the official religion. In imperial administration, the church had very important roles: functioning as registrar for births, deaths, weddings, and even the recording of property (the control of this in the Portuguese Empire, which was based in a donation system, became, until recently, a huge problem in the Brazilian economy and Brazilian politics). The coup d'tat of emperor Pedro II and his republican reforms brought few changes in most people's lifestyle - for example, universal enfranchisement was not enacted -,

the greatest change for Brazilians really was the "godless" government. Catholicism and the monarchy had been closely tied and strongly effected Brazilian people. Most of the opposition movements to republic in 1890's, 1900's and earlier 1910's had religious motivations. The character of D. Sebastio returned to people's imagination: he would come back to defend the divine right of the Brazilian Monarchy, who were directly descended from the Portuguese monarchs, to rule in Brazil and defend Catholicism, which had been removed from government by the Republic. The most famous presence of Sebastianism appears in the War of Canudos. This revolt was led by Antonio Conselheiro and happened in the Brazilian Northeast. This region was in an economic depression since the discovery of large gold mines in Minas Gerais, formerly part of Capitania de So Paulo, that dislocated the economic center to southestern Portuguese America in the 18th century. The only subterfuge for the poverty in the region, overflowed with the abolition of slavery that produced a huge mass of unemployeds, was the religion. Antonio Conselheiro prechament was against the Antichrist republic and conquered a lot of followers, founding a city named Canudos, where was practiced a cooperative system and in the summit the population of town was near 25.000 inhabitants in 1897. Another great movement where Sebastians were found is the Contestado War, in Santa Catarina and Paran states. The building of So Paulo-Rio Grande do Sul Railway by Percival Farqhuar needed the dispossess of several small proprietys that was considered by Republican Government as "terra devolutas" (useless lands), in this way, there were not any ressarchiments or payments for the railway building. Then the population of the area risen against the Hermes da Fonseca presidence, and, for some of the same reasons that were in Canudos, the war became a "guerra santa" (jihad, Religious war) and got a lot of messianic symbols, like the flag of the movement, inspired by Knights Templar, or the miracles done by Jos Maria de Santo Agostinho, and also the presence of D. Sebastio.

Symbols of Portugal
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search This article does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2012) The symbols of Portugal are oficial and unoficial flags, incons or cultural expressions that are emblematic, representative or otherwise characteristic of Portugal and of its culture.

Contents
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1 Flags 2 Heraldry 3 Anthem 4 Cultural 5 Flora and fauna 6 Food and drink 7 People 8 References

[edit] Flags
Main article: List of Portuguese flags The present national flag of Portugal, was oficially introduced in 1911, after the introduction of the republican regime in the 5 October , 1910. It is the last model of a serie of flags since the 12th century. Since, at least, the 15th century, the flags of Portugal had been known as "Bandeira das Quinas" (Flag of the Quinas), the quina beeing each one of the five escutcheons of the Portuguese Coat of Arms that are the central motif of the flag.

[edit] Heraldry
Main article: Portuguese heraldry

The Portuguese shield is the result of centuries of modifications and alterations. Starting with Henry of Burgundy blue on a silver cross, successive elements were added or taken, culminating with the complex heraldic design that was officially adopted in 1481 and kept until today. The shield consist of the five quinas (blue escutcheons with five besants) over a argent field and a red burdure cherged with gold castles (fixed in nine since the end of 16th century). The complete achievement of arms, adopted in 1911, include the Portuguese shield over the armillary sphere, surrounded by two branches of olive leaves that are tied by two stripes. The two stripes bear the colours of the Portuguese flag: red and green. The armillary sphere was initialy the personal badge of the future king Manuel I of Portugal, still when he was duke of Beja and great master of the Order of Christ. It became a national symbol when Manuel I become king of Portugal, beeing associated with the Portuguese Discoveries and specially used to represent the Portuguese Empire. The coat of arms of Portugal adopted in 1911 have the armillary sphere as one of its main elements. The cross of the Order of Christ has been a national emblem since the reign of Manuel I, former great master of the Order. The cross of the Order of Christ was used in the sails of the ships of the Portuguese Discoveries and is still used today in the sails of the Portuguese Navy's school ship NRP Sagres and in the Portuguese Air Force's aircraft.

[edit] Anthem
Main article: A Portuguesa A Portuguesa (The Portuguese) is the national anthem of Portugal. It was composed by Alfredo Keil and written by Henrique Lopes de Mendona during the resurgent nationalist movement ignited by the 1890 British ultimatum to Portugal concerning its African colonies. Used as the marching song of the failed republican rebellion of January 1891, in Porto, it was adopted as the national anthem of the newborn Portuguese Republic in 1911, replacing O Hino da Carta (The Charter Anthem), the anthem of the deposed constitutional monarchy.

[edit] Cultural
Main article: Culture of Portugal

Belm Tower is a fortified tower located in the civil parish of Belm in Lisbon. The tower was built in the early 16th century and is a prominent example of the Portuguese Manueline style. By its characteristics, is one of the most distinctive monuments of the world and thus considered an icon of Portugal.

Os Lusadas is an epic poem writen by Cames in the 16th century. It is often regarded as Portugal's national epic.

Fado (destiny, fate) is a mainly melancolic music genre which can be traced to the 1820s in Portugal, but probably with much earlier origins. There are two main varieties: the Lisbon fado and the Coimbra fado. It is considered the national music genre of Portugal, with Amalia Rodrigues (1920-1999) its "queen". The Calada portuguesa (Portuguese pavement) is a traditional style pavement used for many pedestrian areas in Portugal, while it can also be found throughout former Portuguese colonies such as Brazil and Macau.

[edit] Flora and fauna

Main articles: Fauna of Portugal and Flora of Portugal The quercus suber, commonly called the cork oak, is a mediumsized, evergreen oak tree in the section Quercus sect. Cerris. It is the primary source of cork for wine bottle stoppers and other uses, such as cork flooring. The quercus suber holds great importance in the economy of Portugal, especially the southern regions, the country being the largest producer of cork. In December 2011, after a petition signed by thousands of persons, the quercus sober was declared national tree by the Portuguese Parliament. The Galo de Barcelos (Rooster of Barcelos) is one of the most common emblems of Portugal. These pieces of craftsmanship, made in painted clay in the city of Barcelos celebrate an old legend that tells the story of a dead rooster's miraculous intervention in proving the innocence of a man who had been falsely accused and sentenced to death.

The dragon was used as the crest of the Royal Arms of Portugal since the 15th century. Later, two dragons were also used as supports of the Arms of Portugal.

[edit] Food and drink

Main article: Portuguese cuisine A pastel de nata is a Portuguese egg tart pastry, very popular in Portugal, the Lusosphere countries and regions. The bacalhau (cod fish) is one of Portugal's most recognisable and traditional foods. There are said to be over 1000 recipes of bacalhau in Portugal. Port wine is a Portuguese fortified wine produced exclusively in the Douro Valley in the northern provinces of Portugal. It is typically a sweet, red wine, often served as a dessert wine though it also comes in dry, semi-dry, and white varieties.

People
See also: List of Portuguese people

Lus de Cames is considered Portugal's and the Portuguese language's greatest poet. Its date of death (10th June) is the national day of Portugal.

Z Povinho is a Portuguese everyman created in 1875 by Rafael Bordalo Pinheiro. He became first a symbol of the Portuguese working-class people, and eventually into the unofficial personification of Portugal.