All Muslim in Burma

THEROOTS,FRUITSANDDREAMS of ALLTHEMUSLIMSINMYANMAR
Preface Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Chapter 7 Chapter 8 Chapter 9 Chapter 10 Chapter 11 Basic Facts about Burma or Myanmar Diaspora, Migration and Migrants Evolution of Myanmar Muslims Forefathers of Myanmar Muslims Panthays Chinese Myanmar Muslims Malays in Myanmar Myanmar Muslims from Indian Subcontinent History of Arakan and Muslims there The rights of Ethnic Minorities and discriminations Citizenship legislation and Identity Cards Request, advice and suggestions to the present Myanmar Military leaders
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Chapter1 BasicfactsaboutBurmaorMyanmar
Geography
Burma (Myanmar) is the second largest country in ASEAN or South East Asia. It stretches nearly 1500 miles from North to South. It is two times bigger than Vietnam and is even bigger than combined land area of England and France but smaller than total area of all the Indonesian islands. It is at the east of India and Bangladesh, south of Tibet and Yunan of China. Yunan is at the northeast and just touched the Laos at its east. Thailand is at east and southeast. Southwest and south is surrounded by the Indian Ocean, Bay of Bengal and Andaman Sea. Lowest part of Burma is in the uppermost part of Southeast Asia Peninsula. Actually its west coast belongs to Burma and east belongs to Thailand. Mergui archipelago of about fifteen hundred islands is just north to Phuket island of Thailand and Lankawi island of Malaysia. Kra Isthmus, where Thailand aimed to build canal is just below Burma. It will be a shot cut route across the upper part of the Southeast Asia Peninsular for the ships to travel between the Indian Ocean and South China Sea.
The Nationalities of Myanmar/Burma, the History

Myanmar's unique historical and cultural heritage dates back over 5,000 years. Evidence confirming the existence of Stone Age people has been found throughout the country. Burma or Myanmar is a nation with many races and there are about 135 ethnic groups. Its population is nearly 50 million. The majority are Bamar, but the Shan, Kachin, Kayin, Chin, Mon, Rakhine, Burmese Muslims, Indian Muslims, Chinese Muslims and others are prominent minority groups in Burma. Because Burmese Muslims are the biggest minority group, the successive Burmese Military rulers are trying to prohibit the Muslims from registration as a different minority race although they have a distinctive culture and features. So Muslims are registered or listed as Bamars or other ethnic minority or mixed blooded people. About two thirds are Bamars, Shan are estimated to comprise some 7 percent of the total population, with the Karen making up 5 percent and the Arakanese four percent. Burma/Myanmar's ethnically diverse population is a result of significant migration from India and later mixed with the three major migrants from Tibet and Central Asia. The people of Myanmar are said to be descendants of three main Migrant branches of family: (1) Mon Khmer (2) Thai Chinese (3) Tibeto Burman
Mon Khmer Group

The Mon, Kaya, Wa, Palaung, Padaung, Pale, Yao, La, and others originated from the Mon-Khmer group. Actually Mon-Khmers are migrants of India Talingana State mixed with the invader Mongols. Mon-Khamars are also seen in Thailand and Cambodia. Burmese got their cultures, written language, religion, arts and skills
dubbed ten flowers: goldsmith, silversmith, carpentry, painting, sculpture etc from Mons. Mons are also known as Talaings because of their origin from Talingana State of India.
Thai Chinese Group

The Shan, Kayin and Taungthu, etc., find their roots in the Thai-Chinese community and descended from China through Yunan. We should note the relation of Shans and Siam, now known as Thailands. Their languages are also similar and both of them feel that they are brothers, just separated by the border. Successive Burmese governments always rightly suspect that Thais are supporting their brother Shan rebels in Burma. Even once the democratically elected ex-Prime Minister U Nu exposed in the local newspapers after he came back from exile that he decided to make peace with Burmese Military government because he did not want to sign an agreement with the Thai Deputy Defense Minister. He alleged that Thai would support his government in exile with all their means to topple Ne Wins Military Government only if he signs a document to allow the Shan State to leave the Union of Burma and merger with Thailand if the Shans wish to. He told that he love the Union of Burma more than regaining the power back. In 2001 there was an international conference in Thailand, attended by UNESCO, UNDP, International NGOs and International Ethnic Minorities. The Mons, Shans and Karens from Burma acknowledged that their roots were in China, Gobi desert and they descended and migrated through Yunan. They claimed that their ancestors were unlucky in choosing Burma to settle in and some of their brothers were settled in Thailand, Cambodia, Lao etc. They said that they knew their roots through their old folk tales.
Tibeto Burman Group

Burmese spoken language is derived from this Tibeto-Burman group. The Bamar, Chin, Kachin, Rahkine, Inthar, Naga, Yaw, Mro, Lisu, Kadu, Hpon, Maru, Lashi, Rawang, Azi, Nung, Daru, Gauri, Lahu, Lolo and others, evolved from the Tibeto-Burman group. They migrated downwards from Tibet, China and are now staying in Burma, China and India. Recently in 2002 there was a Kachin international conference held in Burma. Kachins from India and China attended. Chin, Kachin and Naga rebels on both sides of Indo-Burma border sometimes strains the relations between the two countries. Some of the ammunitions from China and Cambodia were smuggled through Burma and sold to Indian side rebels. Buddhist Rakhines in Bangladesh are known as Marghs. The Karen, Mon, Shan, Kayah, Palaung, Aka, and Pa-o could be found in the east and southeast, the Kahin, Wa, Kokang and Intha stayed in the north and the Chin and Arakanese are mainly in the west. The first Burmese Empire started in 1044 AD. The most important ethnic groups in the Union of Myanmar at that time were the Burmans, the Arakanese, the Shan and the Mons, of which the Burmans were the most numerous and the most powerful. Burmans were formed by the assimilation of the three different groups, Pyu Kan Yan and Thet
Pyus were actually mixed Indian descendants, Kan Yan were Mongolian Tibet descendents and Thet were Thai-Chinese group. But the real feature and origin of all these three groups is very difficult to know. Even the origin of the Burmans was disputed. Some claimed Burman starts from Tagaung. But the recent authorities want to deny this as the Indian Refugee Royalties established Tagaung. King Abi Raja of Tagaung, was said to be the first Burmese King. Kan Yar Zar Gyi is clearly Khan Raja Senior (elder) and Kan Yar Zar Nge is clearly Khan Raja Junior. Even if the authorities claim of Tha Yie Khittra was the origin of Burmans, it is known to be ruled by refugee Indian Princess. Even A Yee Gyis or Aries, who were notoriously powerful in Pagan or Bagan, before the Buddhist Religion arrived the first Burmese Kingdom, were related to one Indian sect or religion. The same Aris from India were also known for, swimming, martial arts, traditional medicine practice and the custom of sleeping with the brides on the first night of weddings. During the next eight centuries, the Burmans unified the country for three times under series of dynasties: Pagan Toungoo and Konbaung
During the Konbaung dynasty the Burmans tried to extend the country's border to Assam and Minipur. But this expansion clashed with British power in India and led to first of the three Anglo-Burman wars between 1824 and 1885. On January 1, 1886, the British formally annexed the Burmese Empire. During the period of British rule Burma became a province of India. In 1937 it was granted a separate administration and constitution. The Japanese occupied Burma in the Second World War and were defeated by the joint forces of Burmese People lead by General Aung San, the father of the present opposition leader Daw Aung San Su Kyi, and the American and British lead Allied forces. At Panglon General Aung San successfully negotiated Barmans promise of power sharing agreement with all the Ethnic Minorities. The Pang Long agreement of February 1947 states that the ethnic groups would join together in such a union. After ten years, the Shan State and other ethnic groups would be allowed to live independently if they desired. That Panglon Treaty had paved the way for obtaining Burmas Independence. British Prime Minister Clement Atlee and Aung San signed an agreement stating that the United Kingdom would give independence to Burma. But on 19th. July 1947, just before getting the independence, General Aung San, leader of the Anti-Fascist People's Freedom League (AFPFL) and the first prime minister of preindependent Burma, was assassinated. U Nu became the Prime Minister of the Union of Burma when it gained its independence on January 4, 1948. The independent Burma immediately faced the violent ethnic and ideological based rebels. New born Burma was almost torn apart into pieces by the anti-state guerrilla terrorist rebel movements led by communist and ethnic minority leaders. They were not happy with the 1947 constitution granting only a nominal form of federalism. It only gave the promise but not the reality of political and administrative autonomy to the Shan, Karen, Kayah and Kachin states and the Chin Special Division. All of them feel that central Burma States Burmese Buddhists had upper hand to dominate Union of Burma. That civil war between the army and the insurgent movements nearly toppled the central government. Burmese government in 1948-52 was called
Rangoon Government because even the suburban areas of Rangoon were lost to insurgents. General Ne Wins power base grew stronger with time. For the first ten years of independence, the governing party was the AFPFL, with a large majority in parliament. However, a diminished majority after the 1956 elections and intra party rivalry in AFPFL forced U Nu to ask the army commander, General Ne Win, to form a caretaker government in 1958. In 1960 elections, U Nus purged clean" AFPFL, returned to power with a great majority. U Nu offered greater autonomy to the minorities and established Buddhism as the state religion. NonBuddhist minorities especially Christians and Muslims were not satisfied and scared for their future but the Burma army dominated by Burmese Buddhists led by General Ne Win was also not happy with the offer of more power to Federal States. According to the Panglon Treaty the Ethnic Minorities were allowed to review or separate from the Union ten years after independence, i.e. in 1958. Fresh splits also emerged again in the AFPFL. In March 1962, Ne Win and the Burma Armed forces launched a coup, giving the excuse of saving the nation's disintegration, as U Nu was going to make concessions to the minorities. Actually because of U Nus shortsightedness Ne Win and the Army had already tasted the sweetness of power and experience of ruling the country. Their Revolutionary Council, composed of 17 military officers replaced the U Nus civilian government. It was the betrayal of all the minorities, the democratically elected government and the promised made at Panglon by General Aung San.
Population and society

The total population was estimated to be about fifty million in 2002. The average annual growth of population was 2.02% Population density 70 per sq km, but the population is unevenly distributed and there is higher density in urbanized Yangon/Rangoon Division but some of the states and divisions on the borders were less populated. However the rate of urbanization in Myanmar has been relatively low. Only about 33% of the population was classified as urban. Mandalay is the only city other than Yangon with a population of over 500,000. Myanmar's population is relatively young. More than one third of the population was between the ages of 0 and 14, nearly two third between 15 and 59, and 7% over the age of 60.
Religion
About 70% of the population is Buddhist. Christianity (8%) and Islam (15%) the rest are Hindus, Animists etc.
Language
A variety of local languages are spoken among the approximately 25% of the population mostly by minority groups. But Burmese is the official language of the state. English is an unofficial second language and widely spoken. The literacy rate is quite high. Although schools and universities closed down frequently because of bouts of political unrests Burmese students were active learning English Speaking and ICT.
As a consequence, the proportion of those over the age of 15 years who are able to read and write is more than 80%.
Currency
The Kyat is the official currency. Its value is pegged against a basket of currencies. It declined in value against the dollar and most other major currencies for several years. The official exchange rate was about Kt 6.9 per one USD. There is a widespread black market, which has been fuelled by the government's reluctance to devalue the Kyat in recent years. At a nearly Kt (900 to 1000) = one USD, the black-market rate is roughly 150 times or 15000% of the official rate. In early 1993 the SLORC introduced foreign exchange certificates (FECs) with a face value of I FEC = 1 USD in a bid to tempt tourists away from dealing on the black market. The black-market trade for FECs is actually slightly less than dollars.
The Economy
Income distribution is asymmetrical. There are obvious differences, especially between towns and countrysides. The distribution of wealth is probably much less even than that of income. Corruption and black-marketeering among the government servants, ruling elite and ex and present military men is reported to be widespread. Burma was once economically top in Asia. But because of the mismanagement of the successive Military Governments, Burma is sadly one of the poorest nations in the world. Despite abundant natural and human resources, Myanmar remains underdeveloped without much economic progress because Ne Win narrow-mindedly inhibits the local and foreign investments. Later when his successors open up the country, most of the foreign nations imposed economic sanctions because its refusal to hand over power to the NLD led by Daw Aung San Su Kyi, winner of democratic elections in 1990. But the extent of absolute hardcore poverty is quite small, because of the plentiful supply of staple food and other essentials and the large black market economy. The high prices of petrol and diesel, insufficient electrical supply, interstate and intra-city transport and road net works caused the population to suffer the serious food shortages and inflation. From independence in 1948 the Anti-Fascist People's Freedom League (AFPFL) government practiced parliamentary democratic socialism and ineffectively tried the economic reconstruction. According to the 1948 constitution, the state owned the land after taking over from the Indian national Chittiers and local landlords. The State then returned the land to the local peasants who lost control of their farming land during the colonial period. Large European enterprises were also nationalized and foreign trade was controlled by the state. But the cronies only got the import permits and corruption was rampant in the government. When the military government took power it tried to establish a centrally planned economy, nationalizing the banks, the transport system, wholesale and retail trade, foreign companies and most industrial enterprises. But corruption and cronyism continue to grow and the countrys economy collapsed.
Climate
Burma/Myanmar has a tropical climate. The cool season starts from November and ends in February, temperatures ranging from 21C to 28 C. The hot season from March to April and temperature could reach as high as 45 C. And from May to October come the rainy season but only short rainstorms are seen. There used to have more rains in lower Burma and moderate rain in hilly areas but less rain in central Dry Zone.
Chapter2 Diaspora,MigrationandMigrants
Diaspora
This is the recently popularised word describing the phenomenon of dispersal of people. This is a relatively new term to describe the basic process, pattern cause and effects of migrations of the people. Migration could be further analysed into the emigration from one place and immigrated into an area. We have to consider from the both sides. We should look at the views, reactions, effects pros and cons etc from both places- original places of migrants and recipients or host countries. Although brain drain is a well known word no one use the word brain drain. We use to complaint talk about the loss but hesitate to admit the gain. Migration. Since the early history of civilisations, groups of man shifted from one place to another in search of the greener grass and cleaner water. Later when they started farming they had to shift their plantation fields frequently because the soil yields less when the just stay put in one permanent place. Up to now, some ethnic minorities are practising that shifting plantation on the mountains, which cause environment disaster because of requirements to cut down the trees and burnt down every year. Now only the new method of stepladder plantation fields on the hills is introduced and accepted. The old method automatically forced the people to shift or migrate.
Why people migrate?

Not only the grass is greener or looks greener on the other side of the fence but also there might be no green grass but dried grass only. Sometimes there would be no grass at all because of drought or mismanagement of the countrys economy or lack of investment or because of wars. Or may be the grass is rationed. Or too expensive when compare to their earning power. Or the best grass is meant for special privileged only. War, ethnic cleansing, discrimination based on racial or religious forced them out. Many of the migrants were forced to leave their country for the simple reason that they could not find work and a decent life in their own motherland. Some of them were also trying to escape political persecution and a life of chaos and violence back in their homelands. But most of the recipient countries just used to label them as economic migrants and refused to accept them. As we have stated earlier, most of the people of the Southeast Asia, e.g. Burmese/Myanmar, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia and Polynesians from the South Pacific Islands are migrated from the Yunan and China. Malays and Indonesians had migrated from Yunan through Burma in 2500 BC and 500 BC." They were believed to be migrated successively one after another and the earlier migrants already settled were actually pushed down by the more powerful new comers. In Burma apart from that major trend of migration downwards there was an obviously significant migration from the Northwest, from India also. Since 500 BC Hindu Orrisa colonists had migrated towards Southeast
and settled in lower Burma. Later other migrants from the Andhra Dynasty from India similarly migrated to Burma in 180 BC. Talaings or Mons originated from the Talingana State of India spreads through Burma to Thailand, Laos and Cambodia. Those three big waves of migration from India were through the Indian Ocean. Some of the Indians also migrated to other Asean countries, Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia. The land-based migration from the Indian subcontinent to Burma was started with the records of the Sakian Migration of Abi Raja of Tagaung King, the first Burmese King. The recent discovery of the Genetic DNA researchers claim of the finding of the Chinese to be migrated from Africa or Out of Africa theory revealed the long and winding trail of our great ancestors. From Africa to China and then continue to Burma. If we consider the origin of the Southern Indians from Africa and Arian Migration from the north or tall blue or brown eyed and fair people proved to be genetically related to east Europeans, our ancestors had repeatedly migrated quite a long distance. The story of the wars of King Rama and southerners is also actually based on true story. There was a seminar in 2001 called Ethnic Minorities: Struggles along the Thai-Burmese Border organized by the Institute of Asian Studies, Chulalongkorn University, the Thai Action Committee for Democracy in Burma, and Asian Forum for Human Rights and Development. The following were disclosed at the seminar: During the Burmese history of Migration and expansion of Burmese Empire about 3,000 Mon monks were killed when King Alongphya attacked and burned Hongsawadee in 1757. (Known in Burmese as Han Thar Wadi.) In December 1948 during Karen uprising against the Burmese government thousands of Karens fled into Thailand. These are a few stories passed down by the Mon, Karen and Shan/Tai. Some of the Shan prefers to be called Tai. "Shan" is a Burmese corruption of "Syam" or "Siam", or Thai or Tai. Shans are much more in common ethnically and culturally with the Thais than the Burmese. "In the past, there were 33 provincial towns in Muang Tai and each town was governed by chao fah," said Chaiya Khongchuen of the Tai Union. "Burma was directly colonized by Great Britain, but Muang Tai [the Shan State] was just a Protectorate State. Ne Win killed many chao fahs during 1962 coup. On May 21, 1958, Tai leader Saw Yanda announced that he was waging war against the Burmese government. The Tai peoples have been guerrillas living along the border ever since," Chaiya said. Wut Boonlert, coordinator of the Karen Network for Culture and Environment, explained how a similar stateless predicament befell the Karen people of the Salawin Basin. The Karens originated from the Gobi Desert, migrated to Yangtze Basin. Then they descended to Khong River, the Chao Phya River and the Irrawaddy Basin. Karens almost always have good relations with Thais because Thailand started a policy to use Karen as buffer state from successive aggressive Burmese. After the Burmese were expelled from the Lanna Kingdom in 1783, Phra Chao Kawinla of Chiang Mai wanted to create a closer relationship with the Karen in order to bring people from the land controlled by Karenni to Chiang Mai. With support from the new Chakri Dynasty in Bangkok, Chao Kawinla succeeded in making friends with the Karenni, one of many sub-groups of the Karen. Later Chao Luang Setthi Khamphan of Chiang Mai married Chao Nang Kham Paeng, daughter of
Chao Mahawong who governed Muang Pha Poon. Chao Nang Kham Paeng was later sent to govern Muang Kantarawadee. But the Chao Muang of Chiang Mai dared not tell about an ancestor who came from the land of the Karenni. Chao Nang Khampaeng was the great-grandmother of Chao Dararassamee, a wife of King Rama V. All the above facts were presented by Wut Boonlert at the seminar. Pisanh, Mon representative presented about his Mon ancestors building kingdoms in Burma and other parts of Asia. Mon and Burmese histories recorded that before Buddha achieved Enlightenment, Alika and Tapusa, two Mon merchants, had presented khao tu [sweetened rice] to Buddha. The Buddha then gave his eight hairs to those two Mon merchants. They then brought the hairs to their Mon king and the king put the Buddha's hairs in a pagoda. That pagoda is now known as Shwedagon, and has become a symbol of Burma today. Mon kingdom were destroyed by the Burmese kings. First Thaton was conquered by King Anawrattha in eleventh century. In 1757 King Alongphaya of Burma attacked the Mon capital of Hongsawadee. (Hantha Wadee) Ten years later the Thai kingdom of Ayutthaya was also destroyed by the Burmese. But later Thailand skilfully used Mons, Karen, Shan and other ethnic groups to play as buffer states between the Thais and Burmese. But it is a fact that Thai created Burma as a common enemy not only for historical reasons but it offered a cheap and convenient target when it launched a Pan Thai empire, to unite all the Tai speaking tribes in Shan State of Burma, Laos and all those of the Dai tribes including from Sip Son Panna in China. Hence it changed the name of the country from Siam to Thailand, just like Burma changed to Myanmar or Ceylon to Sri Lanka, Cambodia to Khmer and so on. Ancient seafarers were from India and Arabs. So we could find their migrations in many other parts of Asia. The trans-land migration through the ancient trading route of the Silk Road was also quite significant. Other migrations were related to war activities e.g. attack, advance, spread, occupation, defeat, retreat and etc. Refugees escaping the war torn areas, settling down of victorious armies and the supporting armies from the friendly nations were also responsible to migrations. The Central Asia Muslim nations of previous Russia and Islam dominant Western China States were the results of those migrations. Some migrations were because of the natural disasters and famine out breaks. Later because of the Western colonisation of the Asia, Africa and Latin America there were different trends of migration. Northern America and Australia were also totally changed because of the migrants. Asia especially Southeast Asia which we are considering now, also changed a lot because of influx of the colonial masters and their act of bringing in of migrant cheap labourers from India sub continent and China. Shipping in the cheap labourers into ASIAN countries from India and especially from China took place sometimes in extremely hard conditions and some even wanted to compare with the earlier slave trades of America. But those Indian and Chinese were not the victims of the brutal, forced shipment after pirate like attacks and capture of the earlier slave movements. Their immigration was a consented, voluntarily chosen course. The migrants themselves arranged and even paid for the cost of migration. The driving force was an extreme poverty back home and the attraction of the news of booming economy and abundant job opportunities of new paradise in the golden foreign land.
The colonial masters also brought in some Indian armed personals viz. soldiers and police. During the Second World War they mobilised a lot of Chinese soldiers and brought into these countries again to fight against the Japanese. Those Indian and Chinese Migrants form the bulk of present groups of minorities in Myanmar and other nations. And most of them are currently suffering the various degrees of discriminations from native citizens especially if they have different religion. I they have the same religion they could be easily assimilated with the natives. But if not they have to suffer the never-ending discriminations. And there was a reverse form of migration after the Independence of the ASIAN nations. Some migrants especially the mixed-blood Eurasians followed the returning colonial masters. And later the migration increased because of civil and local wars, ethnic and religious riots, army coups and forming of Military dictators. Because of cold War, Korean War, Vietnam War etc. those migrations increased. Military bases also cause some migration problems. Orphans of American soldiers in Vietnam and the Immigration problem to allow the adoption of orphans of Australian soldiers from Japan are few of them. Boat people of Vietnam had caused a lot of shock waves through out the world. After them, Cambodians, Palestinians, Lebanese, Bosnia, Iraq, Afghanistan, Iranian, Rohingyas, Karens, Chins and other Myanmars are forming the recent new waves of migration in the world. Some African nations, East Europeans nations, Independent States of former Soviet Union joined the chorus recently, because of the economic and political problems at home. Not long ago, the Indian Migrants demonstrated in England. Their captive slogan was: We are here because you were there. Those Indian sub continent migrants formed the major migrant citizens in England. The transport system especially Railways are run by most of them. Some chain services e.g. Motels are also monopolised by them. There is also some discrimination on Indians and Muslims there. The famous Egyptian Muslim migrant, the father of the lover of the Princess Diana, Al Fayad was denied of British citizenship although he has been staying for a long time in England. He is rich and has invested a lot and given a lot of job opportunities to the British citizens. I want to relate an interesting story of the famous Southern Chinese migrant who dreamt of the far away golden paradise of Rangoon. He was the father of Aw Boon Haw brothers, the founder of Tiger Balm industry. He stopped over and had to work for a while in Singapore and Penang in order to save some money to continue travelling to Rangoon. He recorded that he did not wish to stay in the dirty, crime ridden, poor Singapore port city, which was full of thieves and prostitutes at that time. At last he arrived Rangoon, Burma, the most developed and prosperous country of the British colonies in the east. It was second most developed country in Asia after Japan at that time. The brothers made a fortune in Rangoon and later migrated again to Singapore and Hong Kong. When compare to the very poor and tough conditions back home in southern China where there was even no job available for them and most of the population even could not eat rice but to rely on various roots, Rangoon, Burma, was the paradise on earth for them. But now Myanmar Military rulers had successfully transformed it into a hell on earth.
In Islam if we have no power to fight back the tyrant unjust ruler, it is compulsory for us to migrate (or Hijrat). If we stay put, suffer and die under the oppressive ruler, Allah will not give us any rewards, but will condemn us. Allah had given the whole world to the victims to escape and start a new life. Our Prophet Mohammad (PBUH) had ordered his followers to migrate from Mecca to Medina for the same reason. Prophet Musa/Moses had also led the Jews to migrate from the tyrant, cruel Pharaohs of Egypt. But it is interesting to record the opposing views of the Lord Buddha, who was more reserved on this issue. He asked his followers what they would do if others from the new place of migration blame and condemn them again. United States was known to be one of the most generous, kind, tolerant and respective countries in the whole world before September 11, 2001. Its arms were always open to accept freedom seekers and legitimate migrants. It encouraged and promoted migration. No wonder the USA is known to be the melting pot of migrants and was proud of this and had also reciprocally gains a lot from that farsighted basic policy based on humanitarian grounds. USA gains profits because it values the widening of assortment of gene pool, which leads to increase the talents. It even wants to tap the talents and variety of genes from the least migrated countries or least represented migrants into USA. The US Immigration yearly runs a visa lottery as a special scheme to achieve this. They had accepted a big percentage of worlds refugees, irrespective of race, religion or country of origin. But recently their view on Muslim migrants is changed because of Sept.11 event. Migrants usually never enter with the empty hands or brains. They bring along their capital, talents, intelligence, knowledge, skills and contacts. Trade net works widen and trade ties established among various migrants and also with their old motherland. For example US had gained a lot from the migration of Jews. The Nazi era Jews not only brought in above-mentioned benefits but also included some rocket and nuclear technologies. But nowadays, American political arena is almost degenerated to become the puppet theatre of Jews. No one dare to criticise or condemn Jews from Hollywood to all the business fields. In politics no one could be elected into high places without Jew connection or support. Former Secretary of States Henery Kissinger and Mandelene Albright are Jews. Albright is the first generation migrant who arrived USA at her teenage and was entrusted with the second most important job in US administration. But it is sad to note that even in that promised Paradise of the mother of Democracy, coloured migrants are discriminated in contrast to successful migrant Jews.
Migrations effect on Genes

Migration adds a new or uncommon gene structure (Genotype) in to that particular area or country and so enriches the original gene pool of that host country. That addition or supplementation of a new variety or assortment of genes is a very healthy phenomenon from the medical point of view. And it also leads to the new outside appearances or features (Phenotype) of mixed-blood persons.
There are various traits of gene: major or dominant genes and minor or recessive genes. Generally, dominant traits are less severe properties or have less destructive characters than the recessive traits. Common sense of evolution and selective theory easily describes this axiom. A dominant mutation, which causes the serious disease or defects, will promptly disappear because the fittest only survived in this highly competitive world. At the same time, a recessive genetic disease will not show or manifest any signs of disease in heterozygous state, i.e. when a person has only one piece of that particular gene. The phenotype will be completely normal, able to survive and spread the disease by carrying and spreading by inheriting in the genes of the offspring. Only when both parents with the same heterozygous recessive genes contributed the offsprings genes to become homozygous i.e. two similar recessive genes combine together- the disease appear. Since Migrants brings in different genetic structures, the resulted mixed-bloods have different types of gene. It promotes good features and results but the disease causing recessive genes from both sides are suppressed. In contrast to that if near related individuals marry or inbreeding or incest is quite harmful if look from the medical point of view. They are more likely to carry the same mutant genes that can cause diseases. When these same heterozygous persons with apparently healthy features (Phenotype), marry and contribute the offspring with the similar genes- the newborn became homozygous with two recessive genes. Then all the diseases appear physically. So inbreeding increases the risks. Sex linked (Chromosome X linked) recessive inherent diseases e.g. Haemophilia and colour blindness are very common in some of the tribes or people who practice marriage among the family. So the migrants enrich the assortment of different genes and increase the gene pool, causes the depression of the diseases and enhance the well being of the host community. In breeding in some of the Royal families of Burma, Europe and India increased the chance of genetic diseases. Muslims are specifically forbidden to marry some of the near relatives. Chinese also avoid marrying the same sir named persons. So the Migration leads to cross-marriages. As stated above, it enlarged the genetic pool, widened the scope and horizon of the genetic choice. And it turned over the stock, adding depth, colour and diversity. Not only in the genotype and physical features or phenotype, but their skills, wisdom, intelligence, socio-culture, arts, material wealth, investment, ideas, contacts and vibrancy. And migration opens the ties between the Migrants original country and the host. In USA, which is even known as melting pot of Migrants, there may be possible increase in the global understanding and homogeneity. But for some of the countries and nationalities may claim that it dampened the process of building a cohesive well-integrated society, with the high sense of blind patriotism and nationalistic spirit. They claim that the migrants lack a sense of belonging.
Successful Migrants
Henry Kissinger, former Secretary of State of USA Mendeline Albright, Secretary of State of USA Alberto Fujimory degraced President of Peru Sonia Ghandi, the opposition Congress Party leader of India Mother Teresa of India Arnold Schwarneggar, Austria Immigrant of USA U Thant, descendent of the Indian Migrant, ex UN Secretary General from Burma Ex Ministers of Burma:U Razak, U Rashid and U Khin Maung Latt. Famous writer Major Ba Thaw (Navy) Kyar (Tiger) Ba Nyein, famous boxer. Zinedine Zidane, most famous French footballer, the son of Algerian Migrant Nurul Huda Abdullah, once a swimming darling of Malaysia Wife of the Mr Narayana, President of the India, is also a Migrant from Burma
First, second and successive generations of Migrants

The first generation of migrants knows and accepts what they are. They know that they were just foreigners and are grateful to the host country and happy because they are accepted and allowed to settle in the new paradise. The hardships and numerous problems in their old places are still fresh in their memory and are sometimes refreshed by the nightmares as replays of the sufferings. They are willing to accept all the preconditions, restrictions, rules and regulations even if unfair or unfavourable to them just to be allowed to stay in the host country. They are glad to struggle and overcome all the hardships they encounter sometimes even with the ecstasy spirit. They have the fighting never surrendering spirit and almost always work hard for long hours. They do not mind even if they have to work with lower wages and without much dignity. Migrant workers are well known to face the three D works i.e. Dangerous, Dirty and Difficult jobs. The second generation of Migrants tries to, or even subconsciously, rejected the past. Could not accept the reality that their parents had migrated and imagine that they are totally same as the original citizens. The pressure to assimilate or merge with the mainstream society is very strong. Some of them may pretend as if pure blood local breeds. Social, cultural and religious conflicts emerge between the parents, old timers, who stick to their original values. Their spirit for hard work may not be comparable to their parents. They could not accept the unfair discriminations imposed by locals. The third generation Migrants and onwards at last found out that although they tried very hard, it is very difficult to be accepted and treated as pure locals. Migrant and mixed blood image is very difficult to erase until and unless the migrant intermarries, converts to the host populations religion and changes all the old culture, customs, habits, language and etc. The migrants have to discard all his identities to be accepted or assimilated into local circle. For example in Malaysia if the migrant masuk Malay that means convert to Islam or in Burma, Eurasians or Japan or Hindu or Chinese or Indian Muslim if convert into Buddhism are well assimilated and accepted. If the migrants religion is the same as the host, assimilation process is faster and easier. If not, there will always be a clear line of differentiation leading to discriminations and conflicts. According to the common sense, citizen laws, Internationally recognised and accepted norms and THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS, the migrants rightfully but almost always claims that they should have all the equal rights and equal chances and opportunities as the citizens of the country.
Some of them may try to cover up or even denies their roots as an easy way out. Those descendants of Migrants, third generation and onwards will form a new tribe or a new Minority group among the citizens of the nation. This could not avoid, especially if their race and religions are different. Assimilation would never be complete inspite of trying to do so even if it comes from the both sides, Migrants and hosts. It is a major problem of Identity Crisis for the later generations of descendants of Migrants. As they are already established citizens with a sufficiently long enough history, they rightfully regarded themselves as the citizens with equal rights in contrast to the recent Migrants, who were used to bear all the discriminations with their eyes closed. And they will not happily accept that all those hardships and discriminations are necessary essential sacrifices and is the price to pay for the Migration. For the successive generations, sacrifice is no more accepted but the Equal Rights and Human Rights became the main issue. This is true for the Muslims in Myanmar. We could trace our ancestors well in to the first millennium and now we are even in the third millennium. And our youngest brothers-in-Islam migrated more than half a century ago into Myanmar because we gained Independence on 4th. January 1948 and migration stopped much more earlier than that. So it is unfair and gross injustice have been committed if the Muslims in Myammar are labelled as foreigners or new guest citizens. And we must not forget the fact that the Indian subcontinent Burmese Muslims who maintained the umbilical cord intact with the Indian subcontinent had returned for good after General Ne Win had driven them out in 1964 with nationalisation of all their business, property and demonetisations. As the Migrants progress- the locals feel the heat. Their jealousy increased, self-esteem diminishes and the ugly side of pride for been the host increased under the disguise of nationalistic spirit. They thought that because of their mercy and generosity only the guests are accepted, and they try to impose all the restrictions and conditions on them. To protect their own business, properties, job opportunities, chances and rights in every field and of course to protect their race and religion they have to put up written and unwritten, laws and regulations to monopolise the country. They took advantages, handicaps and favours citing all the lame excuses. There will be sporadic bouts of anti-migrant or anti-foreigner riots based on race or religion. Anti-foreign sentiments and ultra-nationalistic spirits are fanned and drummed up. Migrants with similar race and religion are rapidly assimilated homogeneously. Migrants sharing the same religion could also assimilated in later generations especially if they marry the locals. Some converted and try to cover up their roots. Because of the conversion they are also well accepted into the mainstream. No wonder, many Burmese Buddhist descendants of Japan soldiers of World War two were totally assimilated and could not trace at all. Hindu converts became pure Burmans. Many Chinese also just mixed and pretend as pure Burmese Buddhists. Anglo Burmans are mostly Christians. They can mix, eat and drink even liquor with the Burmese Buddhists, not like the Muslims who have to follow the strict Halal rule. Most of the Christians in Burma refrain from physically praying or worshipping the Monks and the Buddha idols but some Christians pretend to do in front of their superiors to get a favour. But most of the Christians like the Muslims would marry only if their partners agree to convert.
In the history of Myanmar one anti-Chinese and one anti-Indian riots broke out. But anti-Muslim riots are almost recurrent phenomena. No anti-Christian riots ever occur in Myanmar at all except for the Ethnic cleansing of Christian Chins and Karens with the help of Buddhist Karens. Burmese Buddhists dislike the fact of enslaved by the British imperialists who had subjugated them since 1824 AD. Although the Christians were their masters there was no visible or noticeable animosity against them. May be present Christians are a very small minority and never control the trade, business and wealth. And the Christians in Myanmar are known for their non-confrontation policy. Nowadays only because Daw Aung San Su Kyis husband is an English and because of the Christian Western countries open opposition to the Military government, there is some anti-Christian sentiments there. And another factor is: the Burmese Buddhist look down on the Muslims by associating and lumping up with Indians, which they called Kalas. But their instinct forced them to look up at the Christians because it was the faith of their masters. And they equate the Christianity with the modern progress and science because of the present progress of the Christian Western Countries. Christian missionaries were responsible for the largescale conversion in the remote area tribes e.g. Kachin, Karen and Chin. They run top class schools in Burma. They ran medical facilities for the poor and discarded people e.g. for leprosy. Christian Karen nurses dominate their profession. Christian Kachin and Karen soldiers are also well known for their bravery and discipline. Myanmars crippling economy and stifled demands for political and economic reforms will fuel more racial violence in the near future. Both the Military government side and opposition parties would incite racial and religious hatred in order to take advantage and profit from the riots. Both sides will promote this with their own agenda. Government will try to divert the attention of the peoples hatred and anger directed to them. They need a scapegoat for their economic and political failure. It serves, as this divide and rule policy is a well-tested effective policy. And it could also show all the minorities that the government is their protector. At the same time they could prove that they were needed to unite the country and for the maintenance internal peace. The bogeyman is needed to drum up support for them and all the people are coerced to unite behind the Military leaders. This anti-migrant policy, anti-foreigner policy, foreign threats, Communists and western countries imperialist plots and danger of racial and religious riots are used effectively and successfully by numerous dictators all over the world. The opposition would try to start an anti-Muslim riot with a good religious excuse in order to avoid the early detection and crushing by the ever-vigilant Myanmar Military Intelligence units. Ultra-nationalism and blind patriotism will be misused by both sides to out do each other. No sound political or ideological reason is needed to incite and start a racial riot. But playing with fire is always dangerous. The sailor died in the sea and the snake charmer died of the snake poison. Racial riots are like two-edged knives. General Ne Win started the notorious anti-Muslim riots and had backfired and had to resign because the Buddhist and Muslims united against him. I here by want to quote some from the 27.01.1999, The Sydney Morning Heralds A migrant nation still to taste the rare view on newer and would be migrants. One of the recurring themes of Australia Day speeches, and not just those marking citizenship ceremonies, has been recognition of the valuable contribution migrants have made to this country. Any one who has lived in Australia through 1940s, 50s and 60s would appreciate this. The waves of mainly British and Irish migrants in the 19th and early 20th centuries built this country's economic infrastructure, wrote its
fundamental laws, erected its political institutions and gave it its distinctive identity. Postwar migrants, first from southern and eastern Europe, and then from the Middle East, Asia and the Pacific, brought skills in short supply, enriched the culture and infused a certain vitality into Australia's national character. Australia, in short, is a migrant country and will remain a migrant country for the foreseeable future. Its immigration policy should reflect this by remaining generous and non-discriminatory. Various arguments have been advanced against this proposition. One of the intellectually more appealing is that this is a dry and largely barren continent that cannot support an ever-increasing population. Proponents of zero population growth contend that Australia is already overpopulated - or close to it in terms of available essential resources, including clean water and arable land. But this is an argument that judges a country's capacity to carry a population on the basis of existing technologies, patterns of land use and lifestyles. It ignores the creative relationship between a people and their natural environment. In fact the colony almost perished for lack of food in its first 10 years. But Australia now supports almost 20 million inhabitants and while the possibilities aren't limitless, they are nowhere near exhausted. Other arguments raised against continuing high immigration levels reflect unsubstantiated fears and unacceptable prejudices, It is often claimed, for example, that migrants compete for jobs with native-born Australians and that they often win the contest because they are prepared to work for less money or reduced working conditions. That may be true in some cases, but it is not the rule. Furthermore, migrants also generate jobs by enlarging the market for locally produced goods and by creating new markets for goods and services that were not produced before they arrived. It is also said that the more migrants there are, the less likely they will be to assimilate to the host society's laws, conventions and customs. That may be so, but the result is not necessarily social division or cultural subversion. Typically it is change for the better. If migrants didn't challenge the accepted ways of doing things or try to alter the social situations they encounter, Australia would have lost a vital part of the energy, which makes it what it is today. Without continuing migration, Australia would be poorer place to live in every sense of the word. To believe otherwise is to be, deluded by nostalgia. There will always be problems of resettlement and adjustment many of which ethnic communities at times foolishly choose to ignore or disown. But these problems should not be exaggerated or allowed to detract from the overall good sense of the existing immigration program when the bunting has been swept up from Australia Day. Actually in contrast to this newspaper article from Australia, in almost every other country in the world, the earlier migrants usually try to paint themselves as the original owner of the land and the country. And will try to discriminate the relatively newer migrants.
Chapter3 EvolutionofMyanmarMuslims
Race/Ethnic Groups
Successive Myanmar Military leaders repeatedly claim that Muslims in Myanmar (Burma) could not be called, registered or enlisted as a separate race. They are giving various reasons for that 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Muslims in Myanmar (Burma) are mix-blooded people, not pure race as Burmese Buddhists. Muslims are migrants only and not the original people of the land. Muslims are scattered all over the country without owning a separate state as other races of Burma. No race can be formed base on the religion. By calling Kala, meaning Indian, the authorities equate all the Muslims with the recent migrants of Indians under the British or even trying to accuse as fresh illegal immigrant. 6. The hidden agenda is their deep-seated fear of propagation of Islam. They are scared of future Muslim dominance although it is not possible.
We hereby intend to consider some undeniable facts about the three crucial words of 1. Race 2. Ethnic Minority Group and 3. Citizen We should analyze which groups of people are deserved to be called or who have the sole right to be called a separate Race, separate distinct Ethnic Minority Group or a real Citizen. 1. Are only so called pure race should be called a race and not so pure or mixed blooded people could not stay together to form a RACE? 2. Or are those pure blooded races are really pure enough? 3. Are those Original Owners of the Land really true or just mere early Migrants, reserving and monopolizing the place? 4. Are migrants always regarded as migrants without entitlement to any Human Rights or Citizens Rights, even after few generations? 5. Well-established migrants, after already accepted as a citizen are still foreigners? 6. Are descendents of migrants and local mixed marriages still alien after few generations? 7. Could a conqueror of the war just annexes the new territory and regarded the locals staying in that land as Foreigners and started the ethnic cleansing? 8. Could that conqueror brought back the prisoners of war back, for various reasons e.g. slavery, to serve in various positions, civil or army, and allowed to settle in the heart of the country as permanent aliens for few generations? 9. Could the kings, after accepting the helping friendly allied forces, allow them to settle in his country, gave land, property and even brides as rewards after the victory, but a few generations later kicked them out as lousy migrants?
10. After staying few dozens of years or few centuries under a foreign powers as a colony, once got the independence, could the new local government start to kick out the migrants entered during the period of colony? 11. Could they erase the real historical fact of gaining their independence after all was obtained with the help of so-called migrants? 12. Should they neglect the promises of fair and equal treatment they had given to those Migrants and the colonial masters before gaining the independence? 13. Is a religion could never form the backbone of a race? 14. Is descendents of migrants could never form a separate or distinct race? 15. Is a religion could never form the backbone of an ethnic minority group? 16. Is descendents of migrants could never form an ethnic minority group? 17. To be regarded as a race, ethnic minority group or a citizen, is there any rule to be the original settler or owner of a land? Country? Or a State? 18. Have the Migrants no chance to be accepted as citizens? Although all of the above questions lead to undeniable truth, we like to highlight the above axioms with the following facts. They are taken from the worlds historical theatre and our Myanmar (Burmese) geography and local history.
Race
A group of people with a certain sense of itself and cohesiveness is called a race. There is usually a commonality or shared values such as: social, culture, attitudes and ideals. The most important bond and determining all these is a religion. There is usually a common language, literature and a territory. It may be a pure race (homogeneous) e.g. Arian, Mongoloid or African. Or a mixed race (heterogeneous) that is a mixture of few tribes, clans or minority groups. They mixed, stayed and struggled together with the sense of unity. Let us look at how Islam deals with this sensitive racial issue as Arabs were and are so proud of their race. Islam not only recognises absolute equality between men irrespective of any distinction of colour, race or nationality, but also makes it an important and significant principle, a reality. All Human are descendants of one father and one mother. The division of the human race is neither meant for one nation to take pride in its superiority over others nor is it meant for one nation to treat another with contempt or disgrace, or regard them as a mean and degrade other races and usurp their rights. South Africa Zulu is the combination of many tribes and clans by a powerful worrier in nineteenth century. So it is obvious that they are not homogeneous.
African Americans & Asian Americans are regarded as recognized Ethnic Minority Groups but there are many subgroups under them. Among Asian Americans, some of the bigger groups such as Indian Americans and Chinese Americans could be subdivided according to the clan, dialect, religion and their home state or district. So it is very obvious that non-homogeneous or more correctly, heterogeneous factor could not rule out the legality of a race. Owning a territory, land, state or country is not very important to become a race. Israelis and Palestinians have no homeland at all earlier in the long world history. Actually they were not the original owners of that sacred land. Just because they had no land, we could not deny the fact that, the Israelis and Palestinians distinct and famous races. They were even mentioned in three holy books and their racial conflict was and is the worlds most important and dangerous problems. Most of the American Ethnic Groups also have no separate states. Or some Ethnic Groups historical territories may be occupied by different nations or countries at present. We like to give some examples. Mons of Myanmar, Thailand and Cambodia, now occupied by three separate countries. Like some of the Myanmar Ethnic Groups, the Malays, Indonesians and Polynesians had descended from the Yunan. But few historians are thinking about the possibility of reverse migration from Australia side. But some Polynesians have got some mixture of Africa. But even recently some genetic experts found out that there is some evidence that the Chinese originally descended and migrated from Africa. Actually the Bush People featured in God is crazy 2 are a little bit yellow and their features are some what like Myanmar or Mongoloid. (One of the Myanmar Doctor, Anaesthetic in Namabia wrote in the Myanmar Magazine in 1998).
Karens of Myanmar and Thailand

Shans, Siam and Southern Chinese (Nankhan) divided into the races of Myanmar, Thailand, Laos and some Chinese ethnic minorities. Nagas of Myanmar and India are exactly same races in different countries.
And many Ethnic Minority Groups commonly found in China and India are also found and recognised as prided or precious nationals of Myanmar especially in Kachin and Shan States. So the relation of the citizenship for the same race staying in different country is totally different. Relation between the race and history of land ownership is also irrelevant. Now let us look at the ROOTS OF MYANMAR MUSLIMS. Forefathers of Myanmar Muslims had landed in Myanmar (Burmas Rakhine, Ayeyarwady delta and Tanintharyi coast) as early as ninth century, roughly about 200 years before King Anawrahta of Pagan established the first Myanmar (Burmese) empire in 1055 AD. He later concurred the King Manuha and Buddhist Mons of Thaton. He then invited Shin Arahan to propagate Buddhist teaching among people of Pagan. So the Buddhist religion reached Burma much later than the arrival of Islam. But we had to admit that the Hindus and Buddhists arrived the lower Burma (not owned by the Burmese or Myanmar yet) earlier than the Islam. Because of that uniting force of Buddhist Religion, the original three Ethnic Minority Groups of Pagan: Pyu, Kan Yan and Thet assimilated homogeneously into present Myanmars. So, we hereby want to challenge present Myanmar Generals, especially Ne Win and cohorts to deny that the Buddhist Religion forms the backbone of the formation of Burmans or Myanmars. Even the Chinese, Indian Hindus, Indian Muslims, Japanese and some Anglo Burmans if they convert (or pretend to convert to) Buddhism they would be homogeneously assimilated into Burmese Buddhists. And the population of the Myanmar Muslims increased during the British rule of Burma because of new waves of Indian Muslim Immigration. This sharply reduced since 1941 because of Indo-Burman Immigration agreement, and totally stopped after Burma (Myanmar) gained independence in Jan.1948. So Myanmar Muslims are at least staying in Myanmar from 50 years and some of them are staying for more than 1000 years already. Myanmar Muslims are descendants of Arabs, Persians, Turks, Moores, Indian-Muslims, Pakistanis, Pathans, Bengalis, Chinese Muslims and Malays intermarried with local Burmese and many ethnic Myanmar groups such as: Rakhine, Shan, Karen, Mon etc. Muslims arrived Burma as travellers, adventurers, pioneers, sailors, Military Personals (voluntary and mercenary), and some of them as prisoners of wars. Some take refuge (from wars, Monsoon storms and weather, shipwreck and some for other various unforeseen circumstances). And some of them are victims of forced slavery. Some of them are professionals and skilled personals such as advisors to the kings and at various ranks of administration. Some are port-authorities and mayors and traditional medicine men. Some of them are good at various vocational skills, culture arts etc. Mixed marriages, intermarriages and assimilation process of throwing away of almost all their foreign languages, foreign dresses and foreign culture slowly shaped them in to Ethnic Myanmar Muslim group of today.
But they had drawn a line in the ongoing process of assimilation. That line of limit is their religion, Islam. As practising Muslims they could not go beyond the limit of tolerance of Islamic principles. So Myanmar Muslims threw away Urdu, Bengali, Chinese, Hindi and all other foreign languages. Even Arabic is learned just to read Holy Koran and for prayers. Myanmar Muslims speaks Myanmar as their mother tongue, wear Myanmar dress and even have an official Myanmar name as well as Islamic Arabic name. Because they could not compromise their faith in Islam in matters such as: only eating halal foods and drinks, marriage, divorce, inheritance, and other customs which heavily depend on Islam e.g. circumcision, funeral and burial rituals etc. So Myanmar Muslims could not assimilate homogeneously as Chinese, Hindus and others, except for those who convert or renounced Islam. Complete Assimilation of a minority group always need a compromise of their tradition, their culture and some of their rights. Despite the Universal Declarations Denunciation of discrimination against minorities some kind of discrimination is almost always seen in many countries including Myanmar. We have to respect the majority rules in all kinds of governments, including the democracy governments. But the majority must respect and protect the rights of the minority. Even in democracy, there are limits on the concepts of the majority rule, to prevent tyranny of the majority. Majority must rule with the big heart by persuasion, understanding and kindness, but should never coerce the minority with force, threat, cruelty, violence, exploitation and abuse of power or racial riots.
Ethnic Minority based on Religion

In Myanmar (Burma), General Ne Win ordered not to allow the registration of the Muslims as Burmese Muslims (Myanmar Muslims) and present Military Junta not only simply follow his tradition and laws but tightening their grips on Burmese Muslims. Although the whole world accepts that the persons who worships Islam are called Muslims. Ne Win and present Junta refused registration based on religion. They refused to allow the Muslims of Burma to be registered as Myanmar Muslims (Burmese Muslims). They are forced to register as Indian hybrid, Pakistan hybrid, and Bengali hybrid, worshipping Islam. So in order to avoid been labelled or registered or discriminated as a foreigner or a lower graded citizens, a few of the Myanmar Muslims even enlisted or registered themselves as Burmese-Buddhists.
Actually the religion is the most important factor in the formation of the Ethnic Minority Groups in the whole world. This is really the most explosive issue in most of the Ethnic- conflicts, leading to wars around the world throughout the history. In former Yugoslavia: Serbs, Croats Kosovo and Bosnia differences are mainly based on religion. In Lebanon, Christian and Arabs are the two opposing Ethnic groups. Even among main religions, sometimes different sects fought each other e.g. Sunni Muslims and Shia Muslims, Roman Catholics and Protestants of North Ireland are fighting based on religious differences in their Ethic groups. In Sri Lanka, Buddhist and Sinhalese are fighting. In Indonesia the people from Bali are different from other parts of Indonesia because of the religion only. They remained Buddhist without converting to Islam. Because of the religion, they could not assimilate totally with Indonesian Muslims. They maintained some of their customs and rituals. The main difference of Indian and Pakistan is religion. Internal Racial Riots and continuos internal conflicts in these countries are based on religion. Cyprus, Germany, Italy, Spain UK and USA also have differences and voting-trends based on religious lines. (No Catholic could be elected President of USA for nearly 200 years until J.F.Kennedy became President in 1960). Karens in Myanmar are also subdivided by religion. Christian Karens are more numerous and different from Buddhist Karens and Muslim Karens. They differ not only in religion and customs but their political alienation or alignment is totally different. Ruling Myanmar Governments always look the Christian Karens with a suspect, because the Christians are more close and loyal to ex-colonial masters. Just after the independence of Myanmar, mostly Christian Karens rebelled against the central government. And the Myanmar army lost most of the country. Christian Karens even arrested a group of top ranked military officers including the Deputy Commander-in- Chief of the Myanmar army. Buddhist Karens betrayed and rescued them back. They were honoured with the highest awards in Myanmar Militarys history. Presently also, we could see the same kind of alignment. Buddhist Karens deserted the fellow Christian Karen rebels. Buddhist Karens joined their hands with Myanmar Army and raided the Christian-Karens across the Myanmar-Thai border. Apart from them, there are also Muslim Karens in Myanmar. Some of them even formed the Kawthoole Muslim Liberation Force (KMLF) and formed alliance with the Christian Karen rebels.
Buddhist-Rakhines are also different from Muslim Rakhines or Rohingyas. Some of them are even active as a rebel group called, the Rohingya Patriotic Front. Panthays or Chinese Myanmar Muslims are also totally different from other Chinese or other Myanmar Chinese. Buddhist Shan and Muslim Shans are also quite different. So it is obvious that the new Ethnic Minority Groups will appear depending upon their religion. The religions will become the main and very strong bonds in the formation of the various Ethnic Minority Groups in Burma / Myanmar . And the religion is the main obstacle obstructing the complete assimilation of the minority groups. In other words, religion sometimes prevents the disappearing of the Ethnic-minority groups. Daw Aung San Su Kyi in her book The Voice of Hope told Alan Clements about the politics and religion: A journalist said to me, When you speak to the people you talk a lot about religion, why is that? I said, Because politics is about people, and you can't separate people from their spiritual values. And he said that he had asked a young student who had come to the weekend talks about this: Why are they are talking about religion? The student replied, Well that's politics. Our people understand what we are talking about. Some people might think it is either idealistic or naive to talk about metta in terms of politics, but to me it makes a lot of practical good sense. AC: It's a matter of debate, but politics and religion are usually segregated issues. In Burma today, the large portion of monks and nuns see spiritual freedom and sociopolitical freedom as separate areas. But in truth, dhamma (Religion) and politics are rooted in the same issue - freedom. D A S S K: Indeed, but this is not unique to Burma. Everywhere you'll find this drive to separate the secular from the spiritual. In other Buddhist countries you'll find the same thing - in Thailand, Sri Lanka, in Mahayana Buddhist countries, in Christian countries, almost everywhere in the world. I think some people find it embarrassing and impractical to think of the spiritual and political life as one. I do not see them as separate. In democracies there is always a drive to separate the spiritual from the secular, but it is not actually required to separate them. Whereas in many dictatorships, you'll find that there is an official policy to keep politics and religion apart, in case I suppose, it is used to upset the status quo. HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY alone could not be the basic factors determining the legality of the official recognition of the Ethic Minority Groups of a country. Especially history is a very poor guide. There was almost always someone else there first. Israelis and Palestines almost always fight for their native homeland. Actually neither of them were there first to occupy that land. Just have a look at the history of Myanmar.
Assam and Manipure of India; Phi Mor, Gor Lan and Kan Fan of China (the names stated here are Myanmar names); Ayuthya of Thailand; Penang of Malaysia, were once under Myanmars influence, even if it was for a brief period of time. And alternately, Arakan King Narameikhla founded the Mrohaung or Mrauk-Oo with the military help of Nadir Shah, the Muslim Sultan of Bengal. So his heirs, the successive Arakan kings were subject to Bengal from 1430 to 1531 AD. The Buddhists of Arakan the other major ethnic community, known as Magh or Rakhine are a mix-blooded race descended from Aryans of Maghada, India, Mongolians and Tibeto-Burmans. Hindus, Portuguese, Chinese, British and Japanese partly or completely colonise Myanmar in history for various lengths of periods. And in ancient times, Polynesians of Pacific Islands first occupied the ancient Burma and were pushed down by ancient Indonesians and Malays. Actually all those Polynesians, Indonesians, Malays and most of the present Myanmar and Ethnic Minorities descended or migrated from China through Yunan. Hindu colonists, of Andhra Dynasty, from middle India (180 BC) established Hanthawaddy (actually Mon town Han Sawadi similar to Thailand citizen Mons) and Syriam (Tanyin or Than Lyin) in Burma. Even before them, Orissa, Indian Buddhist colonists, arrived there earlier, settled and built pagodas since 500 BC. There was a well-known belief and people even used to say that Myanmar started from Tagaung, built by Abi Raja, a Sakian (Tha Ki Win min), Indian Royal family member, migrated from Kapilavatthu (India) after defeated by the king of Panchala (India), Vitatupa. He left the Middle Country (India) and established the Tagaung country, known at that time as Sangassarattha or Sangassanagara. On the death of Abi Raja, younger son Kan Raja Nge (younger King Kan) got the throne. Thirty-three kings reigned there. Elder brother Kan Raja Gyi (elder King Kan) went down the Ayeyarwaddy River, ascended the Thallawadi River, arrived Kelataungnyo and ruled there as Rajagaha. He ruled the ancient Arakan. His son Muducitta became king of the Pyus (ancestors of modern Myanmar). He founded the city of Kyauppadaung. He conquered the Dhannavati (built by king Marayu). So what is the great deal, dear Buddhist Burmese brothers? The pure Indian or Kala brothers, Kan Rajas (Kan Yaza Gyi and Nge) were your ancestors. One started Myanmar kingdom and another the Rakhine Kingdom. Both of them were very fresh, recent and new immigrants. And your Myanmar (Burmese) and Rakhine Royal families descended from them.
Are all of you are not ashamed to call the Muslims Kalas and labelled as migrants, hybrids, non citizens, when all of you are actually totally same as us. And all of us know that all the major religions never started in Burma. All of the religions are foreign to all of us. The Mainland Burmese are now able to colonize the Arakan State because, the British presented them, free of charge, as an extra gift during the granting of Independence to Burma. Actually the Burmese could colonize the Arakan State with their own strength for thirty-two years only from 1783 to 1815 AD. The Arakans (Buddhists and Muslims) agreed to join the Burmese Union because they had trusted all the promises given by General Aung San, during the Pang Long Treaty. If not, the British would not allow including the Arakan and other States to join the mainland Burma. But General Ne Win and successive Burmese Generals betrayed the ethnic minorities and ignored the promises given by General Aung San. Although the minorities including Arakans had given up their rights to separate from the Union, the Burmese Chauvinist Military Generals still refused to recognize their other rights e.g. religious, cultural, political and civil rights etc. Muslims of the Arakan i.e. Rohingyas are suffering most. It is a little bit funny that in spite of long established history of Muslim Rohingyas, the Burmese colonist Generals, who could manage to colonized Arakan for a mere thirty-two years only, claims that they are the rightful owner of Arakan and the Rohingyas are alien migrants. If we continue back to the glorious Burmese history: The invading Chinese from the north destroyed Tagaung. The last king of Tagaung, Bhinnaka Raja run away and died later. His followers split in to three divisions. One division founded the nineteen Shan States at the eastern part. Another division moved down Ayeyarwady River and combined with Muducitta (second generation migrant, grand son of Indian Abi Raja) and other Sakiyan (Indian) princes, among the Pyus, Kanyans and Theks. The third group stayed in Mali with the chief queen Naga Hsein, a Sakiyan.(Indian) She was the queen of the Sakyiyan king Dhaja Raja migrated from India. On the way he founded Thintwe. Then they founded the upper Bagan(Pagan). Dahnnavata captured Thambula, queen of Pyus. But Nanhkan (China) queen of Pyus had driven out the Kanyans, who lived in seven hill-tracks beginning Thantwe. King Dwattabaung, direct descendent of Abi Raja (Indian Migrant) founded Thare Khit Taya in 443 BC. It was said to be self-destroyed in 94 AD. The history is half -mystical at that time. Mons or Talaings, an Ethnic Minority Group of Myanmar, migrated from the Talingana State, Madras coast of Southern India. They mixed with the new migrants of Mongol from China and driven out the above Andhra and Orissa colonists. Those Mon (Talaings) brought with them the culture, arts, literature, religion and all the skills of civilisation of present Myanmar. They founded the Thaton and Bago (Pegu) Kingdoms.
That Mon mighty Kingdom extended from Lower Burma (Pathein or Bassein, Mawlamyine or Moulmein, Tanintharyi or Tenasserim, Tanyin or Syriam), Thailand and Cambodia. King Anawrahta of Bagan (Pagan) conquered that Mon Kingdom of King Manuha, named Suvannabumi (The Land of Golden Hues). Two princes named Thamala and Wimala (Myanmar version of Indian names-Thalma and Vimala.) established the town Bago in 573AD. Tabinshwehti (Taungoo Dynasty) conquered it in 1539 AD. The Arabs and European travellers of the ninth century saw many Myanmar-Muslim sailors and traders, in Pegu (Bago), also known as Ussa. Now there are only a few real Mons (much less than few hundred thousands) in Myanmar. But they were rewarded with the separate Mon State by the General Ne Wins government because of his strong second man, General Tin Oo (actually he was even well known as one and a half i.e. higher than number two position, as he controlled the Military Intelligence). He was a Mon. Later he was accused of corruption and removed from the number two post. This was allegedly after the Thailands official twenty-one gun salute and red carpet reception for his (General Tin Oo) son and daughter-in-laws honeymoon trip there. Please allow me to interrupt with another interesting short story, which is not directly related with the main issue but because of a lot of coincidences. Another General Tin Oo (now NLD opposition leader) was the Chief Commander or Middle Division Military Command. He was very popular among the grass root people, Military rank and file and among the ruling elite. He had just rooted out the prolonged strong hold of Burma Communist Partys head-quarters on the Bago Yoma (Pegu Mountain Ranges). When we met, I was surprised because he recognised me although I was almost an ordinary person and we had only met briefly once before that. He greeted me and suddenly joked with me. He told me the story of Kyansittha, during the war with the Mon (Talaings) went to pray the famous Shwe Maw Daw pagoda in Bago. When he came down the Talaings had surrounded the pagoda, but Kyansittha manage to come down without any harm. He asked me the reason and answer to this miracle. The answer is very easy, just a Homophone only. Ta, means one in Burmese. Ta-Line means one line on the shoulder i.e. a rank and file in his own army. So, Kyansittha was not surrounded by the enemy Mons (Talaings) but was just surrounded by his own military men, Ta-Lines. That General Tin Oo was later promoted to the Chief Commander of Burma Armed Forces and became the number two man in Burma. But that position was dangerous under the dictator Ne Win. Once the second man became popular and if there were signs of a threat, he used to removed and replaced with a weaker person so that his number one position would be safe. General Tin Oo was accused of corruption. He had alleged to accept five bottles of liquor, accepted the government controlled foreign currency to buy medicine for his child suffering from leukaemia. The Burmese Military Attach in London allegedly gave that medicine to him. Another reason for his removal was, his wife, a Medical Doctor was proud and rude among the military families! Portuguese, Philip Debrito (Nga Zin Ga) established a colony in Syriam from 1581 to 1613.
Chinese Kublai Khans Muslim Turkish soldiers, commanded by Nasrudin, the son of Yunan Governor attacked and took over Burma in 1277 AD. Tartars at first took strong hold in Bhamo (Burma) for a few years and later destroyed Bagan (Pagan) in 1287 AD. Shans of Myanmar and Siams, now known as Thais are from one same Ethnic Group. Their language is different in slang only. They are descended from Sino-Shan and Mon Khamars, who came down from Yunan, China. U Nu, the last democratically elected Prime Minister of Burma, overthrown by the General Ne Wins Military coup, later formed the government-in-exile in Thailand. After he returned (surrendered) to Burma, there were praises in the Government controlled Media, regarding his patriotism in refusal to sign an alleged agreement to allow Shan State to be annexed with Thailand in exchange for the Military and financial aids.
Myanmar Language
Myanmar Muslims are using Myanmar language as their mother tongue. They are well assimilated in this aspect. A lot of Ethnic Minority Groups through out the world are facing problems because of the language differences. Myanmar spoken language is under Tibeto-Burman family. The source of the Myanmar script (written language) was adopted from the Brahmi script from India (500 BC. to 300 AD.), in the reign of King Asoka. This Brahmi Indian scrip spread to Tibet, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia and even some parts of Indonesia. In Myanmar, this Brami script was developed and modified by the civilisations of Pyu (now disappeared and totally assimilated in Myanmar), Mon, Rakhine, and Myanmar. Myanmar language script was fine tune again after introducing Sanskrit, Pali, Pyu and Mon scripts. Earliest Myanmar written language starts in Bagan (Pagan) period of eleven century. When compare to many of the prided, recognised ethnic minorities, who could not speak Myanmar language, most of the Muslims in Myanmar could speak the mother tongue.
Myanmar Traditional Dress

Myanmar-Muslims have adopted and taken the Myanmar dress as their own. It is widely accepted that Taik pone (Myanmar mans jacket) was taken from China and the Longyi (Sarong) was taken from India. Curiously Muslim religious customary Purdah, a veil for the women, is spread to even Burmese-Buddhists and other Ethnic Minorities. They called that with the adopted name Pawah.
So the present Ethnic Groups all over the world, including the races of Myanmar (Burma) are not the original owners of the land. And are not neatly arranged into Nations. There is a lot of spill over into neighbouring states. And their religion, language, culture and traditional dresses are usually found to be shared or modified from others. The author of this book wish to make clear that the above paragraph does not mean to insult or belittle the spirit and pride of Nationality and the state of been a member of a particular Ethnic Group. I wished to reduce the fanatic extremist, Nationalistic Spirits only. After all, we all are just fellow, brothers and sisters staying temporary on earth. Why should we fight the deadly wars and hate each other for the non- permanent properties and lands. Peace, kindness, loving kindness, forgiveness, charity, helping the needy and various good virtues are the teachings of all our Religions. So, based on the above, undeniable, concrete facts and truths no one should deny the rights of Muslims in Burma (Myanmar). Myanmar Muslims have a right to be recognized as one of the races in Myanmar (Burma). We are one of the legal Ethnic Minority Groups of Myanmar (Burma). Myanmar Muslims (Burmese Muslims) are no more foreigners nor migrants but full-blown citizens of Myanmar (Burma). Muslims in Myanmar (Burma) have the same and equal rights with all other Myanmar citizens, including Burmese Buddhists and all the ethnic minorities of Burma (Myanmar).
Chapter4 ForefathersofMyanmarMuslims
Most of the facts in this chapter are taken from: 1. Pe Maung Tin and G.H.Luce, The Glass Palace Chronicle of the Kings of Burma, Rangoon University Press, Rangoon, Burma, January 1960 2. Dr Than Tun, History Professor, Mandalay University, Chin, Myu and Khumi, Notthern Rakhine, Myanmar Magazine Kalya, 1994 August. 3. Burmese Enclyclopedia Vol. 9 P. 89, About Rohingya, (Published by the Burmese government.) 4. To brighten the light of the religion, SLORC published book in 1997, in Burmese. 5. The Muslims of Burma A study of a minority Group, by Moshe Yegar, 1972, Otto Harrassowitz. Wisbaden. 6. Various Myanmar History tax-books of Ministry of Education, Myanmar. 7. HGE Hall History of Southeast Asia.) 8. Myanmar(Burmese) history textbooks for middle and highschools published in Burmese by the Ministry of education, Burmese Government.
Our Roots
Our roots started in the early years or 500 AD. Yes, even as early as that time, Muslim seamen arrived the coastal area of Burma (Myanmar). The dawn of the Muslim settlement and the propagation of Islam was widely documented by the Arab, Persian, European and Chinese travelers of Ninth century. Persian Muslims traveled over land, in search of China, and arrived northern Burma at Yunan (China) border. Their colonies were recorded in Chronicles of China in 860 AD. Myanmar Muslims were sometimes called Pathi, and Myanmar Chinese Muslims are called Panthay. It is widely believed that those names derived from Persi (Persian). I hereby want to mention another word or name, likely to be linked with Persian. Zaw Gyi or Ta Pathy is the mythical person, good in chemistry, alchemy and medicine. He was believed to be able to fly and could even travel underground. His dress was bright red, complete with cap and trousers, completely alien to Burmese dress but similar to Persian dress. We were surprised to see the similar Zaw Gyi dress worn by the Turkey band troops during the Malaysian Proton car launched in Turkey, which was shown life on Malay TVs. Bago, Dala, Syriam, Tenasserim, Martaban, Mergui and Pathein (Bassein) were full of Burmese Muslim settlers and they outnumbered the local Burmese by many times. In one record the Pathein City was said to be populated with Pathis. May be Pathein comes from Pathi. And coincidentally, Pathein city is still famous for the Pathein Halawa, traditional Myanmar Muslim food inherited from northern Indian Muslims. Pathein (Bassein) is located in the Ayeyarwady delta about 190km (118mi) west of Yangon, this premier port city is noted for its handicrafts (pottery and hand-painted umbrellas) and the Shwemokhtaw Pagoda (which was built by the three lovers of a Muslim princess).
In the chronicles of Malaysia, during the first Melacca Empire of Parameswara in the early fifteenth century, it was recorded the Burmese (Muslims) sailors and traders were regularly arriving there. Those Bago (Pegu) seamen, likely to be Muslims, were also recorded by the Arab Historians of tenth century. During fifteen to seventeen centuries, there were a lot of records of Burmese Muslim traders, sailors and settlers on the whole coast of Burma. That was from Arakan coast (Rakhine), Ayeyarwady delta and Tanintharyi coast (Including all the islands along the whole coast). The first evidence of Muslim landing in Burmas chronicle was recorded in the era of the first Burmese Empire of Pagan (Bagan) 1044 AD. Two Arab Muslim sailors of BYAT family, Byat Wi and Byat Ta, arrived Burmese shores, near Thaton. (There are people in Iraq and Arabia with the same sir name even at present). After their ship wrecked, they managed to use a plank to swim to the shores. They took refuge and stayed at the monastery of the monk in Thaton. They were said to be tall, fair, swift, brave and very strong. They were said to have strength of the full-grown elephant. Thaton king was afraid of them and managed to kill the elder brother while he was sleeping in his wifes house. The younger brother managed to escape to Bagan and took refuge to king Anawratha. He was kept near the king. He had to fetch flowers, ten times a day, from the Mont Popa, few dozens of miles away from Bagan. He married a girl from Popa and got two sons, Shwe Byin brothers. Later they also served the king as worriers, even as the special agents to infiltrate the enemys inner circle. They were famous after they successfully infiltrated the Chinese King Utibuas bodyguards and drawn three lines with white lime on the Utibuas body and also wrote the threatening message on the wall. Because of that vent, the mighty powerful Chinese army and the king himself were scared, frightened, alarmed and signed a peace agreement with the Burmese. May be those surrounding the Anawratha were also worried regarding the potential threat of those Muslim brothers. They refused to contribute in the building of a pagoda at Taung Byone, just north of Mandalay, may be because of their religious belief. The brothers enemies in the inner circle left vacant the spaces for the two bricks so that the king could notice. After a brief inquiry the king ordered to punish the brothers for disobedience but were killed. There was believed to be a big conspiracy even involving Kyansittha, rival worrier, a general, who became the third king of Bagan. All of us know that the King Anawratha just ordered to teach a lesson to the young brothers. Instead of using stick or rattan to strike on the back of the body, Kyansittha ordered to use a hard and solid bamboo trunk and hit on the throat. Deliberate miscarriage of the order with the criminal intent to monopolized the inner circle position? Some of the executed brothers friends were not happy with the execution. Especially the sailors at that time were mostly known to be Muslims. The royal raft could not move after that, may be the silent protest against the killing. But the witty, white and black Indian Brahmans, royal consultants interpreted that, the two brothers were loyal faithful servants but unjustly punished, became Nats (the powerful spirits) and they pulled the rudder of the royal boat to show their displeasure. Then only, Anawratha ordered the building of the spiritpalace at Taung Byone and ordered the people to worship the two brothers. This was the clever Royal trick used to be played by the Burmese kings to execute the powerful rivals and posthumously elevated them to the level of Nats or powerful Spirits or local gods, just to please their followers or the people who love the executed heroes.
Up to the present, the followers or believers worship the shrine and those two brothers. Although all those worshippers are all Buddhists, they all abstain from eating pork till now It is even taboo to allow anyone to carry pork on the buses or cars, while going to that yearly spirit festival still celebrating annually and attended by followers all over Burma. We can still see the vacant slot for the two pieces of brick allegedly triggered that tragic prosecution. So it is sad to record that they became the first Muslims persecuted in Burma because of their religious belief. And their uncle was also killed just because he was powerful and the king was afraid of him. King Anawratha 1044-1077 AD also had Myanmar Muslim army units and body guards. Muslims played a significant part in Burmese history. When King Anawrahta attacked Martaban, capital of Mon (Talaing) King, Mingyi Swa Saw Kae, two Muslim officers army unit fiercely defended against his attack. The King Anawrahta appointed a Muslim Arab as a Royal teacher for his son, Prince Sawlu. That teachers son later became the Governor of Bago (Pegu) known as Ussa City. His name was Raman Khan. (Known as Nga Yaman Kan in Burmese. Nga was usually put in front of all commoners i.e. not from the Royal family). King Sawlu himself had given the town to his childhood friend, also an adopted brother because they were fed from the same breast as Raman Khans mother was the wet nurse of Prince Sawlu. Once Raman Khan won the game of dice, jumped with joy and clapped the elbows. The loser king Sawlu was angry and challenged Rahman Khan to rebel against him with the Bago province, if he was a real man. Raman Khan accepted the challenge, went back to Bago and marched back to Bagan with his army of soldiers on horses and elephants. Rahman and army camped at Pyi Daw Thar Island. He was clever and witty with tactics, even knew the geography and landscape near the enemys home ground and successfully used them for his advantage. He successfully trapped the famous Kyansittha, King Sawlu and his mighty large Bagan Burmese army in swamps. The whole Bagan army fled. Sawlu was later found and arrested. Kyansittha tried to rescue but Sawlu refused to be rescued. His last fatal miscalculation led him to be killed by Raman Khan. Rahman Khan himself was ambushed by the sniper bow-shot of Nga Sin the hunter and died. Later Kyansittha became the third king of Bagan Dynasty. While expending the empire he brought back many Indian-Muslim captives. They were settled in central Burma. Because Burma was located at the center of the shipping and trading route starting from Arabia and India, heading towards Thailand, Malay, Indonesia, Korea, Japan and China, the whole of the coast of Burma developed rapidly. Dela, Yangon and Syriam became shipyards, depots of goods and markets for exchange of goods. The Muslims dominated all the seaports in Burma and Thailand, at that time. In seventeenth century, those Muslims controlled the business and became so powerful because of their wealth. They were even appointed as Governor of Mergui, the Viceroy of the Province of Tenasserim, Port Authorities, Port Governors and Shah-bandars (senior port officials).
Muslim sailors built many mosques, but those should be more appropriately called Temples as they were equally holy to Muslims, Buddhists, Hindus and Chinese. They were called Buddermokan, in memory to Badr al-Din Awliya, a saint. They are found in Akyab, Sandoway and on a small island off Mergyi. When the famous Raza Dirit attacked and conquered Dagon (Yangon), Muslim soldiers defended from the Burmese side. Muslim artillerymen and riflemen served regularly in Burmese army and sometimes even as royal bodyguards because the Burmese kings never trust their own race. This is understandable because there was the custom that time that he who kills the king becomes a king. And in Burmese history sometimes the son killed his own father and brothers killed each other to become a king. Even the first Burmese King, Anawratha had killed his half-brother, King Sokkate. Sokkate had also forced and dethroned his own father King Kunhsaw. When Tabin Shwe Hti attacked Martaban in 1541 AD, many Muslims resisted strongly. When Ba Yint Naung successfully conquered Ayutha (Thailand) in 1568-1569 AD he use the help of Muslim artillerymen. King Alaung Pha Ya 1752-1760 AD conquered Syrim. Muslim prisoners of war were forced to serve in his army. Pagan Min 1846-1853 AD appointed U Paing, a Burmese Muslim, as the Governor of the Capital city, Amarapura. He donated a two- mile long bride, made of teakwood across the Taung Tha Man Lake. It is still useful and now became a scenic area attracting picnickers and tourists. In 1850 AD the Governor of Bagan was also said to be a Muslim. Burmese kings employed a lot of Muslims in his inner circle: Royal bodyguards, eunuchs, couriers, interpreters and advisers. Thousands of Burmese Muslims fought alongside fellow Burmese Buddhist soldiers to defend the beloved homeland of Burma (Myanmar) in the three Anglo-Burmese wars. Maha Ban Doola (Mahammad Ibn Abdulla) was one of the most famous and brave Muslim commanders in Burmese history. He started his service under the son of Bo Daw Paya. During Ba Gyi Daw he was the chief commander in attacking Manipur. He became famous and well known since then. After that he was ordered to attack Assam. Later he successfully fought back the British invaders in Shin Mapyu island, at the delta of Nat (Naff) river in Arakan. Because of his bravery, even the British in Calcutta, India were frightened. While Maha Ban Doola was in Arakan, British navy attacked and conquered Dagon (Yangon). Maha Ban Doolas army traveled swiftly through mountainous Rakhine and attacked Yangon in a short period of time, which even surprised the British. He died as a brave warrior later in the battlefield, while defending the country against British army.
Muslim prisoners of war were settled in upper Myanmar by successive Burmese kings. Mye Du near Shwebo was one of the sites. Muslim prisoners from Bago during 1539-1599 AD were the first settlers. Tabin Shwe Hti brought back the Muslim prisoners, after attacking Arakan in 1546 and 1549 AD. King Anaukpetlun conquered Syriam in 1613 AD and brought back Muslim soldiers and sailors as prisoners of war. They were settled in Myedu, Sagaing, Yamethin and Kyaukse. King Sane brought back several thousand Muslim prisoners of war from Sandoway and settled in Myedu in 1707 AD. Next year few thousands more were settled in those places and Taungoo. King Alaungpaya attacked Assam and Manipur of India and brought back more Muslims to settle in Burma. These Muslims later assimilated to form core of Burmese Muslims. Earlier they were called Myedu Kala or Kala Pyo.(Kala = foreigner; Pyo = young.). Muslims in Amarapura were about 20,000 families, at the time of Inwa (Ava) kingdom (1855 AD). Most of them were Sunni Muslims. The first mosque in Yangon was built in 1826 AD, at the end of first Anglo-Burman war. It was destroyed in 1852 AD when the British attacked Yangon again. The most note-worthy of the Burmese rulers was King Mindon, (1853-1878 AD) second last king of Myanmar. He built a mosque at North Obo in central Mandalay, the capital city then. He had even donated a hostel in Mecca, Saudi Arabia, for the convenience of Burmese Muslims pilgrims during Haj. The Chinese General Mah Tu Tu managed the building of a mosque donated by the Yunan Muslim king, Sultan Sulaiman, in nineteen century at central Mandalay. The mosque is still maintained in a very good condition. Most of the Myanmar Chinese Muslims are staying around the mosque and it is well known as Panthay Mosque. That area is called Panthay Dan (Panthay Quarters). Most of the Myanmar Chinese Muslim has two names, one Myanmar name and another Chinese Muslim name. Most of them have Chinese Sir name or Family name, Mah. It is interesting to note that the Chinese written script for that word, Mah is like a horse. The writer personally believed that, it is related to Arab worriers went to help the Chinese Emperor against the rebels. After the war they were awarded and allowed to stay in China. But the Sir Name, Mah is likely to be the abbreviation of Mahamed. The last Muslim Mogul Emperor of India, Abu Zafar Saraj al-Din Bahadur Shah and his family members and some followers were exiled to Yangon, Myanmar. He died in Yangon and was buried on 7.11.1862. After the British took over the whole Burma all sub groups of Burmese-Muslims formed numerous organizations, active in social welfare and religious affairs. TRUNK AND BRANCHES which grew from our Roots. U Aung Thin represented the Myanmar Muslims at the Round Table Committee on whether Burma should be separated from India or not. That was held at London, in 1930 .
U BA Oh was a very rich Burmese Muslim philanthropist. He funded BMS Burma Moslem Societys activities and was voted president for life. He was not only active in social and welfare, but he had also stood bravely in demanding the rights of Myanmar Muslims. Saya Gyi U Nu (Great Teacher or Guru) was a very famous Burmese Muslim writer. He had written and translated a lot of Islamic religious books. He used Pali and other words and terms from the Burmese religious literature to Burmanise the Islamic literature. Combined with his flowery, poetic Burmese writing, his books are regarded as Myanmar Muslims classics. But recent military rulers prohibited the Muslims from using these Pali words and terms in Islamic religious books. After all, Pali is the language of India only. Burma Military Government is clearly not the legal copy write owner of Pali language. This is one form of the violation of human rights and restriction and discrimination and oppression of religion. Saya Gyi U Nus classics would be surely prohibited from reprints. This is also reported in the Human rights reports of the Department of State, US. Thakin Ba Thaung was also believed to be a great Myanmar Muslim writer. Because of his translated book of A Thousand and one Nights, which was a very popular book among all the races in Burma. Because of him, some of the Islamic Arabic words such as: Dunnia, Allah, Insha Allah, Jannath (heaven) Jahanam (hell) etc. were even uttered frequently by the Burmese Buddhists and even used sometimes in the Burmese magazines and books. Colonel Ba Shin a noted historian was later a member of The Myanmar History Commission. U Razak, the president of the Burma Muslim Congress was appointed Minister of Education in preindependence Myanmar Government of General Aung San after The Congress joined the AFPFL (AntiFascist Peoples Freedom League). U Razak played a leading role together with the General Aung San in the fight for the independence of Burma (Myanmar). U Razak started the National Schools in Burma. One of his schools, Number Two State High School in Mandalay was still known as National School. He started the voluntary military and self-defense martial arts training among all Myanmar youths. He was assassinated along with General Aung San and five other leaders on the twelfth of July 1947, just before the gaining of independence from British. All of them are regarded as National Martyrs. From that day onwards, 19th. July was declared the national holiday to celebrate the remembrance. During the Japanese rule, Muslims joined the Indian National Army (INA). Some of them were officers as high in rank as colonels and even one general. U Raschid, an Indian Myanmar Muslim, was active in Thakin Movement (The Burmese National movement against ruling British). He was the secretary general of Rangoon University Students Association in 1931 together with prominent Myanmar political leaders: Aung San, U Nu, U Kyaw Nyein, U Ba Swe etc. U Raschid was the first president of the All Burma Students Union. In 1952 U Nu appointed him as Minister for Housing and Labour, later in 1954, Minister for Trade and Development, in 1956, Minister of Mines, in 1960 Minister of Commerce and Industry. In 1958 he was the Vice President of the Trade Union Council of Burma. U Nu requested him to change his name to U Yanshin to make him more acceptable to other Buddhist but he declined. General Ne Win arrested him in 1962, during the coup.
Wealthy and influential Myanmar Arakan Muslim from Akyab, Arakan, Sultan Mahmood was the political secretary in U Nus government and later was appointed as Health Minister. Other Rohingya Myanmar Arakan Muslims in U Nus Parliament as parliamentary secretaries were Mr. Sultan Ahmed and Mr. Abdul Gaffar. Mr. Abdul Bashar, Mrs. Zohora Begum @ Daw Aye Nyunt, Mr. Abdul Khair and Mr Rashid Ahmed also served in the Burmese Parliament. U Khin Maung Latt one of the Myanmar-Muslim Cabinet Ministers in U Nus Government held the Social Services and Health portfolio. He was the secretary of U Razak before his (U Razak) assassination. He had been active in the Students organizations of Yangoon University and had took part in the very famous students strike of 1936. He successfully organized the Muslims in whole Burma to stand united under the AFPFL flag during the struggle for the independence. He worked together assisting U Razak. When AFPFL split in to two, U Khin Maung Lat was with the Stable Fiction. U Rashid remained with U Nu. The late Secretary General of United Nations, U Thants father was also said to be a Myanmar-Muslim. U Thant was appointed as Myanmar representative to UN by U Nu and was not in a very good relation with General Ne Win. Because the Military Government failed to give honor to the funeral of that most famous Myanmars son, there was a great discontent among the people and a big anti-government protest erupted. There were also Myanmar Muslim Ambassadors like U Pe Khin and U Hla Maung. There were two prominent Burmese Muslims in Burma Army earlier. Brig. General Maung Maung Gyi was from Burma Navy and Colonel Tin Soe was with the Revolution Council of General Ne Win. Various forms of Military Governments continue to rule Burma (Myanmar) since that council overthrown the democratically elected U Nus Government. Maung Thaw Ka or Major Ba Thaw from Navy was a very prominent writer died in SPDC jail. Kyar (Tiger) Ba Nyein was also a very prominent Myanmar Muslim. He was known to be a great boxer, and had even represented Burma in the Olympics. He had successfully trained a lot of boxers. And he had rejuvenated the Myanmar traditional boxing. He was a famous writer also. His son U Win Nyein is also a prominent Journalist. Both of them are from Mandalay. U Chit Nyo, brother of Kyar Ba Nyein is also a famous writer. Myo Myint Nyein was the editor of Payphuhlwar, a former monthly magazine in Burma. Awarded the International Press Freedom Award in abstentia by the Toronto-based Canadian Journalists for Free Expression (CJFE). He is the brother of Win Nyein. Shwe Ba and Maung Maung Ta were very popular movie stars in Burma. Att Chote Tan Saya Pe was also a very famous Muslim artist. He wrote or composed a lot of famous popular Burmese original songs.His poems and songs were even regarded as classics.
U Khin Maung Latt or Hassan Latt was also one of the pioneer pilots after independence. Later he became the General Manager of Burma Airways and was the personal pilot of General Ne Win. U Kyaw Kyaw was also one of the very few Myanmar-Muslims promoted to the high position in the Military Government. He was the Managing Director of the Myanma Economic Bank. Hajima Daw Pu was also a famous Myanmar-Muslim philanthropist. Because of her donation of a new Kidney Hospital and good social relations with General Ne Win, Military Government even awarded her with a medal for her outstanding social deeds. Saya Chair also had a very good relation with the Military Government and was appointed the Chairman of the Election Commission. Some Myanmar Muslim activists such as Pathi Ko Lay and Dr Kyaw Nyein were also promoters of total assimilation of Burmese Muslims in to Burmese. Their group used to antagonize the more religious minded Myanmar Muslims and unnecessarily and wrongly labeled all those with beard to be Indian Muslims. Especially Dr Kyaw Nyein had a very good relation with the very powerful and famous Mandalay Young Buddhist Monks and to some extent successful in countering the agent provocateurs from inciting the anti Muslim sentiments. Because of his request, real monks influential in Mandalay searched and confiscated and destroyed nearly hundred thousand anti-Muslim pamphlets allegedly distributed the Myanmar Military secret agents. Although reported to the authorities, no one was arrested for that crime in a country where many people were arrested, tortured and jailed for printing or photocopying or distributing any anti-government papers. Lu Du Daw Amar, highly respected journalist wrote in one of the monthly magazine recently about Myanmar Muslims from Mandalay. She praised them for their understanding and respect of the Burmese Culture. While trying to stress the deterioration of religious knowledge among Myanmar Buddhist youths, she pointed out that some of them even did not know how to talk with the monks. She mentioned the skills and politeness of Myanmar Muslims in dealing and talking with the Buddhist monks. Ye Soe was one of the famous Myanmar Muslim novelists. He wrote detective stories based on foreign books but he Burmanized them and was accepted by many youths. He wrote more than hundred books. U Shaw Phi, Myanmar Muslim rich man, contractor and investor, was also very famous and well connected person among the local and central Military leaders.He was arrested few times because of his extraordinary efficiency and excellent contacts. Once, old and damaged vehicles, which were beyond repairable condition, from the army and State Transport Department were bought from the government. U Shaw Phi shamed the Military government by the speedy successful repair within one month. His refurbished buses and trucks hit the roads and he was invited into the jail for questioning for few months for his efficiency to repair the damaged vehicles so quickly. He was arrested once because of that kind of efficiency, for the crime of finishing his own house in front of the prolonged project of building the new parliament building. Because he built his house with three shifts of workers day and night, General Ne Win became jealous and ordered to arrest him to enquire how he managed to get the required raw material for the construction.
And he was arrested few times without any trial when the number twos in the governments or any other high ranking officials were required to remove from their positions. They were unofficially alleged to have connection with that wealthy man and were said to be not fit to hold high posts. But strangely, the probes or investigations always had to stop before other VIPs were implicated. Obviously, the almost bankrupt authorities needed U Shaw Phis skills and wealth.
Chapter5 PanthaysChineseMyanmarMuslims
This chapter is taken and revised from THE EMERGENCE OF THE PANTHAY COMMUNITY AT MANDALAY, BY MAUNG MAUNG LAY. (The writer is a great-grandson of Yunan Chinese Colonel Mah Too-tu who had supervised the construction of the Panthay Mosque at Mandalay. He lectured in History and was an Associate Professor in International Relations at Mandalay University. He retirement in 1997.) Chinese Muslims in Burma are known as Panthays. The name PANTHAY is a purely Burmese word, which is said to be identical with the Shan word PANG-HSE (Scott, 1900, 607). It was the name by which the Burmese called the Chinese Muslims who came with caravans to Burma from the Chinese province of Yunnan. The name was not used or known in Yunnan itself (Yule & Burnell, 1968, 669). But curiously in the research paper from Karachi on the Muslims in China, the Pakistini researchers used that word Panthay. Later they acknowledged that they got that name from Burma. Actually the Chinese Muslims in Yunnan did not call themselves by the name Panthay. They called themselves HWAI-TZE or HWAI-TZU, meaning Muslim. The non-Muslim Chinese and Westerners referred to them as HUl-HUI. Apart from its Burmese origin, very little is known about the name Panthay. The root of the name is exceedingly obscure. Several theories have been suggested as to its derivation, but none of them is strong enough to refute the others. The most plausible among them is the suggestion that the name Panthay has some kind of link with PATHI, the old Burmese word for MUSLIM. The Burmese word PATHI is a corruption of PARSI or FARSI, that is PERSIAN. The Burmese of Old Burma called their own indigenous Muslims PATHI. It was applied to all Muslims other than the Chinese Muslims. Thus the name PANTHAY is assumed by many as a corrupted form of PATHI. Whatever its origin, the name Panthay was, and still is, applied exclusively and uniquely to the Chinese Muslims. This is what is most important. In the stone inscriptions of Bagan, first Burmese Kingdom, the name PAN:SI comes up from time to time (Ba Shin, 1962, 2). There is no other scholarly explanation for this than that it refers to PANTHAY, which later in the Konbaung period became a common name. This is all the more probable if we consider it in the light of the fact that the Muslims of Yunnan had played an important role in the Mongol invasions of the Kingdom of Bagan towards the close of the 13th century. Some of the administrators of Yunnan during the Yuan (Mongol) dynasty were Muslims. Prominent among them were, Sai-Tien-Ch'ih-Shan-ssu-ting Wuma-erh (Sayyid Ajal Shams-al-Din-Umar), who was a general and (governor of' Yunnan between 1274 and 1279. His son Na-Su-la-ting (Nasir-al-Din) was in charge of' the road systems of Yunnan and personally commanded the first Mongol invasion of Bagan in 1277-78. And his younger brother Hu-Shin (Husayn) was Transport Commissioner in 1284 and later Senior Governor of Yunnan (Ba Shin, 1961, 2). It was believed that in all the three Mongol invasions of Bagan, there were Panthay officers and men in the ranks of the invading armies. This explains the occurrences of the name Pan:si in the inscriptions. The history of the Panthays in Burma was inseparably linked to that of Yunnan, their place of origin, whose population was predominantly Muslim. The Chinese Muslims of Yunnan were noted for their mercantile prowess. Within Yunnan, the Muslim population excelled as merchants and soldiers, the two qualities, which made them ideally suited to the rigors of overland trade in the rugged, mountainous regions, and to deserve the rewards therefrom. They might have been helped in this by their religion of' Islam from its inception had flourished as a Religion of Trade. The religious requirement to perform Hajj pilgrimage had also helped them
to establish an overland road between Yunnan and Arabia as early as the first half of the 14th Century AD (Forbes, 1987, 292). In the pre-colonial times the Panthays emerged as excellent long-distance caravaneers of southern China and northern Southeast Asia. They had virtually dominated whole caravan trade of Yunnan. By the time the first agents and adventurous pioneers the French and British imperialism arrived at the fringes of Yunnan, they found the caravan network of the region dominated by the Chinese Muslim muleteers. One contributor to the British Royal Geographical Society had remarked in 1888, shortly after the British conquest of Upper Burma, on the Muslim caravaneers of Yunnan as follows: They (the Muslim caravaneers) are perhaps the greatest travelers on the face of the earth, if we may distinguish between those who are carried by trains or steamers and those who travel on their own feet. Every year numbers of these men came from Yunnan to Rangoon and Maulmein, doing thousands of' miles on foot, with caravans of ponies, mules or cattle to exchange the productions of the country for the imported wares of Rangoon (Forbes, 1987, 290). According to Hanna, a missionary who spent many years in Yunnan at the begining of this century; The men who guide the long trains of mules and ponies through the wild mountain passes of Yunnan and the Burmese frontiers, must be rugged in constitution and resolute in spirit to endure this rough life, filled with hardships and dangers. The scanty and ill-cooked food, the long marches, the exposures to all kinds of weather...would indeed daunt any but men of iron mould (Forbes, 1987,193). The Chinese Muslim domination of the Yunnan caravan network seems to have continued well into the 20th century. By the mid 19th century the caravans of' Yunnanese traders ranged over an area extending from the eastern frontiers of Tibet, through Assam, Burma, Thailand, Laos and Tongking, to the southern Chinese provinces of Szechwan, Kweichow and Kwangsi. These sturdy caravaneers were the first Pathays from Yunnan who came to Burma with their caravans and their merchandise. In fact, the caravan trade between Burma and Yunnan had been going on for centuries before the Konbaung period. There were well-established caravan routes between Yunnan and Burma. Prominent among them the Yunnan-Bhamo route, the Yunnan-Ava (later Mandalay) route via Theinni and Thibaw (Hsipaw) in the northern Shan State, and the route from Yunnan via Kengtung, through Lao and Siamese country to Moulmein (Mawlamyine) and Rangoon. Bhamo was an important natural entry-port and terminus for caravans from Yunnan. From there the Chinese goods were carried down by boat along Ayeyarwadi to the Burmese royal capital. Likewise, Kengtung in the eastern Shan State was the most important entry-port in the Yunnan-Thailand trade as well as for caravans coming to Mawlamyine and Yangon. Similarly, Theinni served as an important transit station for caravans coming to the royal capital along the overland route across the northern Shan State. For many caravans from Yunnan, Ava, and later Mandalay, was the destination. Thus, the Panthay caravaneers presented a familiar sight at the royal capital of Konbaung kings. The Bhamo route was the shortest, easiest and safest route from Yunnan. The over land route via Theinni was six hundred and twenty miles long, and forty-six hills and mountains, five large rivers and twenty-four smaller ones, had to be traversed in the of two months (Anderson, 1876, 2). There were three routes from Bhamo in Burma to Momien (Tengyueh) in Yunnan. The northern route called the Ponlyne route, passed through the northern Sanda valley formed by the Taping river, a tributary of the Ayeyarwadi. The central route, called the Embassy or the Ambassador Route, passed through the Hotha
valley formed by the Namsa River, a tributary of the Taping. The southern route, called the Sawuddy route, passed through the Muangwan valley formed by the Nam-wan river (The Sladen Report, 1871, 7). The Bhamo-Momien-Tali route was the main commercial highway used by and Chinese merchants form time immemorial, leading through the richest part of Yunnan, and tapping Szechwan and Kweichow, the most populous provinces in China. Tens of thousands of mules passed through this route each year. The volume of trade by Bhamo route in 1855 was estimated to be about nearly half a million pound sterling (The Sladen Report, 1871, 4). The merchandise brought from Yunnan by the Panthay caravaneers included opium, wax, silk cloth, tea, metal utensils, iron in the rough, felts, finished articles of' clothing, walnuts, preserved fruits and foods, and dried meat of' several kinds. The Burmese goods taken back to Yunnan were raw cotton, raw and wrought silk, amber, jades and other precious stones, velvets, betel-nuts, tobacco, gold-leaf', preserves, paps, dye woods, stick lac, ivory, and specialized foodstuffs such as slugs, edible birds nests, among other things (Anderson, 1876, 4). Raw cotton, which was reserved as a royal monopoly, was in great demand in China. An extensive trade in this commodity had existed between the Burmese kingdom and Yunnan. It was transported up the Ayeyarwadi River to Bhamo where it was sold to the Chinese merchants, and conveyed partly by land and partly by water into Yunnan, and from there to other provinces of China. Most caravans consisted of between fifty and one hundred mules, employing perhaps ten to fifteen drivers (Forbes 1987, 293). Thus, it can be said that the history of the Panthays in Burma began with the caravan trade between Burma and Yunnan, which had benefited both. Besides the caravaneers, there were other Panthays, though very small in number, who came to Burma, to trade in jades and other precious stones. These merchants came via the Bhamo route. They were chiefly interested in the jade mines of northern Burma and ruby mines of Mogok. With whatever purpose they had come to Burma, most of these early Panthays, whether caravaneers or precious-stone dealers, had no intention of taking permanent residence in the Burmese Kingdom. They came and went only as itinerant merchants. They were all men who never brought their wives and families along, since alone could have made such perilous and rigorous journeys of those days. This is the reason why no evidence of the existence of Panthay settlement anywhere in the Burmese Kingdom prior to the Konbaung period has yet been found. Beginning from the late Konbaung period, however, the Panthays started to settle in the royal capital of Mandalay, particularly during the reign of King Mindon. Although their number was small, a few of them seemed to have found their way inside the court as jade -assessors. They lived side by side with non-Muslim Chinese (T'ang Chinese) at Tayoktan(Chinatown) which had been designated by King Mindon as the residential area for the Chinese. The T'ang Chinese had started settling in Mandalay considerably earlier than the Panthays so that by the time the latter arrived, there already was a Chinese community at Mandalay, with their own bank, companies and warehouses and some kind of organized social and economic life. It happened that there were also Chinese jade-assessors in the employ of the king. Rivalry between the Chinese and Panthay jade-assessors in courting the royal favor naturally led to a quarrel between the two groups, resulting in a number of deaths (Interview with U Aung Myint). King Mindon had not given much serious thought to the religious and social differences between the Panthays and the Chinese. He had treated the two more or less alike. But after the Tayoktan quarrel, the king began to see the wisdom of separating the two groups. It is necessary here to shift our focus from Burma to China. An event that had a resounding impact on the history of the Yunnan province and rocked Manchu China from its foundation was the Panthay rebellion of
1855-73. Islam being a non-indigenous religion of China, the concepts and behavior of Chinese Muslims in Yunnan were many degrees removed from those of their eclectic compatriots. The Panthays tended to form in China exclusive circles, each retaining its identity under most adverse circumstances. They formed a closedknitted society. They resisted the unifying influences of Manchu China, earning for themselves the hatred of the T'ang Chinese of whose oppression they had become victims. Starting from 1855 the Muslim majority of Yunnan had risen against the oppression to which they were subjected by the mandarins. They rose against the tyranny and extortion universally practiced by this official class, from which they were excluded. The mandarins had secretly hounded mobs on to the rich Panthays, provoked anti-Muslim riots and instigated destruction of their mosques (Anderson, 1876, 233). The religious hatred of the Panthays was thus aroused. The widespread Muslim desire for revenge for insults to their religion led to a universal and well-planned rising. The rebellion started as a local uprising. It was sparked off by the Panthay laborers of the silver mines of Linan hsien village in Yunnan who rose up in one body against the overbearing conduct of their Chinese overseers. The rebels murdered every Chinese officer they set their eyes upon. The Chinese Governor of Yunnan sent an urgent appeal to the central government at Peking (Beijing) and then committed suicide. The Panthays, under the able leadership of Tu Wen-hsiu or Dowinsheow, and driven by the intensity of' their feelings and the strength of their convictions, went on to rebel against all forms of authority. They turned their fury on the local mandarins and ended up with challenging the ultimate authority-the central government at Peking. In this way, the rebellion became a matter of national importance. The Imperial Government was handicapped by problems that cropped up in profusion in various parts of the sprawling empire, the Taiping rebellion being one of them. It was a time when China was still suffering from the shocks caused by the first series of unequal treaties signaled by the treaty of Nanking forced upon her by the imperialist powers. These circumstances favored the ascendancy of Panthays in Yunnan. The Panthays won one victory after another in the initial phases of' the rebellion. They repulsed the desultory attacks of' the imperial troops. They wrested one important city after another from the hands of' the Imperial niandarins. The Chinese towns and villages which resisters were pillaged, and the male population massacred. All the places, which yielded, were spared (Anderson, 1876, 233). The ancient holy city of Tali-fu fell to the Panthays in 1857. With the capture of Tali-fu, Muslim supremacy became an established fact in Yunnan. The Islamic Kingdom of Yunnan was proclaimed after the fall of' Tali-fu. Tu Wen-hsiu, leader of the Panthays, assumed the regnal title of Sultan Suleiman and made Tali-fu his capital. In this way, the Sultanate, fashioned after those of' the Middle East, appeared in Yunnan. Panthay governorships were also created in a few important cities, such as Momein (Tengyueh), which were a few stages from the Burmese border town of Bhamo. The Panthays reached the high watermark of their power and glory in 1860. The eight years from 1860 to 1868 were the heyday of the Sultanate. The Panthays had either taken or destroyed forty towns and one hundred villages (Anderson, 1876, 343) During this period the Sultan Suleiman, on his way to Mecca as a pilgrim, visited Rangoon, presumably via the Kengtung route, and from there to Calcutta where he had a chance to see the power of the British (Anderson, 1876, 242). It was also
during this time that King Mindon granted the Panthays of the royal capital land on which to settle as a separate community, with a view to preventing further quarrels between them and the Chinese. The Panthays were given the rare favor of choosing their own place of residence within the confines of the royal capital, and they chose the site on which the present-day Panthay Compound (Chinese Muslim Quarter) is located. It was bounded on the north by 35th Street, in the south by 36thStreet, in the east by 79"' Street and in the west by 80th Street. This site was chosen because it was the camping ground for the mule caravans from Yunnan, which regularly came to the capital via the Theinni route. The broadminded King Mindon also permitted a mosque to be built on the granted site so that the Panthays would have their own place of worship. Having no funds for an undertaking of such magnitude, the Panthays of Mandalay put up the matter to the Sultan of Yunnan. Sultan Sulaiman had already started a hao (business enterprise) in Mandalay. His company was housed in a one-story brick building located at the present- day.Taryedan on the west side of the 80th Street, between the 36th and 37th Street (Interview with Haji U Ba Thi alias Haji Adam (born 11 October, 1908), a Panthay elder who had served for many years as chairman of the Trust of 'the Panthay Mosque, on 15 October, 1997.) The hao had been carrying on business in precious stones, jades, cotton, silk and other commodities of both Chinese and Burmese origins. Eager to establish close and friendly relations with all the neighboring states, the Sultan wasted no time in seizing the opportunity of having a Chinese Muslim mosque installed at the Burmese King's capital, an opportunity that had presented itself without being asked. He at once sent out Colonel Mah Too-tu, one of his senior military officers, as his special envoy and agent to Mandalay Ratanabon Naypyidaw with the important mission of constructing the mosque. The mosque took about two years to finish and was opened in 1868; the second mosque ever built in the royal capital. At the grand opening of the mosque, a great feast was given. All the Muslims in Mandalay and its suburbs were invited to it. But the turnout was so big that the food ran out in a short time. As there were still so many guests left untreated, the hosts gave each of them two coins of one Kyat denomination as consolation (Interview with Haji U Ba Thi). Today, 134 years after, the Panthay Mosque is still standing proudly as the second oldest mosque, in Mandalay and a standing witness to the long-lasting friendship and goodwill between the Myanmars and the Panthays. (Notes: The oldest mosque in Mandalay is the North Obo Mosque, which was built a few years earlier than the Panthay Mosque donated by King Mindon, second last King of Burma.) In the meantime, in Yunnan, things were changing unfavorably for the Panthays. The Panthays in 1868 found it difficult to hold on to what they had won and assert their overlordship in Yunnan province as a whole. Their attempts at any turn were flouted by the imperial troops and brigand chiefs like Li-hsieh-tai, who had sold their loyalty to Imperial China. They were unable to wipe out all the hostile elements. Their initial successes were only due to their superior prowess and the unanimity of their councils, directed by the Sultan of Tali-fu. The civil war dragged on. Yunnan was war-torn. Death and destruction became the order of the day. People abandoned honest occupations and took to brigandage as their livelihood. Shifting loyalties of brigand chiefs had complicated things. The Sultanate was unable to maintain order and security in the kingdom.
The Panthay power declined after 1868. The Chinese Imperial Government had succeeded in reinvigorating itself By 1871, it was directing a campaign for the annihilation of the obdurate Panthays of Yunnan. By degrees the Imperial Government had tightened the cordon around the Panthays. The Panthay Kingdom proved unstable as soon as the Imperial Government made a regular and determined attack on it. Town after town fell under well-organized attacks made by the imperial troops. Tali-fu itself was besieged by the imperial Chinese. Sultan Suleiman found himself caged in by the walls of his capital. He now desperately looked for outside help. He turned to the British for military assistance (Thaung, 1961, 481). He realized that only British military intervention could have saved the Panthays. The Sultan had reasons for his turning to the British for military aid. He had seen the British might in India on his pilgrimage to Mecca some years earlier, and was impressed by it. Britain was the only western power with whom the Sultanate was on friendly terms and had contacts with. The British authorities in India and British Burma had sent a mission led by Major Sladen to Momien from May to July 1868. The Sladen mission had stayed seven weeks at Momien. The main purpose of the mission was to revive the Ambassador Route between Bhamo and Yunnan and resuscitate border trade, which had almost ceased since 1855 mainly because of the Panthay rebellion. There was another reason for the cessation of trade by the Bhamo routes. It was King Mindon's earlier policy of confining the British to lower Burma. Mindon had feared that trade along the Bhamo route would lead to the extension of British influence to upper Burma and beyond. He did not want a fleet of British steamers to the north of the capital. He also seemed to be desirous of making Mandalay the center of trade instead of Bhamo which was difficult to control (Sladen Report, 1876,5). He had, therefore, deliberately discouraged all communications with China via Bhamo and restricted the trade to the long overland journey of two months, via Theinni to Mandalay. The Panthay caravans had been encouraged to come to Mandalay to the exclusion of' Bhamo. Later, this short-sighted policy and attitude of King Mindon gradually wore out as he began to see the practical economic and political advantages of the resuscitation of' Bhamo trade to his country and people. Thus, he extended all the help he could to the Sladen mission. With the Burmese monarch favorably disposed towards it, the British mission was cordially received by the Panthay Governor of Momien, Ta-sa-kon. Due to lack of' security of the roads, Sladen was not allowed to proceed to Tali-fu to discuss matters directly with the Sultan. However, the Sultan sent letters to Momien in which he expressed the desire of the Panthay government to enter into friendly relations with the British government, and to foster mutual trade. Before returning, Sladen and the Momien Governor Ta-sa-kon, as the Sultan's personal representative, signed an agreement in which the British and the Panthays pledged to foster Yunnan-Burma trade to the best of their ability. Though far from being a satisfactory treaty to both parties, the agreement had established some kind of de facto friendship between them. Taking advantage of the friendly relations resulting from Sladen's visit, Sultan Suleiman now, in his fight for the survival of the Panthay Kingdom, turned to the British for the vitally, needed military assistance. In 1872 he sent his adopted son Prince Hassan, to England, with a personal letter to Queen Victoria, via Burma, requesting British military assistance. The Hassan Mission was accorded courtesy and hospitality in both British Burma and England. However, the British politely, but firmly, refused to intervene militarily in Yunnan against Peking (Thaung, 1961, 481). The mission was a failure. While Hassan and his party were abroad, Tali-fu was captured by the Imperial troops in January 1873.
The Imperial Government had waged an all-out war against the Panthays with the help of French artillery experts (Thaung, 1961, 481). Their moden equipment, trained personnel and numerical superiority were no match for the ill-equipped Panthays with no allies. Thus, in less than two decades of its rise, the power of the Panthays in Yunnan fell. But the Chinese suffered the loss of more than 20,000 lives in various fights (Anderson, 1876, 243). Seeing no escape and no mercy from his relentless foe, Sultan Suleiman tried to take his own life before the fall of' Tali-fu. But, before the poison he drank took effect fully, he was beheaded by his enemies. The Sultan's head was preserved in honey and then dispatched to the Imperial Court in Peking as a trophy and a testimony to the decisive nature of the victory of the Imperial Chinese over the Pantliays of Yunnan (Thaung, 1961, 482). The scattered remnants of the Panthay troops continue their resistance after the fall of Tali-fu. But when Momien was next besieged and stormed by the imperial troops in May 1873, their resistance broke completely. Governor Ta-sa-kon was captured and executed by the orders of the Imperial Government. Many adherents to the Panthay cause were hounded out and persecuted by the imperial mandarins. Wholesale massacres of' Panthays followed. Many fled with their families across the Burmese border and took refuge in the Wa State where, about 1875, they set up the exclusively Panthay town of Panglong (Scott, 1901, 740). Those who remained in Yunnan had to bow down to the iron rule of the Manchu authorities. The Panthays were never to rise again as a political force. The last traces of Panthay authority in Yunnan vanished with the tragic death of' Governor Ta-sa-kon of Momien. The demise of the Sultanate had shattered the hopes of all the Panthays for a bright future in their own Islamic kingdom in Yunnan. The blood-bath that occurred in its wake had made the decision for many Panthays: to flee the country for those who could make it, and not to return to Yunnan for those who were already outside. In the first category were the refugees in the Wa State, and in the second were those who were in Mandalay at the time the Sultanate fell. As has been said earlier, the Panthays in Mandalay had left their families behind when they set out for Burma. These Panthay businessmen now realized that it would be at least some years before they would see their families in China again. Thus, many of them started raising second families in Mandalay by taking Burmese Muslim wives. This explains why most of the first-generation Panthays of Mandalay had non-Chinese wives and why their descendants today are Burmanized. In later years, when things became more favorable, these early Panthays of Mandalay alternated their stay between their Chinese and Burmese wives. Colonel Mah Too-tu found himself in the same situation. When he came to Mandalay with the mission to build the Panthay Mosque, he left his family behind in Yunnan. When the mission had been accomplished, he was assigned by the Sultan to take charge of the Panthay business enterprise at Taryedan (Interview with Haji U Ba Thi). When the Sultanate fell, Mah Too-tu was stranded at Mandalay. For a man of his rank and stature, going back to Tali-fu meant sure execution by the Manchu authorities. Mah Too-tu had no other alternative but to settle down in Mandalay. Since November 1868 he had bought a plot of land with a house on it for 80 pieces of one-kyat coins from Khunit Ywa-sa Princess (Family Parabaik). The plot happened to be at the southwest corner of the land granted by King Mindon to the Panthays (corner of' 36th and 80th Street). The addition of Mah Too-tu's plot made the Panthay compound into a full square. On 7 June, 1873, Mah Tootu married Shwe Gwe, a lady from Sagyin-wa village near Amarapura (Than Tun, 1968, 19), who happened to be the daughter of a princess of Manipur brought to Mandalay as a captive by the Burmese king. Mah Too-tu spent the last years of his life at the Panthay Compound with his Burmese wife. After the mass exodus from Yunnan, the number of Panthays residing in Mandalay gradually increased. The new arrivals, usually families, came by way of Bhamo or via the Wa State. When the land for the Panthays
was granted by King Mindon, there were a few houses on it, in addition to several old graves (Interview with Haji U Ba Thi). This shows that the place had been an abandoned graveyard. In the years immediately following the completion of the mosque, the number of houses in the Panthay Compound was less than twenty. There were also between ten and twenty Panthay households living in other parts of Mandalay. But a trickle of new arrivals added to their number. The establishment of the Panthay Mosque in 1868 marked the emergence of the Chinese Muslims as a distinct community at Mandalay. Although the number of this first generation of Panthays remained small, the Mosque, which is still standing, constitutes a historic landmark. It signifies the beginning of the first Panthay Jama'at (Congregation) in Mandalay Ratanabon Naypyidaw.
Bibliography
1. Anderson, John, Mandalay to Momien: A Narrative of the Two Expeditions to Western China of 1868 and 1875 (London: Macmillan, 1876). 2. Ba Shin, Lt. Colonel, "Coming of Islam to Burma Down to l700 AD.," Asian History Congress (New Delhi: Azad Bhavan, 1961). 3. Forbes, D.W., "The Role of Hui Muslims in the Traditional Caravan Trade between Yunnan and Thailand," Asian Merchants and Businessmen in the Indian Ocean and the China sea: 13-20 Centuries (French Journal published under the direction of Denys Lombard & Jean Aubin), (Paris: School of Higher Studies in Social Sciences, 1987). 4. Kaye, J.W., Major Sladens Report on the Bhamo Route, (In Continuation of' Parliamentary Paper No. 251, of Session 1868-9), (London: India Office, 1871), Microfilm copy. 5. Scott, J. George, GUBSS, 1, i ( Rangoon Government Printing, 1900). 6. ------------------- GUBSS, ii, ii (Rangoon- Government Printing, 1901). 7. Thaung, Dr., Panthay Interlude in Yunnan: A Study in Vicissitudes Through the Burmese Kaleidoscope, JBRS Fifth Anniversary Publications No. 1 (Rangoon Sarpy Beikman, 1961). 8. Yule, Col. Henry & Burnell, A. C., Hobson-Jobson- A Glossary of Colloquial Anglo-Indian Words and Phrases, and of Kindred Terms, Etymological, Historical, Geographical And Discursive (Delhi-. Munshiran Manoharlal, 1968), Reprint. 9. Than Tun, Dr. (Professor of History), History on Tour, 111, (In Myanmar) (Yangon Nantha House, August 1968). 10. Parabaik dated 13 November, 1868 containing a short account of' Mah Too-tu's purchase of land and house from Khunit Ywa-sa Princess (a family parabaik of the writer). 11. Interview with U Aung Myint (aged 75), a higher grade pleader, before the war, and building contractor after the war, on 11 December, 1987. Although a Myanmar Buddhist, U Aung Myint was very friendly with Khala Kyawt, a Myanmar Muslim who had lived in the Panthay Compound for many years in the pre-war days and who had in her possession a parabaik manuscript on the Tayoktan quarrel between the Chinese and the Panthays, and the circumstances leading to the granting of land by King Mindon for the residence of Panthays and the construction of the Parithay Mosque. U Aung Myint had personally read this parabaik, which, unfortunately was destroyed by fire during the war. U Aung Myint had lived close to the Panthay Compound before the war and the house in which he had lived is said to be inside the Panthay Compound at one time.
Chapter7 MalaysinMyanmar
Malays in Myanmar (called Salon or Pa Shu), are almost same as but a little bit different from the Malays in Southern Thailand, East and West Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei, Philippines and Indonesia. Pa Shu in Myanmar is likely to be the corrupted word (or a different slang) in Myanmar language fromBajau. That Bajau tribe is the largest Muslim indigenous group in Sabah (East Malaysia). They are known as Sea Gypsies or Sea Nomads. From the three groups of Bajau these Myanmar citizens of Malays are the Moken and the related Moklen group. They are found in the Mergui Archipelago of Myanmar and the islands of south western part of Thailand. One of the other two subtypes are the Orang Laut (Sea People) are seen in Riau-Lingga Archipelago, Batam, Eastern Sumatera of Indonesia and Southern Johore of Malaysia. The last group is the Bajau Laut, largest of all groups, live in Sulu Archipelago of the Philippines, eastern Bornio, Sulawesi and islands of eastern Indonesia. All the Malays, all Indonesians and all of the Polynesians in Pacific Ocean down to Australia have some common culture and even some common words in the language. Even some of the traditional costumes, music and dances are some what similar to some of the Myanmar ethnic minorities e.g. Kachin, Shan, Mon, Karen, Kayah etc. When we came to Malaysia, we were home sick. Suddenly we noticed a music similar to Shan and when look at the Rtm 1, we were so surprised to see some Shans and Kachins from Myanmar dancing in their traditional costumes. TV attracted our whole family but at last only we were disappointed and surprised because they were not Myanmar tribes but the East Malaysian indigenous people only. No wonder, all the Malays, Indonesians and Polynesians had descended from the Yunan, China, like some of the Myanmar Ethnic Groups. The Malays, Indonesians and Polynesians continue to migrate downwards but some remained and continue to stay in Myanmar, Thailand and in upper part of and north of Peninsular. Contrary to that, few historians are thinking about the possibility of reverse migration from Australia side. But some Polynesians have got some mixture of African features. But it is better to leave those issues as some are even claiming that the Africans migrated to China. We should leave those issues to Archaeologists and Historians. But anyway there is an undeniable evidence of linkage between all of us. Some of the Malays are the original settlers in southern part of Burma, long before the Burmese Empires were established. Most of the Islands inhabited by Myanmar Malays were also conquered by Burmese Kings Alaung Paya and Tabin Shwe Hti from Siam now known as Thailand. But some Myanmar Malays were only few centuries old migrants and refugees when the Thailand (Siam) kings took over the upper Northern Malay Sultanates, now formed the Southern Thailand. Some Malay refugees during the second world war and some of the escapees from the notorious Burma death railway project to the upper part of Burma proper settled there and were thoroughly assimilated with Burmese Malay Muslims.
But most of the Myanmar Malay areas are under-developed because of the geographical conditions, lack of infrastructures, inadequate high ways, difficult and long transportation and communications and because of the civil war and armed rebellion. Recently only started to develop because of some truce between some rebel groups and the Myanmar Government. And the discovery of off shore Natural Gas and the famous or notorious Gas Pipeline to Thailand. Railway and road projects are also not in the pipe-line only but already started in some of the areas. But because of the black-market trades between Myanmar with Thailand and Malaysia these areas became more important. Deep-sea fishing and pearl rearing, diving, bird nests and the most important of all, and as stated above, recent finding of natural gas fields brought in some development. In April 2001 Myanmar found the worlds biggest PEARL, about 650 Carat (6.5 centimetre high). Salon or Pa Shu (Myanmar Malays are famous divers of Pearls) Tha Htay Kyun or Rich-mans Island is recently developed as a resort island complete with casino. Abandoned dream to dig a canal at Kra Isthmus across the upper part of Malay peninsular was anxiously protested by the Malaysia and Singapore because of the danger of the World Business and shipping routes bypassing them. Although shelved for a decade, Thailand government had recently taken this project from cold storage and trying to revive it. Now there is a cheaper alternative of exporting Thailand products from the Myanmars Tavoy deep seaport. It is connected with Bangkok by the overland highway, about one hundred kilometers only. It is directly competing the land bridge proposed by Malaysia in its upper part. Not far from the lowest point of Myanmar, Victoria Point, short trip across the sea, there is Ranong. From Ranong, there is a very good highway up to Bangkok. Actually those areas are not far up away from Phuket Island and of course Lankawi Island. In seventeenth century, Muslims controlled the business and became so powerful because of their wealth. They were even appointed as Governor of Mergui, the Viceroy of the Province of Tenasserim, Port Authorities, Port Governors and Shah-bandars (senior port officials). Not only in the part controlled by Burma but the area of Thailand, the whole pathway from the sea to the Thai capital was said to be controlled by the Muslims, Malays, Indian Muslims and Arab descendants. Because Burma was located at the center of the shipping and trading route starting from Arabia and India, heading towards Thailand, Malay, Indonesia, Korea, Japan and China, the whole of the coast of Burma developed rapidly. Dela, Yangon and Syriam became shipyards, depots of goods and markets for exchange of goods. All the seaports in Burma and Thailand were also dominated and controlled by Muslims. If those Malay descendants (Muslims) want to migrate back to Malaysia, there was even a special scheme to accept them back in 70s. Many of them had relatives in Kedah and some in other northern states of Malaysia. Up to now there is some blood and family relations across the border.
Chapter8 MyanmarMuslimsfromIndianSubcontinent
During the British administration Indian (actually whole of Indian Subcontinent) Immigrants (nearly one half of them were Muslims) were brought in to run the almost all of the Government Service and to run the British companies. They also formed the military and civilian staff of the British Army. Some of them were clerks, almost in all the fields of manpower (skilled and unskilled). Others were doctors, engineers, hospital and medical workers, teachers, Burma Railway staff, river shipping staff, Post office staff, rice mill staff. Some were staff and workers for --- mines, oil fields, banks, shops, treasury, Public Administration office and Police Forces. As private civilians, they also came in as --- traders, various type of shop owners, servants, launders (dhobi), hotel and restaurant owners, dispatch boys, watchmen etc. They arrived, temporary or permanently settled and married with local Burmese and Myanmar ethnic minority girls and formed the core of the Myanmar Muslims. Mixed marriages, intermarriages and assimilation process of throwing away of almost all their foreign languages, foreign dresses and foreign culture slowly shaped them in to Ethnic Myanmar Muslim group of today. But they had drawn a line in the ongoing process of assimilation. That limit is their religion, Islam. As practising Muslims they could not go beyond the limit of tolerance of Islamic principles. So Myanmar Muslims threw away Urdu and Bengali languages. Even Arabic is learned just to read Holy Koran and for prayers. Indian Myanmar Muslims now speak Myanmar as their mother tongue although earlier generation still speak Urdu, wear Myanmar dress and even have an official Myanmar name as well as Islamic Arabic name. U Razak, U Raschid and U Shaw Phi or Mohd Shafi were the most prominent Myanmar Indian Muslims. Most of the Indian Muslims who could not cut the umbilical cord went back to Indian subcontinent after General Ne Win took over and nationalized all the business. So who decided to continue to stay in Burma cut off the umbilical cord and have shown love to the new home, Burma. Now most of them are second and third generation or some of them were married to locals and almost totally assimilated into mainstream Myanmar Muslims. Now they lost contact with their roots and most of them are even not interested at all to trace their origin. When we called them Indian Muslims or Myanmar Indian Muslims, we mean that they were descendents of the following countries - India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. Some even came from Afghanistan. Recently some research persons found out that about three thousand Afghanistans were settled around Mandalay, during the Burmese kings. They served in various places in Burmese kings army and were brought back to the capital from Arakan. And some of the Afghanistans helped the Kamans to rebel against Arakan Myauk U and cause the end of that era. And we must not forget the fact that those earliest Myanmar Muslims or Zerbardi or Kala Pyo or Myedu Muslims or Myedu Kalas or Thone Thaung Khunhit Yar (=3700) were also actually from the Indian subcontinent of Asam and Manipura.
In Burma there were half million Muslims in 1921. Burmese population then was only eleven million. Anti Indian sentiments started after the First World War during the British rule. More then half of them were Indian Muslims. Although Myanmar Muslims are different from the Indian Muslims and Indian Myanmar Muslims, Burmese Buddhists put them together, even mixed with Hindu Indians, and called them Kala. Pre-war Rangoon was dominated by Indians. Transport, trade to almost all of the service sectors, government and private alike was in the hands of Indians so that it was a must to master the Hindi or Urdu for even the Burmese Buddhists to survive in Rangoon, the capital of Burma. In 1930 there was an anti Indian riots in Burma under British rule. This was not aimed on the Muslims or Islam but on Indians in general. The problem started in Yangon port, because of the irresponsible action of the British firm of Stevedores. We wish to elaborate this in the other chapter specialise in that, viz: RIGHTS OF It is necessary for academic purpose because most of the Muslims in Myanmar are Sunni Muslims from the Hannafi sect. From the Bosnia, Kosovo, Albania, Turkey, Central Asia (break away countries from Russia), Afghanistan, China, Pakistan, India and Bangladesh Muslims are from this same sect. Muslims from Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, Singapore and Brunei are from the Shafi sect of Sunni. Shafi sect is known to be spread by the sea route. In contrast to this, Hannafi sect is known to be spread by the land route. Arabs propagate Islam directly to the Central Asia and Turky. The Mongols, e.g. Gin Ghist Khan, although they are Buddhists employed the Muslim Turks and Central Asians and cause the spread of Islam to this part of the world. Islam first came into India in the province of Kerala during the lifetime of Prophet Mohammed himself. Prophet Mohammed is said to have sent messengers to the Roman (Byzantine) Emperor Heraclius, the Sassanian (Persian) Emperors Chosroes (Khushrau Parvez) and Yazdgard, and to the Kings of China and Kerala (in South India). The Kings of China and Kerala are said to have received the messengers with great courtesy. King Cheraman of Chera dynasty of Kerala Voluntarily Converts to Islam in the 7th Century. Tamerlane, a corruption of the name in Persian, Timur-i-Leng, meaning "Timur the Lame." The word Timur is Turkic for "iron". He became the ruler of an empire that stretched from Delhi to Anatolia. Timur was born in Kesh, fifty miles south of Samarkand) in 1336. His capture of Delhi in 1398 and became the Emperor of Hindustan. Samarkand, Timur's royal city, celebrated its 2500th anniversary in 1970. It is an ancient site, located on the Zarafshan River, in modern-day Uzbekistan. BABUR, THE FIRST OF THE GREAT MOGHULS,was born on February 14, 1483 in Ferghana east of Samarkand. The name "Moghul" is a Persian variant of "Mongol". Emperor Babur (1483-1530), the founder of the great Mughal dynasty, was descended from both Genghis Khan and Timur. In 1504, Babur captured the Kabul, Afghan and India in 1524. Two years later, he defeated the Sultan of Delhi . Akbar (1542-1605) was the third and most famous Mughal emperor. Babar established the Mughal dynasty which ruled from Delhi (and later from Agra) Between 1527 C.E. and 1690 C.E., the Mughals gradually expanded their hold over almost the whole of India. They ruled from 1527 up to 1857.
The Mughal (and Muslim) rule was formally abolished by the British. The last Muslim Moghul Emperor of India, Abu Zafar Saraj al-Din Bahadur Shah and his family members and some followers were exiled to Yangon, Myanmar (Burma). He died there and was buried in Yangon (Rangoon) on 7.11.1862. Now his burial site became a minor diplomatic clash between India and Pakistan. Both of them want to control the site now famous as a shrine and even Burmese Buddhists used to go and pray there because Zafar Shar, as they known, was regarded as a saint. And we like to mention the undeniable truth of the history that the present Hindu Indians must thank the colonial master British for their direct help from getting their own country back from the Moghul Muslim rulers.
Chapter8 HistoryofArakanandMuslimsthere
Arakan is one of the states of Burma, a strip of land along the eastern coast of the Bay of Bengal from the Naf River on the border of Chittagong to the cape Negarise. Arakan is separated from the rest of Burma by the Arakan Yuma range running north to south. The total area of Arakan is over 18,540 square miles and its population almost ------20,00,000. The Arakanese chronicles claim that the Kingdom was founded in the year 2666 BC. (A. P. Phayre, History of Burma London, 1883, PP. 293-304.) For many centuries Arakan had been an independent kingdom, with occasional short breaks only, due to its geographical location. It was ruled by various legendary Indian dynasties and they made their capital at Dinnawadi (Dhanyavati), Wesali, Pinsa, Parin, Hkrit, Launggyet and Mrohaung along the river Lemro. (Ahmed Sharif, Chattagramer Ithihas, Ithihas Parishad Patrika, Dhaka 1975, P. 169.) In the 8th century AD, we come across a ruling family with the surname 'Chandra. The rule of these kings is believed to extend as far as Chittagong. Wesaii, infact has been described as an "Easternly Hindu Kingdom of Bengal". From a study of the coins and foreign relations, M.S.Collis came to conclusion that, "The area known as North Arakan had been for many years before the 8th century the seat of Hindu dynasties. In 788 AD a new dynasty, known as the Chandras, founded the city of Wesali. This city became a noted trade port to which as many as a thousand ships came annually; the Chandra kings were upholders of Buddhism, ... their territory extended as far north as Chittagong;---- Wesali was an easterly Hindu kingdom of Bengal --- Both government and people were Indian. (M.S. Collis, Arakan's place in the civilization of the Bay, Joumal of the Burma Research Society, 50th Anniversary publications No.2, Rangoon, 1960, P. 486.) In support of the above fact D.G.E. Hall also mentions, The Burmese do not seem to have settled in Arakan until possibly as late as the tenth century AD. Hence earlier dynasties are thought to have been Indian, ruling over a population similar to that of Bengal. All the capitals known to history have been in the north near modern Akyabl. (D. G. E Hall, A History of the South East Asia, New York, 1968, P. 389.) The ruins of old capital of Arakan - Wesali show Hindu statues and inscriptions of the 8th century AD. Although the Chandras usually held Buddhistic doctrines, there is reason to believe that Brahmanism and Buddhism flourished side by side in the capital. The Arab Muslims first came into contact with Arakan through trade and commerce during the 8th century AD and since then Islam started spreading in the region. In those days the Arabs were very much active in sea-trade, they even monopolized trade and commerce in the East. (Muhammed Abdur Rahim, Social & Cultural History of Bengal, Vol 1, Karach, 1963, P. 37). " In the 8th and 9th centuries of the Christian era, the Arabs were foremost sea-faring and maritime people of the world and the Arab merchants sailed across all waters to far off countries of the east and the west.... . The
eastern trade of the Arab merchants flourished so much so that the Indian Ocean and Bay of Bengal turned into Arab lakes". In the history of the Arakanese kings, it is recorded that during the reign, of Arakanese king Mahat-y-ing Chandayat (780-810 AD.) several Kula or foreign ships were wrecked upon the island of Ramree, and the people who boarded on them were said to be Muslims. The Arakanese king ordered them to be settled in the villages of Arakan . (A. P. Phayre, Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, voL XII, part, 1, 1844, p.36.) There are frequent reference to the Arab Muslims settlers in coastal regions of Arakan from the 8th century onward. On the basis of the various Arab and Persian sources Mr.Siddique Khan states as follows: "To the maritime Arabs and Persians the various ports of the land of Burma, and more specially the coastal regions of Arakan...... were well known. Naturally, therefore, when from the 8th century onwards, Muslim traders and navigators were spreading over the eastern seas from Egypt and Madagascar to China, and forming commercial settlements at points of vantage, the coastal regions of Burma were not overlooked. Originally, the intention of these traders and sailors had not been to establish permanent colonies, but owing to peculiar circumstances these acquired the nature of permanent settlements." (M. Siddique Khan, Muslim Intercourse with Burma, Islamic Culture, VoL X, Hydrabad, July, 1936, P. 418.) Dr. Mohammad Enamul Haque introduces another arakanese chronicle, which informs us of an Arab settlement, in the tenth century AD. extending from the mouth of the Meghna to the North of the Naf riverin the East. (Muhammed Enamul Haque, Purba Pakistane Islam, Dhaka, 1948, pp. 16-17 & Enamul Haque 0 Abdul Karim Shahitya Bisharad, Arakan Rajshabhay Bangla Shahitya, Calcutta, 1935, P. 3.) The Arab chief was the Thuratan, in the Arakanese utterance whom the king of Arakan Tsula-Taing Tsandra (951-957 AD.), claimed to have defeated in his invasion of Chittagong in 953 AD. In memory of his victory the Arakanese king set up a stone trophy, in the conquered land. And inscribed on it the Burmese word, "Tsitta-gung" meaning "there shall be no war". And from this remark of the monument, according to Burmese tradition, the district took its name, Chittagong. (A.P. Phayre,op.cit, P36.) With the passing of time, the number of Muslims in Arakan began to increase. Gradually these Muslims have established very good and cordial relations with the local people and intermixed by marrying local women. "They differ but little from the Arakanese except in their religion and in the social customs which their religion directs; in writing they use Burmese, but amongst themselves employ colloquially the language of their ancestors". (D. G. E Hall, Studies in Dutch Relations with Arakan, Journal of the Burma Research Society, VOL XXVI, 1936, P. 6. and Mr. R. B. Smart, Burma Gazetteer-Akyab District, voL A., Rangoon. 1957) In collaboration with the Muslim traders and adventurers some Muslim saints played the dominant role to preach and consolidate Islam in Arakan. The official view, as projected in the East Pakistan District Gazetteer- (Chittagong, Government of Pakistan, 1970, PP. 1 10- 1 1 1.) "Muslim merchants from Arabia, Iraq, Persia and other region of Central Asia had started coming to Chittagong from the 9th century, and some of them had settled there for commercial purposes.
It is known that hundred of saints and their followers came in different times to Bengal and the Arakan region, and spread themselves in towns and remote villages. These sufi saints used to call the masses to the fold of Islam and their influence in this region is deep rooted. Some sufis are believed to have come to the region of the coast of the Bay as early as the 1 1 th century. Even, a Russian merchant, Athanasius Nitikin, who travelled in the East (1470) mentions regarding activities of some Muslim sufis of Pegu. The Merchant pictured Pegu as "no inconsiderable port, inhabited by Indian dervishes. (G.E Hervey, History of Burma, London 1925, P. 121.) It is quite probable that these dervishes were mainly Arabs and that at this time some Indian Muslim might have settled in these places. Moreover, the legendary Hanifar Tanki and Khayafurir Tanki (both are shrines) at the Mayu territory between the rivers Kaladan and Naf. And those shrines of "Babazi shah Monayam of Ambari" and "Pir Bader Shah" (Badr-al-Din Allamah), situated on the coast of the Bay of Bengal at Akyab, all bear evidence of the arrival of Muslim saints in Arakan in the early period of history. (Rohngyas' Outcry and Demands, Rohingya Patriotic Front, Arakan (Burma), October, 1976) However, Islam made its first major political and cultural impact during the early 15th century through Narameikhla, king of Arakan. This part of the history is already written in earlier chapters. The restored king, Narameikhla, took the title Solaiman Shah. (A.S.Bahar, The Arakani Rahingyas in Burmese Society, M.A. Thesis, University of Windsor, Ontario, Canada, p.27.) and established a new dynasty, known as Maruk-udynasty, with its capital at Mrohaung. (Moshe Yegar, Op. cit.; P. 18.) With effect from the year 1430 the kingdom of Arakan became tributary to Bengal and the kings assume a Muslim name and struck coins with Kalima. (M. Robinson and L.A. Shaw, The Coins and Banknotes of Burma, England, 1980, P. 44.) As the Mohammedan influence was predominant, the Arakanese kings though Buddhist in religion, became somewhat Mohammedanised in their ideas. G.E.Hervey rightly points out that, "It is common for the kings, though Buddhist, to use Mohamedan designations in addition to their own names, and even to issue medallions bearing the Kalima, the Mohammedan confession of faith, in Persian script". (G.EHarvey, Op. cit, P. 140.) This practice was prevalent among the Arakanese kings till the first half of the seventeenth century. This was because they not only wished to be thought of as sultans in their own rights, but also because there were Muslims in ever larger numbers among their subjects. A.P.Phayre observes that the practice of assuming Muslim name and inscribing Kalima in their coins was probably first introduced in fulfilment of the promise made by Mung-Somwun but was continued in later time as a token of sovereignty in Chittagong. (A.P. Phayre, History of Burma 1853, P. 78.) He also mentions that "these they assumed as being successors of Mussalman kings, or as being anxious to imitate the prevailing fashion of lndia. (A. P. Phayre, Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1846.)
So the Muslim influence in Arakan may be said to date from 1430, the year of Narameikhla's restoration. During his reign an unexpected development took place, which paved the way for a period of Muslim domination in the land of Arakan. "From this time onwards the relation of Muslims with the Arakanese became more intimate and for about two centuries Arakan was united in a bond of friendship with Islamic lands. As a result of the impact of the civilization of the Muslims, Arakanese culture also progressed and thus began the 'Golden Age' in the history of Arakan." (M. Siddique Khan, op. cit., P. 249.) After regained the throne Narameikhala have taken some major administrative measures. First of all, the capital of Arakan was shifted from Longyyet to Mrohaung near to the frontier of Bengal and where he established a new dynasty which known as Mrauk-u-dynasty. The Muslim soldiers, nobles and servents, who came from Bengal, accompanied by Narameikhla, settled down at Mrohaung. These new settlers married the local women and had established permanent colonies in Arakan and its adjoining coastal areas as far as north as in Chittagong. They built the famous Sandi Khan Mosque at Mrohaung. Gradually a mixed Muslim society and culture developed and flourished around the capital. There existed some Muslim settlements in Northern Arakan till now; such as: Rowama, Nedanpara, Muallempara, Sampuchik Kuyipara, Kamarpara etc. (Mahabubul Alam, Chattagramer Ithihas (Purana Amal), Chittagong, 1965, P. 57.) Secondly, he established one more military post of Gaudian soldiers at Sandway and Ramree (under Chawpiu) in the south Arakan to protect Burmese aggression by strengthening frontier integrity. These Gaudian soldiers lived there for centuries with the local inhabitants with peace and amity. There also exist some Muslim settlements which known as Showyejubi, Chanbi, Nazabi, Chandayek, Thadey, Sayadow, Sinbin under Sandway district and Chawknemu, Chaney, Jaliyapara and Meherbun of Chawpiu district. (Ibid., pp. 55-56.)
Thirdly, in accordance with the Muslim tradition like Gaur and Delhi, Narameikhla reformed judicial system of Arakan. Accordingly the whole kingdom was divided into some judiciary unites, each of which was provided with a set of officials by the imperial order. The head of officials was known as Oazi. Some of them were prominent in the history of Arakan. They are Daulat Qazi, Sala Qazi, Gawa Qazi, Shuja Qazi, Abdul Karim, Muhammad Hussain, Osman, Abdul Jabbar, Abdul Gafur, Mohammed Yousuf, Rawsan Ali and Nur Muhammed etc. (Ibid., pp. 54-55.)
Localities round the Mrohaung (Capital of Arakan) along the river Lemro were important centres of commercial activities. As a result the entire river line and sea trade of Arakan ultimately fell into the hands of the Muslims. It had a far-reaching consequence on the trend of Muslim settlement on either side of the major rivers of Arakan. So major Muslim settlements in Arakan developed along the rivers of Lemro, Mingen, Kaladan, Mayu and Naf. Hundreds of village flourished in these settlements. We know that for nearly a century, from about 1580 till 1666 AD Chittagong was under almost uninterrupted Arakanese rule. Arakanese captured and sent numbers of the inhabitants of Bengal into Arakan as agricultural and slave labours.
During the 16th and 17th centuries the Arakanese (known in Bengal as Maghs) in alliance with the Portuguese constituted a plundering party. By dominating the riverine tracts, they plundered and devastated large parts of southern and eastern Bengal. (For details; J.N.Sarkar: The Feringhi Pirates of Chatgaon; Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengalvol.111,1907,pp.419-25,andFBemier:Travels in the Mughal Empire. Delhi l 968, P.175.) They carried a large number of men, women and children from the coastal districts of Bengal, (District Gazetteer - 24 Pargana. P. 39.) as captives and the Maghs (Arakanese) employed them as agricultural labour. It is well known that the Kingdom of Arakan was a sparsely populated area, which required huge amount of human labour for agriculture. With this intention the Arakanese employed a large number of captives in the villages of land on the bank of the Kuladan river to the Naf. This Kula population of the country form about 15 percent of the whole population. A.P.Phayre mentions, "the Kolas or Mossalmans, are of an entirely different race. They being of Bengalee descent. (A. P. Phayre, Account of Arakan Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, vol. X, 184 1, P. 68 1.) The next and last event was the flight of Shah Shuja, the brother of Aurangzeb, to Arakan in 1660, which brought a new wave of Muslim immigrants to the kingdom of Arakan and also caused politcal changes. Later on the prince and some of his soldiers were murdered on Feb., 1661. (For details, please see earlier chapter and G.E.Hervey, The fate of Shah Shuja 1661. Journal of the Burma Research Society, part 1, 1922. pp. 107115.) But who escaped the massacre were later admitted into the king's bodyguard as a special archers unit called Kamans or Kamanci. (M. Siddique Khan, op, cit., p. 253.) From 1666 to 1710 the political rule of Arakan was completely in their hands, during which the Muslim Kaman units played a decisive role of king makers and king breakers. Their numbers were increased from time to time by fresh arrivals from upper India. (G. E Hervey, History of Burma, London 1925, P. 148.) (Mohammad Khalilur Rahman, Tarik-i-Islam Arakan & Burma, Urdu version, Quoted by Abdul Haque Chowdhury.) Their descendants still survive in Ramree and in few villages near Akyab. Their language is Arakanese and their customs are similar to Arakan customs in everything except religion Islam.Jahiruddin Ahmed and Nazir Ahmed, former President and Secretary of Arakan Muslim Conference respectively, said that,"We met a few hundreds of Muslims along the sea-shore near Akyab, known as 'Thambu Kya' Muslims meaning ship wrecked Muslims....This Thambu kya Muslims do not claim to be Ruhaingyas nor are they known by others as such. (Zahiruddin Ahmed and Nazir Ahmed, The Maghs & the Muslims in Arakan, P. 7.) According to them the Ruhaingyas are the descendant of the inhabitants of Ruha in Afganistan. As they observe: "The Muslim conquerors of Bengal, including Bakhtiyar Khilji and the Muslims deputed from Bengal to Arakan were originally the inhabitants of Ruah, a district of Ghore in Afganistan. These Muslims named Arakanas Ruhang or Roshang. In the dialect prevailing in Chittagong and Arakan 'Ha' and 'Sha' are interchangeable. ... So Ruhang and Rosang are different pronunciation of the same word. The Muslims themselves were known as the Ruhains meaning the offsprings of Ruha". (Ibid., P. 5) This view is also untenable.
It is true that the term Roang / Rohang / Roshang is the corrupt form of the old name of Mrohaung, the capital of Arakan. Later on, the inhabitants who lived in Rohang or Roshang are treated as Roshangee or Rohingya. Among the Muslim population of Chittagong two distinct groups are found; one is known as'Chatganiya' and the other is 'Rohai'. Even the latter form half the total population of Chittagong, who traced their origin to Arakan or Mrohaung. Since Chittagong was an integral part of the Arakanese kingdom till the first half of the seventeenth century (J. N. Sarkar (ed), History of Bengal VoL 2., Dhaka University, 1972, pp. 377-381 and D. G. E Hall, op. cit., pp. 329@342.) the natives of Chittagong had to live in the capital to serve the kings in various capacities, such as: nobles, merchants and workers etc. As the south Chittagong is close to Arakan, the inhabitants of this area are called Rosangi or Ruhaingya by the people of north Chitttagong. In course of time these Rosang (Rohang) and Rosangi (Rohingya) are treated for Arakan and people of Arakan respectively. The history of the Rohingyas reveals that they developed from different stocks of people who concentrated in a common geographical location. They have a more then 1200 years old tradition, cultural, history and civilization of their own expressed in their shrines, cemeteries, sanctuaries, social and cultural institutions found scattered even today in every nook and corner of the land. Moshe Yegar notes that "the Rohingyas preserved their own heritage from the impact of the Buddhist environment, not only as far as their religion is concerned, but also in .... their culture." (Moshe Yegar, The Muslims of Burma, Hebrew University, Jerusalem, 1981) Language is the main foundation of culture and the Rohingyas have developed a language of their own from Arabic, Sanskrit, Bengali and Urdu which serves as common source of contact with in the Rohingya community. They have also songs and music of their own. A British army officer, who served in the Arakan front during the Second World War remarked about the ethnic character of the Arakan Muslims as follows: "to look at, they are quite unlike any other product of India and Burma that I have seen. They resemble the Arab in name, in dress and in habit. The women and more particularly the young girls, have a distinctive Arab touch about them. (Anthony Irwin, Burmese outpost, London, 1945, P. 22) ARAKANS PLACE IN THE CIVILIZATION OF THE BAY A STUDY OF COINAGE AND FOREIGN RELATIONS M.S. COLLIS, in collaboration with San Shwe Bu. The Article below appeared in BURMA RESEARCH SOCIETY 50TH ANNIVERSARY PUBLICATION'S, NO-2, RANGOON 1960, FROM PAGE-1485-504.
Coins found in Arakan

Mr. Htoon Aung Gyaw, Barrister-at-law and certain other private collectors of Akyab have coins found in Arakan. Sixteen of them were confirmed to belong to the Maruk-U dynasty (1430 to 1784 AD) were distinct specimens, bearing the dates and titles of fifteen different kings of that time. Moreover there were a few coins belonging to the Wesali dynasty (788 to 951 AD).
I propose in this paper to show the relationship of these coins to Indian coinage as a whole and to use them as a document from which to draw certain general conclusions on the history of Arakan. As that history has never been written and as the data for the early centuries are scanty and controversial, I trust that the inevitable shortcomings of this summary will be understood and excused.
Types of Indian coinage

Speaking generally the coins of India fall into two distinct types, the Hindu and the Mohamedan. Specimens of Hindu coinage of as far back as 600 BC are in the British Museum, but it was not until India came into Hindu contact with Mediterranean civilization in 327 BC. that its coinage developed and became an art. This connection, beginning with the invasion of Alexander and continuing through the Satraps into Roman times resulted first in the striking of coins almost pure Greek in design and gradually in the adaptation of that design to Hindu ends. With the Guptas (320 to 455 AD) a coinage had been evolved which while owing much to the Greek theory of form, was pure Hindu in feeling. Now all this Hindu coinage, from its highest as a work of art to its lowest as a barbarous confusion, has certain definite characteristics. It exhibits portraits of kings, figures and animals, deities and symbols of deities. Inscriptions take a very subordinate place; dates are infrequent; as it is not always possible to identify a coin with a particular king, a classification by dynasties and localities is the most that can often be attempted.
Mohamedan Types of Indian coinage

Mahomedan coinage, which came into India in 1203 AD has opposite characteristics. It is of an inscriptional nature. Save for a few exceptions, it contains not a portrait or a figure. The King's name, title, date and faith are carefully recorded. The coin's artistic merit depends upon the calligraphy; and as everyone is aware who has studied the Persian script as at mural decoration this can give a remarkably balanced and vital impression of art.
Coins of Arakan
The coins found in Arakan belong to both the groups described above;those of Wesali are Hindu and those of Mrauk-U are Mahomedan.
Wesaii, Archacological evidence

The ruins of the city are stilI to be seen on the bank of a tidal creek, about six miles from Mrauk -U (now known as Myo Haung) and about fifty miles inland from the Bay of Bengal. The site has neither been surveyed nor excavated, but the casual observer may perceive the remains of brick walls enclosing a large area. On the south side was to be seen until lately portions of a stone pier. Within the walls are numerous mounds and lying on them are pieces of stone statuary, bas-reliefs, capitals, floral designs in stone and inscriptions in the Nagari character of the 8th century. All these remains are purely Hindu in execution and subject. The figures represent deities; on the capitals is the sacred bull of Siva; the style is rougher than the best Hindu work, but is not debased. Close by the walls is a large stone monolith of Buddha belonging to the same date. This is the image now known as the Paragri, praying at which Fra Manrique found King Thiri-thu-dhamma
eight centuries later. Various Nagari inscriptions, still un deciphered, have been found in the vicinity of the city; and at Mahamuni, 15 miles N. E., are to be seen surrounding the mound on which once sat the great image of the Buddha, which is now in Mandalay, a number of statues and bas-reliefs of the Hindu Pantheon. Incomplete and insufficiently worked out as is this archaeological evidence, it suggests that in the city of Wesali were practised both the Hindu and Buddhist religions or that it was a Mahayanist city.
Wesaii MSS. evidence

Mr. San Shwe Bu has placed in my hands his translation of a curious Arakanese MS. called. "The true chronicle of the Great Image." Its caligraphy is order than that of the rest of the MSS. in my possession. - Sam Shwe Bu. The age of this MS. like that of most Arakanese MSS. is unknown, but it purports to give some account of the Wesali dynasty. Its contents in this respect may be summarized as follows: The area now known as north Arakan had been for many years before the 8th century the seat of Hindu dynasties. In 788 AD. a new dynasty known as the Chandra, founded the city of Wesali. This city became a noted trade port to which as many as a thousand ships came annually. The Chandra kings were upholders of Buddhism, guarding and glorifying the Mahamunni shrine; their territory extended as far north as Chittagong. The dynasty came to an end in 957 AD. being overwhelmed by a Mongolian invasion. The conclusion to be drawn from this MS. is that Wesali was an easterly Hindu kingdom of Bengal, following the Mahayanist form of Buddhism and that both government and people were Indian as the Mongolian influx had not yet occurred. Hinayanism had already fled the India and that Mahayana Buddhism was really a compromise in which the Hindu gods and Buddha ranked equally.
Wesaii a Mahayanist State

These are some of the data for forming an opinion as to the religious condition of Bengal from 400-1000 AD. As Wesali was a Hindu State adjacent there to, the presumption is that its religious history was similar. Hinayanism had vanished; Mahayanism had compromised with original Hinduism to such a point that Buddha had become one of many gods; even the sexual magic of Tantricism was no anomaly. Such, it appears, was the Chandra kingdom of Wesaii, Mahayanist in the sense that word carried in the Bengal of the 8th century. It is significant that at least one Tantric sculpture has been found in Wesaii. Wesali, as will be explained later, must be regarded not as an early Burmese but as a late Hindu State. With the whole tradition of the great Hindu past it had inherited coinage. All these data indicate that the coins of Wesali were in the pure Brahmanical tradition. But coins bearing Brahmanical symbols are not inconsistent with a Mahayanist dynasty. I am not aware of any Indian coin of a period later than the 1 st century AD., which contains a Buddhist figure, symbol or inscription. The Mahayanist kings of the periods mentioned above struck Brahmanical coins. Nothing is therefore more to be expected than that the Wesali coins should also be Brahminical. It is merely another proof of how closely the Mahayanist Buddhism of 8th century Bengal approximated to Hinduism.
The end of Wesaii & the beginning of the Arakanese

Such was the kingdom of Wesali, an Indian state in 957 AD, occurred an event which was to change it from an Indian into an Indo-Chinese realm and to endow the region of Arakan with its present characteristics. The "True Chronicle" records that in the year 957 AD., a Mongolian invasion swept over Wesali, destroyed the Chandras and placed on their throne Mongolian kings. Over the border in Bengal the same deluge carried away the Pala kings. The evidence for this latter irruption is fully cited in a paper by Mr. Banerji and there is no doubt that the Mongolian invasion, which terminated the ruler of the Palas, closed also the epoch of the Chandras. But while in Bengal the Hindus regained their supremacy in a few years, it would seem that in Arakan the entry of the Mongolians was decisive. They cut Arakan away from India and mixing in sufficient number with the inhabitants of the east side of the present lndo-Burma divide, created that Indo-Mongoloid stock now known as the Arakanese. This emergence of a new race was not the work of a single invasion. The MSS record subsequent Mongolian incursions. But the date 957 AD., may be said to mark the appearance of the Arakanese, and the beginning of a fresh period.
The period 957-1430 AD, General Characteristics

The cardinal characteristic of the new period is that Arakan (as the area may now be called) looked East instead of West. The Mongolians were savages and following their invasion supervened a period of darkness. But the invaders became educated in the culture of the country they had conquered. The resulting civilization was of a mediaeval character. The capital was moved from Wesali to the Lemro River, some fifteen miles south-east. There during the ensuing centuries numerous dynasties ruled each with its own city but always in the same locality. Few archaeological remains of this period of five centuries exist, though brick foundations may be seen on the Lemro bank. In Bengal the Mohamedans were not to arrive till 1203. Over the mountains in Burma proper was the quaint kingdom of Pagan. It was with Pagan alone the Arakan had any considerable dealings and it was to learn much. Thus during these five centureis the inhabitants of Arakan became more similar to the inhabitants of Burma and less like Indians. Their religion became less Mahayanist and more Hinayanist.
Particular Characteristics of the period 957-1430 AD

There existed a road connecting the Lemro with Pagan. That road was known as the Buywet ma-nyo. It has long been overgrown, but the present Government is seeking to resurvey it. It was along that road that the ideas of Burma passed into Arakan. But India was again to play its part in the making of Arakan. To understand the age of Mrauk-U (1430 - 1785 AD.), the profound changes which had taken place in Bengal since the time of the Palas must be called to mind. From all points of view, military, political and cultural, the Moslem Sultanates were in the van of civilization. For every other state they represented modernity, as industrial Europe now represent what is modern for Asia and Africa. Bengal was absorbed into this great polity in l293 AD. But that was its extreme eastern limit. Why Arakan turned towards India in 1450.
The circumstances which made Arakan turn from the East and look West to the Moslem States were political. In 1404 A. D., Min Saw Mwan was King of Arakan, ruling from Launggret, one of the Lemro Cities already mentioned. As the kings of Pagan had regarded Arakan as their feudatory. The Kings of Ava, succeeded them was annoyed by the Arakanese who raided the Yaw and Laungshe. The heir apparent to the throne of Ava invaded Arakan in 1406. Min Saw Mwan fled the country, taking refuge at Gaur, the capital of the Sultan of Bengal. That kingdom had been independent of the Sultanate of Delhi for eighty six years. It was one of the many sovereign states of the world wide Moslem polity.The Arakanese king remained there for twenty four years, leaving his country in the hands of the Burmese. (This part of the history was written in other chapter.) The Arakanese king loomed from the mediaeval to the modern, from the fragile fairyland of the Glass Palace Chronicle to the robust extravaganza of the Thousand Nights and one Night. Nasir-ud-din restored him in 1430 A.D. and Mrauk-U was built. It is noteworthy that one of that Sultan's coins was recently found near the site of that city. It is a unique document in the history of Arakan.
Origin of Arakanese coinage

Nasir-ud-din's coin is in the tradition and it was on that coin that the coinage of Mrauk-U was subsequently modeled. In this way Arakan became definitely oriented towards the Moslem State. Contact with a modern civilization resulted in a renaissance. The country's great age began.
The Mrauk-U dynasty l450-1786 Period 1. 1430-1530 as feudatory to Bengal.

It was a curious fact that while the government of Further India was Mongolian-Buddhist, that of India and westwards beyond was Mongolian- Mohamedan. That basic distinction centred in the matter of war and agggrandisement. They founded what was known as the Arakanese empire. For the hundred years, 1430 to 1530, Arakan remained feudatory to Bengal, paid tribute and learnt history and politics. Eleven kings followed one another at Mrauk-U in undistinguished succession. During the whole of Minbin's (Zabauk Shah) reign the administration of Bengal was totally defenseless. Minbin occupied Eastern Bengal and remained to Arakan for the next hundred and twenty years, till 1666. Its administration was left in the hands of twelve local rajahs, who paid an annual tribute to the Arakanese king's Viceroyat Chittagong. In Mr. Htoon Aung Gyaw's collection is one of Minbin's coins. It presents a succinct commentary on the sudden rise of Arakan to importance in the Bay. On one side of it is inscribed the word "Minbin" in the Burmese character. On the reverse in Nagari is his Moslem title, Zabauk Shah. So Arakan had turned into a Sultanate. The Court was shaped in Gaur and Delhi; there were the eunuchs and the seraglio, the slaves and the executioner. But it remained Hinayana Buddhist. Mahamunni was still there, still fervently worshipped.
The Architecture of the Period

It is Hindu, but of so unique a design. This architecture was the work of Indian builders employed by Minbin and working to his general specifications. It illustrates the cosmopolitan origins of the state of Mrauk-U, which derived from the Hindu and theBuddhist as well as from the Prortuguese and the Moslem. But it also indicates how Minbin was able to fuse diverse elements into a particular and separate style.
If Minbin founded the prosperity of Mrauk-U, Razagri, his sussessor of forty years later, may be said to have consolidated it. In 1576 central and western Bengal was definitely administered by Akbar. Hence the Arakanese in eastern Bengal found themselves on the frontier of the Moghul. There was now no buffer state between. It was known that the Moghul regarded all Bengal as rightly his and that it was entered in his records as such. Hence it behaved Mrauk-U to guard that frontier well. But it was not feasible to do so with the regular army. Arrangements were therefore made with Portuguese mariners who had been allowed to found a trade settlement and refitting base near Chittagong. It was agreed between them and the king that they would protect the frontier against the Moghul in return for all the trade openings their position at Chittagong afforded. The king had his brother or near relative as Viceroy. Portuguese, made a dash at the city of Mrauk-U itself but they were defeated. Thus at this time, the government of Mrauk-U was strong enough to keep the Portuguese in order. Maruk-U, having turned the tables on Bengal proceeded to do the same on Burma, This was the first and only period in its history when Arakan was able not only to repulse the Burmese but even to annex part of their country. Razagiri, in alliance with Ava, took Pegu. On the division of the spoils the strip up to and including Syriam and Moulmein was added to his long coastline. This campaign was rendered possible by his excellent navy and Razagri in appointing the Portuguese de Brito, as Governor of Syriam was repeating the policy of the north west frontier. He depended on those mariners, in conjunction, presumably, with his own seamen,to keep his borders for him. For a short period during the reign of Razagri, Arakan extended from Dacca and the Sundabans to Moulmein, a coast strip of a thousand miles in length and varying from 150 to 20 miles in depth. This considerable dominion was built up by means of the strong cosmopolitan army and navy organized by Minbin and by inducing the Portuguese outside his army of fight for him in return for trade concessions. It is difficult to conceive of a state with less reliable foundations. But during the short years of its greatness, the century from 1540 to 1640, it was brilliant and imposing. Copying the imperial Court of Delhi, its kings adopted the title of Padshah. The French traveller Fyiard, who was in India at the time, sums up its position in the Bay as second only to that of the Moghul. In my studies from Fra Manrique and the Arakanese MSS. I have tried to paint a picture of Arakan at this moment of its highest destiny. He depended upon his foreign mercenaries. These were ready to unmake him. The sanctity of authority was gone. Moreover the victories of previous reigns had flooded the country with Moghul, Burmese and Portuguese prisoners of war. These were centers of discontent on which any adventurer could count. On such men counted Shuja, Aurangzebe's elder brother, rightful Emperor of Hindustan, when he fled to Arakan after being worsted in the struggle for the imperial crown which followed the death of Shah Jahan. Only a strong national king can control an army of foreign paid soldiers. After 1600 a change for the worse overcame the Portuguese. They became pirates. They recruited their numbers from the halfbreeds. Yet it was on the good faith of these desperate men that the King of Mrauk-U depended for the defense of his Northwest Frontier. As the 17th century advanced, the Moghuls consolidated their administration. But Bengal remained and irritant. It was the base from which resolute pirates crossed into their domains, raiding even to Moorshedabed. The pirate boats were manned by pure Portuguese, halfbreeds and Arakanese. They seized from the riverbanks goods and persons. They were latter sold in Arakan, as slaves.
But it was a shortsighted policy for the kings of Arakan to annoy so strong a neighbouring State as the Moghul Empire. However, it is doubtful whether the usurping kings after Thiri-thu-dhamma attempted to control the Portuguese. They had established an independent bandit State on the Bengal border. So intolerable a condition of affairs could not last. Moghul Sultan Aurangzebe sent to Bengal a strong Governor, Shaistah Khan with instructions to stop the piracy. Shaistah Khan warned the Purtuguese bandits to come over to his side before he attack. They were promised the rewards greater than they had received from the king of Arakan. In 1665 the Moghul operations took place, the huge fleet built by the Nawab, the assisted by the Dutch defeat the rest of the Portuguese fleet. When the Moghuls advanced into Arakan proper, the Arakanese army resisted them in force with success. After the loss of Chittagong the territory of the Kingdom of Mrauk-U was reduced to the present districts of Akyab, Kyaukpyu and Sandoway. Those areas In Lower Burma which had been won by Razagri and resumed in part by Thiri--ru-dhamma had all lapsed back to the Burmese. Arakan was now confined to its natural boundaries and was no larger than it had been two hundred and fifty years previously. There were twenty five kings of Mrauk-U during those hundred and nineteen years. The coins themselves exhibits little variations Their design is neither more not less inserving. It remains in the Mohamedan tradition of 1450 AD.
The fall of Mrauk-U

The Moghuls had ceased to an expanding power. Burma was mearly as distracted as Arakan; the English were new comers. In 1760 the Alaungpaya dynasty had united Burma, Mrauk-U's fate was certain. In 1782 Thaniada became king of Maruk-U and Ngathande asked Bodawpaya, king of Burma, to invade the realm.After so long a period of looking west, Arakan turned eastward again. Ngathande's idea was that Bodawpaya would place him on the throne as a feudatory monarch.. Bodawpaya, however used Ngathande, invaded the country and reduced it to the position of an administered province, the first time in its long history that it had lost a home government of its own. It is noteworthy that when Bodawpaya decided to annex Arakan, he bowed to the old idea that the Mahamuni was the defence of that kingdom. For so many centures it had been the common belief of Further India that as long as Mahamuni was in Arakan, the country would remain independent, that Bodawpaya thought it safer to tamper with those calculations in Yadaya which were reputed to protect both the image and the realm. He therefore sent masters of that Art before his troops crossed the mountains and the formula were detected. After his victory he removed Mahamuni to Amarapura, where it now sits. This event, long prophesied and long guarded against, crushed the Arakanese more than defeat in the field. Bodawpaya's first act was to strike a medallion in the style of the Mrauk-U coinage.
The Burmese administration of Arakan (1784 to 1825) Bodawpaya's medallion

Burmese had never used coins and hence he had no model of his own. He copied therefore the Moslem design. The legend reads- "The kingdom of the Master of Amarapura and of Many White Elephants." This is the numismatic document to the fall of Mrauk-U. It was the last coin struck in Arakan. The Burmese governor of Mrauk-U found the country in a very lawless state. One Chinbya organized a rebellion. To secure peace and maintain order the Burmese put to death some and deported others to Burma. Two hundred thousand are said to have fled to India.
In her previous connections with outside states Arakan had always been the gainer. As feudatory to Pagan she had received the Little Vehicle and learnt her present alphabet. As feudatory to Bengal she had laid the foundations of her great age. But administered as a governorship by the Burmese of the 18th century, she had nothing to gain for the Burmese had nothing to teach a country which for centuries had been in touch with the world of thought and action through the Moslem Sultanates at a time when Burma herself was isolated and backward. But an extraordinary turn of events had changed the face of India since the fall of Chittagong in 1666. The Moghuls had disappeared and their place had been taken by the English. They became irritated with the Burmese in 1824 because of frontier raids. The Burmese were not aware that the English, the masters of Hindustan represented a more modern polity than their own. The Arakanese, however, were better informed. For just as Min Saw Mwan realised in 1430 that the Sultanate of Bengal was a polity in the van of the world's thought and would be able to drive the Burmese out of Arakan and restore him, so the Arakanese of 1824 perceived that the English were moderns and that the Burmese could not resist them. Accordingly they sided enthusiastically with them and facilitated in every way the English occupation of Arakan in 1825. When the Burmese had fled and Mrauk-U was occupied by the English, the Arakanese expected that the history of 1430 would be repeated and that an Arakanese prince would be placed on the throne. The significance of the English administration of Arakan. 1825 to 1929. Conclusion. The rhythm of the history of Arakan is that of a dancer who sways now to the East and now to the West. Rarely has she stood Upright.
Authoritis Consulted
Mr. Tun Aung Gyaw's Arakanese coins, arranged, translated and annotated by Mr. San Shwe Bu. The True Chronicle of the Great Image. An Arakanese MSS. translated by Mr. San Shwe Bu. Notes from private Arakanese MSS. placed at my disposal by Mr. San Shwe Bu. Lecture by Mr. Htoon Chan, Bar-at-law. Printed in "Arakan News" of May 1916. The coins of India. P. Brown. Coinages of Asia. S. Allan. The Palas of Bengal, Banerji Early History of India. V. Smith. Travels of Fa-Hein. Edited by Giles. Padre Maestro Fray Seb. Manrique (Translated in Bengal Past and Present). Shihabuddin Talish. Persian MS. Translated by Sarkar. The Glass Palace Chronicle. Tin and Luce. History of Bengal, Stewari. Musaimans of Bengal. Fuzli Rubbee. Outline of Burmese History. Harvey. Catalogue of Coins in Phayre Provincial Museum. Reportof Superintendent, Archaeoligical Survey, Burma, fortheyears 1917,1921,1922 and1923. From Akbar to Aurangzebe. Moreland. History of the Portuguese in Bengal. Campos. Coins of Arakan, of Pegu and of Burma. (In Numisman Orientalia) Sir Arthur Phayre.
The above Article appeared in BURMA RESEARCH SOCIETY, 50TH ANNIVERSARY PUBLICATION'S NO-2, RANGOON 1960, FROM PAGE-1485-504. Please, kindly allow me to summarize the Brief Historical Back Ground of Arakan, land of Rohingyas. Arakan was an independent kingdom since BC 266 to AD 1782. Historical evidence shows that there were four prominent dynasties in Arakan. Out of these four dynasties the 3rd Dhannavati and Maruak-U were the most famous ones. The dynasties are listed below in chronological order: Earlier ones were Hindus but later converted into Buddhists. 1. 2. 3. 4. Dhannavati (Dhanyavati) (lst, 2nd, 3rd) dynasty Vesali dynasty Lay-Mro dynasty Maruak-U dynasty
Dhannavati (1st., 2nd, 3rd)

The very first kingdom of Arakan, it was known as Ist Dhannavati dynasty founded by King Marayu in 266 BC. This was the longest dynasty. The 2nd Dhannavati was founded by King Kan-raza-gri (Khan Raja Gyi.), already stated in detail regarding the first Burmese kingdom, Tagaung. King Chanda Suria (Chandra Surin) founded the third Dhannavati. Archaeological records shows that during the reign of King Chanda Suria, Lord Buddha came to Arakan (approximately in 500/600 BC). On the request of the king, Lord Buddha gave permission to cast a statue of him, to be worshiped by the king and the people of Arakan kingdom. This statue is well known through out Burma as Maha Myat Muni Buddha Statue.(This pagoda is the one, mentioned in the anti-Muslim riots of 1997 in Mandalay). After Lord Buddhas visit to Arakan, the whole of Arakan kingdom became Buddhist.
Vesali.(Wai Tha Li)

Maha Taing Chandra was the founder of Vaisali dynasty. The Chandras ruled Vesali for more than 300 years.
Lay-Mro
This dynasty was composed of several short dynasties such as Pyin Tsa, Pa-rein, Kharit, and Laung-c,rat.
Maruak-U
King Min-saw-mwun was the founder of Maruak-U dynasty. This dynasty existed from 1430 AD - 1782 AD. Historical records shows that this dynasty was the first among the Arakanese dynasties to have kings with Arakanese and Mogul Islamic Arabic names simultaneously, and also one of the most economically and culturally prosperous dynasty. Prior to Maruk-U dynasty the Arkanese had started trading- with the Portuguese, Southeast Asia, and acquired naval technologies from the Portuguese. During this dynasty Arakan also established relations with the
Dutch. Historical records show Arakan had a strong naval force, mainly composed of Indian and Muslim sailors, reinforced and assisted by Portuguees. Also prior to Maruak-U dynasty kings of Arakan had fought with the Mughal kings of Bangal and had occupied 12 towns of Bangal (e- Chita-ong, Noakhali, Dhaka, Mymansingh) and had looted the towns and villages. They also arrested and brought the Muslims from there to Arakan to sell as slaves. All together there were 49 kings who ruled the Maruak-U dynasty (Appendix-I). The last of the king to serve the Maruak-U dynasty was King Mahathamata. He was captured by the Burmese when King Bow Daw Phaya concurred Arakan. All the kings of Arakan were said to be Buddhist. However to rule the 12 towns in the Bangal smoothly seven kings decided to have Arakanese and Mogul Islamic names. There is a dispute between the Arakan Buddhists and Arakan Muslims(Rohingyas), whether those kings really converted to Islam or not. Even if they were not converted to Islam, as our Buddhist brothers claim, no one could deny that they had taken the Islamic names because there were considerable amount of Muslim citizens under their rule. And even if those Kings were not Muslims as Buddhist Rakhines claim, taking Islamic names showed that they respect their Muslim subjects. Or may be the Rakhine kings them-selves are the subjects of Muslim Moghul Kings. The Islamic-names of Arakan Kings are as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Min-kha-ri (Ali Khan) Ba-saw-phru (Kalama Shah) Dolay (Mokhu Shah) Ba-saw-min-nyo (Maha Moshah) Min-raza-kri (Ili Shah) Saw-min-o (Jal Shah) Thazata (Itsli Shah) 1433 1459 1482 1492 1501 1515 1515
The History of Arakan could be summarized as below: Independent Kingdom 266 BC 1782 AD Burmese ruled.1783 1815 AD. British ruled 1815 1942 AD. Japanese ruled.1942 1945 AD. British ruled 1945 1947 AD. Burmese rule.. 1948 till present. So the Mainland Burmese are now able to colonize the Arakan State because the British presented them with the free of charge, extra gift during the granting of Independence to Burma. Actually the Burmese could colonize the Arakan State with their own strength for thirty-two years only from 1783 to 1815 AD. The Arakans (Buddhists and Muslims) agreed to join the Burmese Union because they had trusted all the promises given by General Aung San, during the Pin Lon Treaty. If not, the British would not allow including the Arakan and other States to join the mainland Burma. But General Ne Win and successive Burmese Generals betrayed the ethnic minorities and ignored the promises given by General Aung San. Although the minorities including Arakans had given up their rights to separate from the Union, the Burmese Chauvinist Military Generals still refused to recognize their other rights e.g. religious, cultural, political and civil rights etc. Muslims of the Arakan i.e. Rohingyas are suffering most.
It is a little bit funny that in spite of long established history of Muslim Rohingyas, the Burmese colonist Generals, who could manage to colonized Arakan for a mere thirty-two years only, claims that they are the rightful owner of Arakan and the Rohingyas are alien migrants.
Rohingyas of Burma
The first group to leave its mark upon the culture of Arakan were the Arabs who carried out trade and commerce turned the Indian Ocean an Arab lake with their continued contact with the Far East while settling down permanently in the coastal areas. Rohang, the old name of Arakan, was a very familiar region for the Arab seafarers even during the pre-Islamic days. The descendants of the mixed marriages between the local people and the Arabs founded the original nucleus of the Rohingyas in Arakan. Shah Barid Khan, a courtier and a court poet in his book, Mohammad Hanifa 0-khaira Pari" written between 1517 and 1550 narrated that: "Sayed Mohammad Hanifa, one of the sons of Hazarat Ali, the 4th. Caliph of Islam reached the coast of Arakan en route to China after losing a battle at Karballah (Kufa) in 680 AD. When he first reached Arabsha Para, a place north of present Maungdaw town in north Arakan, with his followers by a fleet of junks (sailing ships then used by Arabs) they were confronted with the cannibals under a queen named Khaira Pari or Kayapuri. A bloody battle was broke out between them and it was won by Mohammad Hanifa. Mohammad Hanifa subjugated the queen who along with all her followers embraced Islam. He then married her and passed the rest of their life in great devotion to Allah. They became famous as saints. They were buried on two of the peaks of Mayu Range (Hills) easily accessible both from Maungdaw and Buthidaung townships. These two ancient tombs are traditionally known as Hanifar Tonqie (shrine) and Kayapuri Tonqie." The second wave of Muslims came to Arakan in 1246 AD. The king of Arakan carried to Arakan a number of 47,500 captives from Bengal, in a single time, and settled them in his country. This fact is admitted by a Magh (Arakan Buddhists) political party, Arakan People's Democratic Front in their recently published booklet entitled, "The Bengalis of Arakan and the Problem of their History." The third wave of Muslims came with the setting up of the independent kingdom of Arakan during the region of king Sulaiman Shah in the 15th century. As a consequence of the Burman invasion in 1406, Narameikhla, the king of Arakan, took refuge at Gaur, the then capital of Muslim Bengal, where he stayed for 24 years. In 1429 Sultan Nasiruddin Shah of Gaur sent 20,000 troops under General Wali Khan to drive off the Burmans and Mons, and to restore Narameikhla. But Narameikhla was not enthroned and was arrested by Gen. Wali Khan over some disagreement and took possession of Arakan for himself. How ever, Narameikhla escaped away to Gaur. Gen. Wali Khan introduced Persian in his Court and appointed Quazis(Islamic Judges). A year later, at the request of Narameikhla, the Gaur king dispatched another 30,000 troops under General Sandi Khan who disarmed Gen. Wali Khan and restored Narameikhla to the throne. Narameikhla took the title of Solaiman Shah and established a dynasty as Mrauk-U. With the settlement of these 50,000 troops with their families, the strength of the Muslims increased gradually to the extent that Arakan had turned into a Sultanate and Islam had flourished to its zenith. Muslim soldiers who helped him near that city and even built the Sandikan mosque. (1430 AD).
The court was shaped on Gaur and Delhi and its kings adopted the titles of Padshah. Persian was adopted as state language, which continued up to 1845, that is 21 years further beyond the conquest of Arakan by the British. One of the preconditions for Mrauk-U kings before their ascension to the throne of Arakan was that they were to be graduated in Islamic studies. Coins and medallions were inscribed with "Kalima" (the Profession of faith in Islam) in Arabic script. According to Colonel Ba Shin, the Chairman of the Burma Historical Commission, the Koranic verse " Aqimuddin" was the state emblem of Arakan. One of his successors Zabuk Shah ( 1531-1553) founded the prosperity of Mrauk-U. He extended Arakan Empire up to Tananssarim to the south and Megna River to the west. During this 100 years of Muslim rule (1430-1530 AD), large numbers of Muslims, particularly from Chittagong migrated and settled in Arakan. Henceforth the Arakanese administration continued to bear definite Islamic stamp. The fourth wave of the Muslims came to Arakan was that of the large numbers of the Muslim soldiers, nobles courtiers and intellectuals who accompanied Mogul Prince Shah Shuja, the son of Mughul Emperor Shajahan. He came to seek refuge in the court of Arakan in 1660 after the war of succession. They were later massacred (We will go through that fateful episode in the next chapter).Some of Shah Shujas soldiers were later appointed as royal bodyguards. They were good at archery and were called Kamans or Kamanchi. (These words mean bows and Bowmen respectively in Persian). They are now recognized even by the present Myanmar Military as the ethnic minority of Myanmar. Aurangzeb, the brother of Shah Shuja attacked the Arakan in 1666 AD. Kamans also rebelled from inside, with the aid of Muslim Afghan soldiers. From 1666 to 1710 AD Kamans were the kingmakers and Arakan was politically under them. They were exiled to Ramree in 1710 AD by King Sandawizaya. The fifth wave of the Muslims came to Arakan was during 16th Century. From about 1580 till 1666 AD, nearly a century, Chittagong was under almost uninterrupted Arakanese rule. During this period the awful piratical activities and slave trade of the Magh-Firingi reached to a peak. They plundered and destroyed all the villages and settlements on the bank of Ganges. It practically depopulated a huge portion of lower Bengal. Joint Arakan-Portuguese forces raided on Muslim Bengal frequently, till the end of eighteen century. They captured and sold the prisoners as slaves. They were some times forced to settle near Mrohaung. Those people, including the people of noble origin, high born persons and Sayyids (the direct descendents of the Prophet Mohammad,PBUH).to its zenit@. A large number of them were employed in the service of the Arakanese kings as govoners, landlords, high civil and military officials, soldiers, courtiers, court poets, attemdents and in agricultural field. Thirithudama, Rakhine king (1622-1638) had a Muslim doctor, who became very close to the king and even acted as an advisor of the king. The sixth wave of Muslim influx started after 1824, when the British took over that part of Burma. All the races, including the Buddhist, from Arakan who took refuge in Bengal during Burman invasion and tyranny rule, return to their home land. But some of the relatives of Rohingyas left behind in Bengladesh and known at the present time as Rohai. Under the British from 1824 up to 1937s separation of Burma from India, although both were still under British up to the WW Two, as there was no political separation between Arakan and Bengladesh, there was a free movement of people and commodities between them.The influx of refugees from Arakan into Bengal was an intermittent phenomenon in the Burmese history. This resulted in the development of the different ethnic groups in Chittagong of present Bengladesh. They are, Chakmas, Maghs, Barus and the Rohingyas.
The present large number of Rohingyas in Bangladesh is the result of many exoduses from Arakan. They were happened in - 957 BC, AD 1044, 1544, 1660, 1666, 1752, 1782, 1784, 1785, 1796, 1798, 1811, 1930, 1938, 1942, 1950, 1955, 1958, 1959, 1966, 1967, 1973, 1975, 1978, 1982 Naga Min Campaign and the present ongoing drive, operating under the code name Pyi Thaya, started in mid 1991. The undeniable fact of the General Ne Win and successive Military governments aim of ethnic cleansing the Rohingyas is beyond reasonable doubt. Wealthy and influential Myanmar Arakan Muslim from Akyab, Arakan, Sultan Mahmood was the political secretary in U Nus government and later was appointed as Health Minister. Other Rohingyas in U Nus Parliament as parliamentary secretaries were Mr Sultan Ahmed and Mr Abdul Gaffar. Mr Abdul Bashar, Mrs. Zohora Begum @ Daw Aye Nyunt, Mr Abdul Khair and Mr Rashid Ahmed also served in the Burmese Parliament.
Continuing Discrimination
Lt. Gen. Mya Thinn [the minister for home affairs] recalled that the Muslim population of Rakhine State were not recognized as citizens of Myanmar under the existing naturalization regulations and they were not even registered as so-called foreign residents. Consequently, the Minister added, their status situation did not permit them to travel in the country ... They are also not allowed to serve in the State positions and are barred from attending higher educational institutions." Returning Rohingyas and those who did not leave Burma continue to face discrimination and persecution by the government because of their ethnicity. As non-citizens, they are discriminated against in their ability to travel freely within the country, and access to government services, health education and employment are restricted. Rohingya men are vulnerable to arbitrary arrest and even killing by the NaSaKa or the military if they are suspected of being supporters of the rebels. In addition, along with many other ethnic minorities in Burma, Rohingyas are forced to work on government-sponsored projects for no pay and in often appalling conditions. There has been a marked increase in arbitrary taxation of Rohingya families. Muslims from other areas of Arakan State have been forcibly relocated into the northern Arakan area while in the most prosperous areas the government has established what it calls "model villages" populated by Rakhine and other Buddhist minority groups. (The above whole part relating to the Citizenship act is taken from the Human Rights Watch/Asias Burma, The Rohingya Muslims, Ending a Cycle of Exodus? Vol. 8, No. 9 (C) September 1996.)
Chapter9 TherightsofEthnicMinoritiesanddiscriminations
Quotes
Mary Robinson "... today's human rights violations are the causes of tomorrow's conflicts." Kofi Annan: "It was never the people who complained of the universality of human rights, nor did the people consider human rights as a Western or Northern imposition. It was often their leaders who did so." On December 10, 1948 the General Assembly of the United Nations adopted and proclaimed THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS as a common standard of achievement for all peoples and all nations. On the Fiftieth Anniversary of this Declaration UN Security General Kofi Annan said: Human Rights are foreign to no culture and native to all Nations. It is a mirror that at once flatters us and shame us, that bears witness to a record of progress for parts of humanity while revealing a history and reality of horrors for others. Our beloved National Hero, founding father of Myanmar, General Aung San once gave his opinion regarding his belief about Races and Ethnic Groups. A group of people who wish to stay together with a sense of unity and cohesiveness, in thick or thin, rich or poor, in war or peace and in good or bad times. Refused to dissociate, ready to defend the disintegration of the motherland and have a common destiny. Race and Ethnicity depends on the sense and spirit of togetherness, cohesiveness, shared values and shared destination although it must maintain and based upon individual groups social, culture, customs and beliefs. General Aung San had promised Democracy with fair treatment and respect for all the minority races and all religions in Burma. Because of those firm promises and assurances only, all the minorities agree to sign the famous Panglon Treaty, which leaded to the Independence of the whole of the Union of Burma. If not, British refused to include the Hilly Regions and other Ethnic Minorities land but to give the independence for the main land Burmans only. His promises were later legally and officially confirmed on 2.10.1947 by U Chan Htoon, Advisor on constitutional affairs to the Constituent Assembly, who later became Chief Justice. Muslims born in Burma, raised and educated in Burma, whose Burmese citizenship, according to paragraphs # 11 (ii) and # (iii) of the parents, or at least one of them, were Burmese, automatically had constitutional rights as citizens, they would enjoy the same status, rights and privileges as all other citizens of Burma. Paragraph 13 of the Constitution guaranteed that all the citizens of Burma, (without regard to origin, religion, race, or sex) should be equal before the law. Paragraph 14 guaranteed equal opportunity to all citizens in matters of public service and in employment in any post, professional or business whatsoever. They also were entitled to all the other privileges of the citizen
mentioned in the constitution, even the right to candidacy for the election to the post of President of the State and to the membership in the two Houses of Parliament. The Myanmar Muslims fight for the right to be recognized as national minority, chance to get community representation and the legal guarantees for their rights and their special interests were ignored. In strict democracy, the majority almost always has a chance to make any law they want, even if that may be contrary to the minoritys interest. Muslims as a minority have no chance to be elected to the high places. Myanmar Muslims wanted some seats to be allocated or reserved for them in the constitution as same as other minorities. They demanded for the constitutional recognition and special guarantees for the Myanmar Muslim community similar to those granted to all the other minorities. They demanded for the representation in the government, in the legislative council and in the public services, in proportion to their numbers and the needs of the community. They requested for the equality of their basic rights in par with the other minorities; and for the assurances of the freedom of religion, customs, institutions and the Muslim laws of the individuals. But the Prime Minister U Nu and Chief Justice U Chan Htoon did not entertain any of these specific requests.He served as the Chief Justice till 2.3.1962. General Ne Wins Military Government arrested him, threw away the Constitution and ignored the rights of all the minorities including Myanmar Muslims. The Prime Minister of Burma U Nu, in a speech over Radio Rangoon at 8.00 PM on 25th. September 1954 stated that: The Rakhine State is situated towards the south-west of the Union of Burma. The Buthidaung and Maungdaw townships are included in theSittwe Division of the Rakhine State. These two townships are bordering East Pakistan (now Bengladesh). The majourity of the people in these two townships are Rohingyas, who profess the Islamic faith. The above and the following statements are the press releases of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Government of the Peoples Republic of Bengladesh, March 12,1992. Again the Burmese Defence Minister and the Prime Minister U Ba Shwe, at the mass rallies for the people of Buthidaung and Maungdaw on the 3rd. and 4th. November 1959 said: The Rohingyas are equal in every way with other minority races like Shan, Chin, Kachin, Kayin, Kayah, Mon and Rakhine. They have lived in Myanmar (Naing Ngan = country) according to the historical facts. They are of the Islamic faith. There is historical evidence that they have lived faithfully and harmoniously with the other races of the Union of Burma. Even the Burma Broadcasting Service (BBS) carried out the Rohingya Language Programme, twice a week, regularly from 15th. May 1961 to 11th. October 1965. ( N. Kamal. Building confidence in Rohingyas mind. The New Nation Newspaper, Dhaka, Bengladesh, April 26, 1992.) The Lordship of the Supreme Court of Rangoon remarked: ... Today, in the various parts of Burma, there are people who, because of the origin and the isolated way of life, are totally unlike the Burmese in appearance of speak of events which had occurred outside the limits of their habitation. They are nevertheless statutory citizens under the Union (of Burma) Citizenship Act..... Thus mere race or appearance of a person or whether he has a knowledge of any language of the Union is not the test as to whether he is a citizen of the Union. (The case of Hason Ali, a Rohingya from Arakan, Vs. Union of Burma, Supreme Court Criminal Miscellaneous Cases No. 155 & 156 of 1959. Nurul Islam. Present atmosphere in Arakan. The New Nation Newspaper, Bengladesh, Monday October 12, 1992.)
Opposition leader Daw Aung San Su Kyi, in reply to the Myanmar Muslims request to be recognized as an ethnic minority group told unspecifically that her first and most important aim was to get democracy. Under the democracy, all the minorities rights will be automatically protected. She said that she had a great respect for other religions. She believed that no one has the right to look down on anybodys religion. But she must realize that the minority Burmese Muslims Human and Citizen Rights must be accepted and protected from the tyranny of majority even in democracy. Majority should not use their might to deny the rights of minority Muslims.
Citizen
It is the concept started from the time of Romans. This concept originated from the Latin city. Came from the idea of city-nations and the people. For the loyalty to the authorities of the city: the king, Mayor, the church and the fellow city dwellers.
Nationalism
The peoples pride and sense of togetherness based on their love, unique and unity in the cultural, social, historical and territorial identity. And most of the time, associated with the sense of illusion of greatness. The most visible part of Nationalism is their pride and love for their own nation, race and religion.
Anti-foreign sentiment and Nationalism

The pride and good feelings of nationalism: the love for the country, race and religion is frequently exploited and used by many politicians, ultra-nationalists, religious fanatics, racial extremists and present Military Junta of Burma. Adolf Hitlar of Nazi Germany and Slobodan Milosivic, was the most prominent and indisputable example. But it is shameful to admit that many governments and politicians are guilty of this crime one time or another to get or accomplish their own agenda or to cover up their faults and failures. They use to threaten their own people with the foreign powers and enemies, western colonists, imperialists, religious terrorists, Communists and possible out break of racial riots, danger of losing independence of their beloved country. It is sad to note that, that propaganda warfare is usually successful with the help of the local government controlled media and because of the use or exploitation of the nationalistic spirit. People against this would be labeled as unpatriotic or traitor. Once intoxicated with the patriotism and nationality fever, people were blinded. They are ready to do any thing for that patriotism. They are even willing to kill or dare to be killed. They are willing to sacrifice themselves, their family, their property and every thing on earth. Patriotism could mobilize the whole nation. Myanmar opposition leader Daw Aung San Su Kyi once comments regarding the political extremists, religious fanatics and ultra nationalists, Well, there are people who think that its right to do any thing in the name of their religion, their race, their family, or any organization to which they may belong.
Even in Islam there is a widespread misuse of the word called jihad. It can take many forms, depending on the circumstances, varying from time to time and place to place. Should believers in Islam be empowered somewhere and the conditions demand that collective force is used for the defense and assistance of faith, according to the rules laid down for it, will constitute jihad. Two conditions, however, are essential for it. Any personal or national self-interest, greed or enmity must not motivate such a step. It should be taken solely to carry out the command of God and to serve the cause of His faith. And the rules prescribed for it must scrupulously observed. If force is used without the fulfillment of these conditions, it will not be jihad according to Islam, but wanton wickedness and mischief. (From-Gist of Islam. Canadian Muslim Society). It is said to note that the hatred to foreigners is rooted to fear of losing, insecurity, low self-esteem and jealousy of the respective locals. And those people forget the real historical fact that, they themselves were once happened to be the foreigners migrated to that Mother Land and had displaced the other indigenous people. Present day nationals and citizens will be angry if they are pointed out that are not the original owners of the land. So what! Might is right! The earlier powerful migrants always tried to prevent or restrict the new comers and at the same time displaced the original owners. This is nature only. When we look at the fertilization process, which is the first step of forming a new person, the first sperm that managed to enter the ovum triggered a process to form a protection shied to prevent the penetration of other spermatozoa.
Bond of brotherhood among Muslim Migrants and hosts

In order to solve these problems, Muhammad (pbuh) first created an order of fraternization, which called for every well to do Medina Citizen Muslims to take an uprooted Mecca Citizens as a brother; the families of both the contractual brothers would work together and share the proceeds of their labour. [155] The Medinites thus received their historic name, Ansar, the helpers, and the Meccans became known as Muhajirun, the immigrants. This plan of rehabilitation worked very well. In addition, Muhammad (pbuh) formed a city-state in Medina based on the pattern of a commonwealth, with the minority Jewish population and the Muslims, who constituted the majority, forming two units with Muhammad (pbuh) as the head. [156] The Jews were to be governed by their own laws, which were to be administered by their own rabbis. [157] (Gist of Islam. Canada Muslim Society.)
Minority Groups and Civil Liberties

There are about 195 countries as the members of United Nations. Almost all of them have more than one minority group. They have some citizens with difference in race, religion, ethnicity, social, culture and language. So there are many nations in which some minority groups rights are compromised to a variety of extent. Most of the time, the minorities have to adjust or fine-tune themselves to avoid the confrontation or conflicts with the majorities. But Myanmar Muslims (Burmese Muslims) had suffered a lot more than the fair share throughout the Burmese history. Most of them had suffered in silence and no historian care to document those in detail. Because of lack of media coverage some Ethnic Cleansing were not widely known. The first Muslim killing documented in Burmese history (recorded in Mhan Nan Yar Za Win or Glass Palace Chronicle) was killing of Byat Wi by Mon, Thaton King. He was killed just because he was too powerful and
said to have as much strength as an adult elephant. The king was scared of rebellion only. (It was at about 1050 AD). The second two Muslims killed later were his nephews. The two sons of his brother Byat Ta, known as Shwe Byin brothers. They were still young but famous after the successful secret mission to penetrate in to the Utibuas (Chinese king) palace. As reported in previous chapter, they were executed because of their religious beliefs.
Rahman Khan (Nga Yaman Kan) was fourth Muslim killed for political reason
Although it was during wartime, the famous national hero, King Kyansittha sent a hunter as a sniper to assassinate him. And that King Kyansittha again directly or indirectly cause his daughter, Shwe Ein Sis lover, Prince of Pateik Kara, ancient Bengal. That prince had fly with the help of a magically powerful live ruby to see the princess kept at the tall palace. He used to bribe the royal guards with ten baskets of silver. When the king heard of the secret lovers tryst, he forced his daughter to marry Sawyun, the son of late King Sawlu, Sawyun was a handicapped person walking with a limp. Kyansittha rather preferred a handicapped person than a Kala (foreigner). Once the prince heard the bad news from Shin Arahan, while both were flying, he opened his mouth in surprise; magical ruby fell off from the mouth. Then he fell down from the sky, drowned and died. May be all this magical story of flying and cause of death were all cover up stories to dignify the princess secret affair. The first mass killings of Muslims in Arakan may be not for the religion but likely to be due to politics and greed only. Shah Shuja was the second son of the Mogul Emperor Shah Jahan who built the famous Taj Mahal of India. Shah Shuja lost to his brother and fled with his family and army in to Arakan. Sandathudama (1652-1687 AD), Arakan King accepted and allowed him to settle there. He wanted to continue to buy ships to go to Mecca and willing to pay with silver and gold. But Arakan king asked for his daughter and also became greedy to get all the wealth. As the eldest son of Mogul Emperor, he even got the worlds biggest and famous diamond, called Kohinu. There were confusing various versions of history reports. At last after an alleged unsuccessful attempt of rebellion the sultan and all his followers were killed. All men seen with beard, the symbol of Islam, were beheaded. Women were put into prison and let them die with hunger. That atrocity then evolved itself into a clear ethnic cleansing based on religion. The brother of that killed sultan, King Aurangzeb,, was angry because of that killings. He attacked the Arakan and the local Muslim slaves and Arakan Muslim Kamans assisted by rebelling from inside. It leaded to the end of the power of Arakan kingdom. Bayint Naung (1550-1589 AD) was the first Burmese king who started the religious oppression. In 1559 AD after conquering Bago (Pegu) he prohibited the Muslims from doing halal (killing by cutting the throat under the name of Allah) of goats and chicken. He showed religious intolerance with force on some other things also. Some were forced to listen to Buddhist sermons and some even converted. He also disallowed the Edil Adha, Kurbani sacrifice of cattle. King Alaung Paya (1752-1760) also prohibited muslims to do halal (slautering according to Islamic faith) on cattle.
King Bodaw Paya (1782-1819) was the worst enemy of Burmese Muslims
The king arrested four famous Myanmar Muslims Moulvis (Imams) from Myedu and killed them in Ava, capital after they refused to eat pork. According to the Myedu Muslims and Myanmar Muslims version there were seven dark days after that execution and the king later apologize and recognized them as saints.
Anti Indian sentiments started after the First World War during the British rule
In Burma there were half million Muslims in 1921. Burmese population then was only eleven million. And in capital Rangoon 70% of the population was Indians, 10% was Chinese and Burmese Buddhists were only 20% of the population. Capital Rangoon is more like a foreign city and Burmese Buddhists were like foreigner in their own country. More then half of Indians were Indian Muslims. Although Myanmar Muslims are different from the Indian Muslims and Indian Myanmar Muslims, Burmese Buddhists put them together even mixed with Hindu Indians, and called them Kala. The root of this hatred was: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Different in religion. Basic anti foreigner feelings. Low standard of living of the recent migrants. Recent migrants willingness to do, Dirty, Difficult and Dangerous jobs. Indians took over the Burmese lands especially Chittiers. Indians had already filled up and monopolized the government services when the Burmese were later ready for those jobs. 7. Professional competition. 8. World economic recession of 1930 aggravated the competition for the reduced economic pie.
In 1930 there was an anti Indian riots in Burma under British rule. This was not aimed on the Muslims or Islam but on Indians in general. The problem started in Yangon port, because of the irresponsible action of the British firm of Stevedores. It had employed hundreds of Indian labourers. While those Indians were on strike, that firm had employed the Burmese workers just to break the strike. So the Indians had to give in and ended the strike. Next morning when the Burmese workers came and report for work they were told by the British firm that their service was no more needed. Some of the Indian workers who were angry because they had to end the strike at failure because of these Burmese workers laughed at them. Some Burmese workers were angry and started the fight and Indians retaliate. It grew rapidly into anti Indian (including anti Muslims) riots. Even within the first halfhour at least two hundred Indians were massacred and flung into the river. Authorities ordered the police to fire upon any assembly of five or more who refuse to lay down the arms, under Section 144 of the Criminal Procedure Code. That was a black day of 26 May. Within two it spread to the whole country and no one knew the exact causality.
In 1931 Indian population of Yangon was still 63% of total and half of them were Muslims. Even Burmese Buddhists must be able to speak Hindi / Urdu in order to survive in Yangon. There was another anti Muslim riots in 1938, while still under British rule. The real basic hidden agenda was aimed at British Government but the Burmese dare not show this openly. The growing Nationalistic sentiments fanned by the local media disguised as anti Muslim to avoid the early detection and notice followed by the full blown force of mighty British Government machinery. The Burmese Nationalists fanned the anti Muslim sentiments by using the following facts. 1. Problems in mixed marriages. Issue of conversion of the Burmese girls and the religious and legal matters that follows, e.g. non-conversion, divorce, death and inheritance. 2. Economically the Muslims were better and some amount of jealousy set in. 3. Buddhists could not accept Myanmar Muslims as fellow citizens but look down on them as Kalas or foreigners. 4. Burmese Newspapers started the hate campaign against Muslims since 1935. They use the words such as Muslims had taken their wealth and girls, to incite hatreds. They called to expel the Muslims from the government service and to deport them. 5. There was a religious argument between a Moulvi Hassan Shah and a Buddhist, Maung Pan Nyo. A book came out in 1931 about that and Buddhists published pamphlets again to attack Islam. Burmese Muslim Abdulla Maung Sin wrote the rebuttal claiming that Maung Pan Nyos book offended Islam and the Prophet. Then Maung Shwe Hpi, a Myanmar Muslim published a book and included all of the above-mentioned books and articles. 6. Hasan Shah published the new edition without any consequences. 7. In June 1938 a Buddhist journalist published the most offending extracts. Newspapers, organizations and Buddhist monks demanded action against the author. They called to stop inter marriages to prevent the spread of Islam. 8. The monks even guarded in the markets to prevent the Buddhists from purchasing at Muslim shops. 9. Because of these anti Muslim activity and preparation and inciting to start an anti Muslim riots, Muslim organizations and Muslim newspapers started a campaign to please the Buddhists to avoid a riot. 10. On 26.7.1938. anti Muslim rally was held at Shwe Dagon pagoda. They started the Burma for Burmese only Campaign. They marched to the Muslim (Surti) Bazar. While the Indian Police broke the violent demonstration, three monks were hurt. Burmese Newspapers use the pictures of Indian police attacking the Buddhist monks to further incite the spread of riots. Muslim properties: shops, houses and mosques were looted, destroyed and burnt to ashes. They assaulted and even massacred the Muslims. It spreads to all over Burma and recorded that 113 mosques were damaged. On 22.9.38. British Governor set up the Inquiry Committee. They found out that the real cause was the discontent in the government regarding the deterioration in sociopolitical and economic conditions of Burmans. The book was used as an inciting factor by the irresponsible Burmese newspapers. They use the anti Muslim propaganda as a disguise to cover up for the political struggle to gain independence. So the Buddhist used the Muslims as a scapegoat, for the first time, to fight against the British.
The Simon Commission (The Royal Statutory Commission, appointed according to the Law of the Government of India1919, The Montague-Chelmsford Law) to inquire the effects of Dyarchy system of ruling Burma, had recommended that special places be assigned to the Myanmar Muslims in the Legislative Council. It recommended that full rights of citizenship should be guaranteed to all the minorities: the right of free worship, the right to follow their own customs, the right to own property and to receive a share of the public revenues for the maintenance of their own educational and charitable institutions. It recommended Home Rule or independent government separate from India or the status of dominion. But the British Government refused to accept all those recommended except the separation, at the round table committee on India held in London in 1930. Although the Indians and Anglo Burmese were granted separate community representation Myanmar Muslims were denied their rights by the British. During the Second World War, after the British retreat and before the Japanese could start their rule, the Burmese Buddhists had inflicted a lot of offences against Muslims. After the independence Prime Minister U Nu appointed few Muslims into his cabinet. They were not included as the representatives of the Myanmar Muslims but on their own capacity as the political ally of the Prime Minister and the ruling party. They were even told to dissociate themselves from the Islamic Religious activities. The BMC, Burma Muslim Congress was founded almost at the same time with the AFPFL, Anti-Fascist Peoples Freedom Party of General Aung San and U Nu before World War Two. On 25.12 45 in Pyin Mana, U Razak was elected the President of BMC and decided to join AFPFL. U Razak was elected AFPFL President in the Mandalay district in 1946. Later the Govoner accepted him as the member of constitutional council. He had a very good relations with Buddhist and even fluent in Pali (Buddhist scriptures are written in this ancient language of India). He became the Minister of Education and Planning in Bogokes (General Aung Aung San) Government and was assassinated together later. But he had supported the main policy of the AFPFL: that is against the partition along the community or religious lines. U Razak and his few associates objected to the struggle of those demanding specific constitutional guarantees for the Myanmar Muslim minority. So, although U Razak was a very popular, important and prominent Myanmar Muslim leader who had successfully organized the Myanmar Muslims to be able to get an official record that they had participated since the very beginning of the Burmese National struggle towards independence. His stand of united Burmese (Myanmar) nation sacrificing the long-term interest of guarantee for the rights of Minority Myanmar Muslim satisfied not only the Burmese Buddhist leaders of the AFPFL, but strangely also the British Government. May be because of that he got a lot of personal rewards. U Raschid and more prominently U Khin Maung Lat, follows the general policy of sacrificing the Rights and Interests of the Myanmar Muslim Community for the country and their party. So no wander most of the Myanmar Muslims later refused to regard or recognize these self interested seasoned politicians as their true representatives or saviors. Prime Minister U Nu, just few months after independence of Burma, requested the Burma Muslim Congress to resign its membership from AFPFL. In response to that U Khin Maung Lat, the new President of BMC
decided to discontinue the Islamic Religious activities of the BMC and rejoined the AFPFL. Later he became the Minister of Justice but no more represented the wishes of Myanmar Muslim community. The newly formed The Burmese Muslim League requested a special government department for the Muslim affairs to determine their own future, as the same as for other minorities, who had Ministries in Yangon and governments in their states. U Nu removed the Burma Muslim Congress from AFPFL on 30.9.1956. BMC was asked to dissolve since 1955. Later U Nu decreed the Buddhism as the state religion of Burma against the will of the Ethnic Minorities and various religious organizations including Myanmar Muslims. U Nu as the devoted Buddhist was pressured by the wealthy and influential Hindi merchants, ordered the prohibition of slaughtering the cattle. Although he relaxed that during the Kurbani Edd (Hari Raya Haji), Muslims had to apply the permits for each cattle and strictly follow under police supervision. Although General Ne Win revoked the first order and allow the slaughter of cattle for daily consumption, the second order of strict restriction for the sacrifice remained up to the present and the Muslims, even Mosques official who failed to adhere to the permitted number of cattle are arrested and punished. And some Muslims complained that U Nus government had made more difficult conditions and regulations for the Haj pilgrimage than the Buddhists pilgrims going to Sri Lanka and Nepal. There was even some suspect among the minorities of Myanmar that there was previously a secret pact between Prime Minister U Nu and General Ne Win to hand over the government so that the Military could ignore the legal rights of minorities to secede from the union. Later only General Ne Win got the taste of power and refused to return back the governing powers back to the original owner, people. No one can deny that the all of the people of Myanmar are suffering a lot under the Autocratic, Oligarchical, Totalitarian, Xenophobic, Oppressive, Repressive and Tyrannical Military rule of Ne Win and his cohorts. Burmese Muslims were allowed to hold high posts in civil service and in armed forces before Ne Win came into power. Despite the sacrificial contributions, which Burmese Muslims had made towards attaining Independence and in reconstructing the war-torn country after World War II, Ne Win apparently had extremely short memory of these facts. He denied high official posts to Burmese Muslims in civil service military and in Government offices (i.e. Party and Politics). He-had also forgotten the fact that BurmeseMuslim leaders were martyred along with our national hero General Aung San when he was assassinated. So it is not surprising that one could not find Muslim, ministers or Deputy Ministers in Burma under Ne Win. But there were cases of double standards in that those Burmese-Muslim intellectuals who professed Buddhism as their new faith were exalted to high posts. One such individual was Dr. Maung Di, the son of the prominent Dean of the Islamic College in central Burma, who was promoted from the post of Professor in Chemistry to Deputy Minister of Education after he officially declared himself a Buddhist. During the successive Military Governments, those Myanmar Muslim who wanted to join the Military were asked one common question- could you eat pork? We in the army cannot arrange for halal food.(Actually just want to stop the long tradition of caring for Muslims.)
The chairman of the BSPP (Burma Socialist Programme Party), Ne Win, had forbidden the Burmese Muslim community to enlist themselves as a separate racial group so the Muslims in that country do not exist as a Burmese Muslim race. During the early 70's Burmese Muslims, were insulted repeatedly in the Government newspapers for no reasons whatsoever by calling them Kala dain, meaning low-class Indians or spawns of Indians. And Ne Win labeled the Burmese Muslims as "Mi-masit, Pha-Masit", meaning Bastards. He used this term repeatedly in the important speeches which eventually led up to the legislation of basic principles which formed the foundations of the Citizenship Act 1982 which discriminated and denied the rights of Burmese Muslims (Myanmar Muslims). While preparing for that Citizenship Act, General Ne Win tried to expel and clean up some of the Arakan Rohingya Muslims in an operation, code named-King Dragon. During that operation, the Burma armies rounded up Muslim villagers from Arakan and their identity cards were confiscated. Later these authorities claimed that those identity cards were fakes and were torn or burnt to ashes. After that these Muslims were beaten, tortured, looted, raped and driven out from their villages. So more than three hundred thousand Muslims fled to near by Bengladesh. It was only after UNHCR put some pressure did Ne Win, agreed to allow in some refugees who still hold the Burmese I.C.s. There are still some refugees in Bengladesh and some of them have set up anti-Rangoon groups to fight for self-determination. About 60,000 of Muslims have since migrated to Saudi Arabia where they were greeted with open arms as brothers-in-Islam. Racial and community riots are one of the dirty tricks and tactics of Military rulers to cover up the economic failure and political dissent. The first government-sponsored racial riots to take place in Myanmar was in 1967, during Ne Wins rule. In that Chinatown riots, the general populace went on a killing-spree because of sedition and instigation against Chinese by the various Government departments. The massacre lasted for about five consecutive days, during which period; thousands of Chinese died or were left dying in the streets of Rangoon. Some of the Chinese were thrown down alive from the second and third floors of buildings in downtown Rangoon. The dead and wounded Chinese were hauled up unceremoniously and dumped onto army trucks and taken to 'Htauk Kyan' incinerators and the carcasses were sent up to heaven in smoke. That showed the true bestial and cruel side of the character of the ruling. The only crime was the wearing of Chairman Maos badges on their shirts. Being familiar with the above usual maneuver, adopted by the Burma Military Government, Bertil Lintner, famous Sweden journalist expert on Burma, was certain that the economic failure and political dissent would be covered up by inciting anti-Muslim racial riots. The premonitions and predictions he made made since 17th. of April 1988 in the Bangkok Post, really come true within a couple of months time. Myanmar Government agents managed successfully to incite the anti-Muslim riots in Taung Gyi and Prome, the native town of Ne Win. Hundreds of Muslims were killed especially in Prome. Properties of Muslims were looted or were put to the torch. Houses, shops, mosques, Muslim religious schools and even the Muslim orphanage were destroyed in those areas. The Military Intelligence chief Brigadier General Tin Oo surreptitiously launched an anti-Muslim campaign in Min Doan and Kyone Doe but that attempt, fizzled out and failed to create widespread community riots in the country. After that some of the Muslim victims fled to the east near Burma Thailand border and formed a group of Muslim freedom fighters who vowed to fight against the central Burmese Government.
After such initial stages of warring between different racial groups, the people of different creeds began to realize that all these troubles have been purposely incited by the secret agents of the Government. They wanted to steer the attention of the people away from deplorable economic situation and lack of viable solutions to all such failures. The people: Buddhists and Muslims then joined hands in uniting to demonstrate, strike and fight as a united opposition against the Government. The people had successfully formed a United Friendship Organization between Buddhist monks and Burmese Muslims. During that demonstrations, one thousand Muslim students held 3 days of hunger strike in Mandalay, started from 11.9.88, which was joined by fellow Buddhists. In the first week of September 1988, All Burma Muslim Maulana ( Imam ) Association declared Jihad (Holy War) against the Socialist Government, but not against the Burmese Buddhists. After the fake coup by General Saw Maung, Burma army purposely assaulted the 'Bengladeshi quarter' (one of the Muslim quarters). Rangoon-Radio had even announced the combat fight and death of eight soldiers but failed to announce the number of Muslim deaths, which was a massacre. Ne Wins government did not allow Myanmar Muslims to built new Mosques in any part of Burma. They give permission only to rebuild or repair the old or ruined Mosques. So in the suburban areas, new townships and even in many universities, Muslims have no place to perform their prayers. If they try to use some places or buildings donated by Muslims or those belonging to Muslim Associations, relevant Military Government authorities always interrupt and prohibit the prayers. Some of those were confiscated.
Haj
Before General Ne Wins Military rule, at least 400 to 500 pilgrims perform Haj every year. He imposed severe restriction on foreign currency and only sixteen persons were allowed to go to Mecca for Haj in his first year of rule and later banned the Haj trips totally. Repeated pleadings of various Myanmar Muslim Organizations were simply ignored for few years and later allowed again but the number allowed was restricted. In his entire reign of 26 years, Ne Win allowed the Muslims in Burma to go on a pilgrimage to Mecca less than 9 times only. Although there are about seven million Muslims in Burma, the number allowed out for pilgrimage was only about one hundred and fifty persons each year. In 1987 they allowed only 75 persons and in 1988 none were allowed to go to Mecca. So total population of new Haji in all of those twentysix years was only about one thousand persons only. This simply pales when compared with the number leaving for Haj from Malaysia: 30,000 each Year. This is mind boggling when we realize that the Muslim population of Malaysia is less than the double of Myanmar Muslim population. This actually points out the extent to which freedom of religion and worship is denied and suppressed contrary to what had been laid down in the constitution of Burma (Myanmar). Ne Win, Sein Lwin and ex-Military Intelligence chief Bragidier General Tin Oo will definitely be remembered along with those most hated leaders such as Hitler, Musoloni, Stalin. Idi Amin and Pol Pot. Myanmar Military Intelligence, 'Lon Htein' Riot Police of Myanmar and No.22 Light Infantry Division of Myanmar army should be listed in the same category and rank as Gestapo (Nazi-Germany) and Kinpeitai (Fascists Japanese Military Police, World War II). There is also a strange resemblance between the Nazi party (German National Socialist Party) and our BSPP (Burma Socialist Programme Party): in their-name, brutality,
racial discrimination, suppression, ethnic cleansing, lack of respect for human life and human rights and in their insensitivity to world opinion. Arakan Muslims or Rohingyas have been treated as lesser beings and all their properties and rights could have been stripped off at a simple verbal order of a regional Military officer. Though peacefully living in their homeland, always loyal to the state, the response from the junta has been hostile and it never ceases asking things one after another like fish devils as Rohingya has a saying. Due to the sickening situation in Arakan, some Robingyas volunteered to become aliens in foreign lands, hoping that it would be better to live as refugees in a foreign country than living in one's homeland governed by an tyranny army. However, majority Rohingyas do not follow them despite members of Muslim households are arbitrarily arrested, whimsically killed and routinely exacted for forced labour while products from agriculture and fishing sectors are to be surrendered before the authorities at throw away prices. Also restrictions on movement, social life and religion are so severe that unemployment, starvation and social menace have grown. The authorities have switched on the eviction phase so that the uprooted people would be compelled to make their way out of the country. On the other hand, they could allot fertile lands of Muslims to Rakhlne Buddhists as well as for construction of military installations. In ApriI and May 1997, the authorities confiscated not less than 2000 acres of land comprising large villages and arable lands in Maungdaw alone. Many Muslim villages, some centuries old in interior Arakan, have been uprooted nakedly at a time when the international community and human rights organizations have been closely watching the performance of the ruling military junta in Burma on human rights issue. As of today, any amount of lukewarm pressure from outside world has not so far shaken the ruling regime and it still continues ethnic cleansing in, Muslim areas, specially uprooting Rohingya Muslims. The recent new racial tension in March 1997 between Buddhists and Muslims and the attack on Muslim properties was apparently masterminded by the ruling regime in Burma and had it not been so, none would dare to resort to violence before ever-vigilant SLORC soldiers. The bronze Buddha statue in the Maha Myatmoni pagoda, originally from the Arakan, brought to Mandalay by King Bodawpaya in 1784 AD was renovated by the authorities, when there developed a crack on the statue. The monks suspected that some jewelleries enshrined in the statue were stolen and were thus, infuriated. Since March 15, 1997 abbots from different monasteries in Mandalay held meetings over the issue and there was a general dissatisfaction against the ruling regime for it. As it was turning to agitation the SLORC authorities incited the Buddhists with alleged rape case involving a Myanmar Muslim. Leaflets were extensively distributed by hiring local goons and members of the USDA (Union Solidarity and Development Association) who are widely seen as stooges under the guidance of military intelligence officials disguising as monks A group consisting of about two-three hundred goons, apparently drunk led a lightening swoop on in the Muslim areas. The attacks on Muslims soon spread to five other townships around Mandalay and to the lower Burma including Rangoon, Prome and other major cities like a wildfire. The monks in the group were not seen before and were presumed to be army personnel in robes.
In order to hoodwink the international community and the ASEAN, the SLORC stepped in by sending troops and imposing section 144 in major cities in the name of protecting Muslims, when some mosques, Muslim shops and dwelling places were already substantially destroyed. The soldiers pretend to arrest some monks involved in the anti Muslims riots who were agents of the SLORC in monks attire, and released back secretly. The ruling junta in the process had targeted to materialize its plans: to punish Muslims in line with anti-Muslim strategy, diversion of an imminent threat and countrywide confrontation with the Buddhist monks, defamation of monks by accusing them that they are a group of violent people and justifying their misdeeds by making scapegoat.
Many in the world witnessed the unfortunate situation in Burma where Muslims were fallen prey. Mosques in Yadanabone, Daywin, Seinpan, Payagyi, Zar Wai Yar, Thayai Yon, Hlwa Htaung, Tho Chan, Al Myauk Dan Gyi and Nan Dwin (high security area in the Mandalay palace) in Mandalay, central Burma were substantially damaged. Other townships in the central Burma where the religious riots took place were Amarapura townships two mosques, Patheingyi townships one mosque,Shwebow townships one mosque, Monywa townships one mosque and Pakhukku townships two mosques. In lower Burma the attack on Muslims took place in Rangoon, vandalizing Alone Chowdry mosque, Ahlone Eidga mosque, Haji Salamat mosque in Pazundaung, Kyee Myindine mosque, Thakeda 17th Ward mosque, Kanbe mosque, South Okkalapa Madarasa, 48th street Madarasa and seven Muslim houses in Yankin and several houses in Dawbon. Also four mosques in Pegu and two mosques in Prome were damaged by the mobs. Religious books including copies of holy Quran were also destroyed. The fanatic Buddhists of Arakan, particularly in Akyab and Maungdaw township, taking advantage of one sided attack on Muslims in Burma proper, made several attempts to vandalize in Muslim areas. A group of Rakhine leaders were reported to have sought permission from the authorities for terrorizing in Muslim villages of Maungdaw Township. But the in-charge of the Border Administration told them that he needed clearance from higher authorities as the area is too close to Bangladesh. A total of 32 structures - mosques, Madarasa and residential buildings of Muslims worth millions of dollars were destroyed. (ABIM. Malaysia. Rohingya pamphlet.) The communal unrest - the worst to date between the Buddhist and Muslim communities - has shaken the country with a multiplicity of races and religions. The whole country returned to a state of shock as its people were still trying to recover from the last massive student protests against the Burmese junta in December. Suddenly, Muslim communities across the country began to live in fear of Buddhist attacks on them, their property and public Muslim gathering sites - particularly mosques. Foreign tourists visiting the country under, the heavily promoted Visit Myanmar Year were kept away from possible hot spots and predictably the Burmese junta quickly slapped a visa ban on foreign journalists. Hundreds of saffron-robed Buddhist monks, batons and sticks in hand, took to the streets joining their religious colleagues to express anger with the country's Muslim population. A group of militant monks broke away and attacked a mosque in the neighborhood, vandalizing it to their satisfaction. Surprisingly, Burmese policemen and troops armed with weapons, riot shields and water guns, did not attempt to stop either the march or the ransacking. Instead, they joined curious onlookers in watching from a safe
distance. It's very strange. The police just stopped and watched. They did very little apart from spraying the occasional water gun, one western tourist said. It was a disheartening sight to see monks clambering up minarets, ransacking prayer towers and literally destroying everything inside the mosque, including the ceilings and floor coverings. All that remained was piles of debris and heavy sorrow implanted in the hearts of local Muslims who did not quite understand why they had been so violently attacked. The best they could do was try to restore the mosque, clean up the mess and gather all the religious documents, including copies of the Koran. The unrest quickly spread to other cities, including Rangoon, as Buddhist monks continued ransacking mosques. Curfews have been imposed in Mandalay, the central Burmese city where the unrest erupted two weeks ago, and in Taungoo, one of several cities between Mandalay and the capital that have seen attacks on Muslim property. There has been a report of fresh unrest in Sittwe in Arakan state bordering Bangladesh, but this could not be confirmed. With a high Muslim population, the state has historically been a hotbed of religious tension. Sittwe, Mandalay and Rangoon are three of the five cities reportedly put under a first-degree security alert by authorities to prevent trouble spreading. (The Nation newspaper, Thailand, Saturday, April 5, 1997. reported this news with the colour photographs of a large group of Buddhist monks with weapons marching to search for Muslim properties, damaged exterior and interior of the Mosques complete with destroyed Korans.) Actually the worse anti-Muslim riots was in Taungoo last year and spread to many towns. Sadly the present Military failed to protect or control the Muslim killing and destroying of Muslim properties, Mosques, houses and shops but even arrested few dozens of teenage Muslim boys and some women. They are currently serving long-term sentences ranging from seven years to twenty years. In their charge sheets and court records shown that they were seen running across the roads in front of Fire-extinguishers, water tankers and police cars and seemed to be trying to obstruct the work of government servants! How ridiculous the charges were. Who in the right mind would obstruct those persons when they were facing the riots, their properties looted, houses and shops burnt and the rioters are trying to assault and even trying to kill them. I hope the Military leaders and puppet judges should review their shameful act of punishing the victims. Thein Pe Myint a famous Burmese chauvinist journalist once wrote in the Vanguard (Bo Ta Htaung) newspaper that all the Kalas (Indians) are bad. He had a cheek to claim that the old Kalas (Ancient Indians) were good in contrast to the present Kalas in Burma. Ancient Kalas (Indians) had contributed the Religion, Culture, Arts, Language, Literature and many good things the Burmans had inherited. (In other words, he had even accidentally called their god, the ancient good Kala) (Note- Kala is actually a politically incorrect word, derogatory, as Black Negro). Other case of discrimination by the Military rulers against the Myanmar Muslims was strangely happened in front of Muslim leaders of Malaysia. Before the admission of Myanmar into Asian, General Than Swe, General Khin Nyunt and Myanmar leaders visited Malaysia. At first they arranged to meet with Myanmar expatriates in Kuala Lumpur. But after going through the guest lists, they found out that most of the expatriates in Kuala Lumpur are Muslims. Myanmar leaders remarked that they did not want to meet with Kalas and cancelled the meeting. But another meeting with expatriates in Penang was all right for them because there were more Buddhists there. It is sad to note here that the opposition leader Daw Aung San Su Kyi is also not yet an ideal leader for the Myanmar Muslims as she does not seem to know the real back ground and the sufferings of Myanmar Muslims. In her books and speeches, she is seemed to be influenced by her own Buddhist ideology only. She seems to know a little bit about Christianity but almost nothing about Islam. But she said that she respects all
the religions and no one have a right to look down on any religion. When pressed about the rights of Myanmar Muslims, she was more interested in obtaining democracy for all the Myanmar citizens only. She was not aware that the Minorities including the Myanmar Muslims need more than equal rights, they need the guaranteed protection from the Majorities and the chance to get places of representation in the Government. Worst of all, the discriminations were sadly noticed to be committed by the opposition leaders in exile and the leaders of the various groups of rebels. There was a conference in Thailand, among them and the NGOs supporting them from various countries. Some of the Myanmar Muslims including the Rohingya Muslims brought up some facts about the Myanmar Muslim Minorities. Most of the Buddhists chauvinists bluntly brushed aside that they have to wait for the more important issue of getting the democracy first. But strangely they even refused to record that Myanmar Muslim issue in the records by giving the lame excuse that it is a religious matter but not a political matter at all. When ABIM, Malaysian Youth Movement, representative rightly pointed out to them of the inclusion of Christian Karen problem, they could not give a satisfactory answer. Even long before the opposition got the power, they already have a mind-set to discriminate Myanmar Muslims. They could not ignore the force and power of the Christian Karen Rebel faction of KNU at the Myanmar Thailand border and the financial aid of Christian Charities, Christian NGOs and Christian donors and supporters of Western countries. But they could still ignore the plights and rights of Myanmar Muslims because of lack of support from the Muslim world. Arabs are preoccupied with Palestinian problem and Iraq threat. Muslim neighbour countries in Asian are also even well known regional protectors of Myanmar Military Government. They are known to be interested in protecting and securing their children and friends investment and business in Myanmar only. Please have a consideration. Religious and Racial Discriminations never yield results. Look at Apartheid in South Africa . Killing of Jews in Nazi Germany. Ethnic cleansing in Bosnia. Terrorizing of Palestinians by the powerful Jews.
Chapter10 CitizenshipLegislationandIdentityCards
The recent unfair travel restriction on all the Muslims in Myanmar/Burma is actually the extension of the atrocities committed on our brothers-in-Islam Rohingyas of Arakan State. The travel restriction is internal travels and traveling abroad to foreign countries. Myanmar Military Junta bluntly stopped issuing Passports to all the Muslims in Myanmar/Burma since last quarter of 2001. Issuing of Birth Certificates and National Registration Cards are also tightened too much on all the Muslims. Once the authorities know that the applicant is a Muslim they used to reject with the sarcastic remarks that that person is a mixed blood, hybrid and not a citizen. Some of the Muslims with the valid genuine National Registration Cards are also arrested at the various roadblocks on highways and town entrances. If could not give the bribery the local authorities demanded they would end up in jails for no valid reason. The law in Myanmar always comes out from the barrel of gun.
The Principle of Non-Discrimination

Burma acceded The Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC), in 1991 and is therefore legally obliged to respect its provisions. The most important principle of the CRC (Convention on the Rights of the Child, is set forth in Article 2, which provides that the state parties -"shall respect and ensure the rights set forth in the present convention of each child within their jurisdiction, without discrimination of any kind, irrespective of the child's or his or her parents or legal guardian's race, color, sex, language, religion, political or other opinions, national, ethnic or social origin, property, disability, birth or other status." Thus, unlike other international instruments, the CRC not only calls for nondiscrimination among citizens of a country but also commits state parties to ensure that the rights of all children residing in their territory are protected. In Burma, despite the frequent reference in the Child Law to "every child," children are discriminated against in the law and in practice on the grounds of citizenship, ethnicity, and religious beliefs. Discrimination on the Basis of Citizenship and Between Classes of Citizens. To begin with, the Child Law (1993) does not apply to all children residing in Burma because it is subject to other existing laws, for example, the Burma Citizenship Law (1982) and the Socialist Constitution of 1974. Thus, foreigners residing in Burma do not have the right to the same services and benefits under the Child Law as Burmese nationals. According to Section 154(c) of Burma's 1974 constitution, it is only children born of citizens who should enjoy equal rights. There is further discrimination even among "citizens." The Child Law in Article 10 states "every child shall have the right to citizenship in accordance with the provisions of the existing law."
The notable existing law is the 1982 Citizenship Law, which designates three categories of citizens: Full citizens Associate citizens and Naturalized citizens
In order to be a full citizen of the country, one must be able to produce evidence of the birthplace and nationality of one's ancestors prior to the first British annexation in 1823. This includes nationals from the Kachin, Karenni (Kayah), Karen, Chin, Mon, Rakhine and Shan ethnic groups, or any other ethnic groups which, have settled in the territories included within the State" prior to 1823. Failing this, one is classified as an associate citizen if only one (or more) post- 1823 ancestors was a citizen of another county. No other criteria are stipulated. A naturalized citizen is one who has a parent who was a full citizen and one who was an associate citizen. According to the terms of the law: Only full and naturalized citizens are "entitled to enjoy the rights of a citizen under the law, with the exception from time to time of the rights stipulated by the State." All forms of citizenship, "except a citizen by birth," may be revoked by the State. It is explicitly stated in the law that the three levels of citizenship entitle the holder to different rights, although there are many rights not mentioned in the law, which also pertain to citizenship even if they are not always applied. Among other things, associate citizens cannot own land or fixed property; they cannot train to be doctors or engineers (until recent times these were the most sought-after careers in Burma, as qualification enabled the person to leave the country); they cannot be tuition (private) teachers; they cannot work for foreign firms, U.N. agencies or foreign embassies; and they cannot stand for any elected office. Every person in Burma must carry at all times his or her identity card. The ID card must be produced in order to obtain a wide range of services and the right to vote, to purchase tickets to travel internally, to stay in hostels or with friends and family Outside one's ward of residence, to receive health and educational services and so on. ID cards are also routinely demanded for checking by police and any personnel. Foreigners residing in Burma for more than three months have Foreign Registration Certificates which they must also carry at all times. The ID cards were changed in 1990/91 to a new format, which includes not only the name, address and photo of tile holder, but also his or her ethnic origin and religion. From this, anyone checking the card can know what class of citizen the holder is. Many members of Burma's ethnic minorities who are entitled under the Citizenship Law to be full citizens have no identity cards, especially those who live in areas which were not under government control for long periods. Access to written records, the difficulty of traveling to government-controlled areas for registration, and a general unwillingness of the government to register such people make the process of proving citizenship
immensely difficult. Following cease-fire agreements with the ethnic armies, the government has sometimes announced that identity cards will be offered to the families and children of those living within the ethnically controlled areas. For example, in January 1996 it was announced that the SLORC would issue identity cards to residents of the drug baron Khun Sa's base at Homong in Shan state. In October 1996 however, Human Rights Watch/Asia interviewed several former soldiers from Khun Sa's army in Thailand and was told that the ID cards they were given were only temporary and would not been replaced by the official pink cards. Lahu villagers interviewed at the same time told Human Rights Watch/Asia that despite repeated requests, they had not been able to change their old cards for the new cards, even though the Lahu have had a cease-fire a-reeineiit with the government since 1989. Without these cards, they cannot travel freely within Burma or vote, and their children cannot attend high school or university. For the Rohingya Muslims from Arakan State, becoming a registered citizen is almost impossible. The situation is even worse for their children born in refugee camps in Bangladesh. Regarded as foreigners, they experience discrimination in many ways. Without being considered citizens, the Rolliiigyas will continue to have their rights violated. Rohingya children will not be able to travel, attend high schools and universities, or own property. Quoted by the Special Rapporteur to Burma, Professor Yokota, in his "Report on the Situation of Human Rights in Myanmar, prepared by Mr. Yozo Yokota, Special Rapporteur of the Commission on Human Rights, in accordance with Commission resolution 1995/72," (Geneva: U.N. ECOSOC, E/CN.4/1996/65, February 5, 1996). Therefore, there is a need to harmonize tile Child Law, the constitution and the Citizenship Act of 1982 to protect all children within the jurisdiction of Burma against de jure discrimination. Current legislation and practice contravene not only the CRC but also the 1961 Convention on the Abolition of Statelessness. Burma has been repeatedly urged by the special rapporteur and in numerous resolutions of the Commission on Human Rights to revise the 1982 Act.
Discrimination Against Ethnic Minorities

We have already seen that ethnic minorities have difficulty in gaining their right to citizenship, but children from ethnic minority groups are also discriminated against in other ways. Minority rights are not adequately protected even under the 1974 constitution. According to the constitution, Article 152, "Burmese is the common language, languages of the other national races may also be taught." The word "may" and "shall" mean different things in legislative drafting. Whereas "shall" connotes a mandatory obligation, "may" suggests probability of observance; there is no compulsion to observe in all situations, and in practice this is what obtains. The Child Law is more helpful on this matter. Article 21 states that "Every child shall have the right to maintain his or her own cherished language, literature and culture, to profess his or her own religion and to follow his or her own traditions and customs."
Discrimination Against Religious Minorities

It is very important to children's development that they and their parents be permitted the right to freely worship and profess their religious faith. This is recognized in Article 14 of the Convention of the Rights of the Child and in Section 21 of Burma's Child Law. Despite the new law, however, there have been indications of an increasingly intolerant attitude by the government towards the ethnic and religious minorities (and the two groups usually coincide). Without going so far as to designate Buddhism the state religion, the SLORC has enacted a clear policy to promote Buddhism in Burma, both in order to enhance the legitimacy of the military government and to forge "national solidarity." Thus, while Buddhist monastic schools have been greatly encouraged, especially in ethnic minority areas in recent years, there are no Christian middle or high schools, and in many areas unofficial madrasahs (Muslim schools) have either been closed or prayers within the schools have been prohibited. In response to the 1993 report of the Special Rapporteur on Religious Intolerance, the SLORC claimed that it "is prudent and careful in taking measures so that there is no discrimination against other religious faiths ... For this reason, a separate Ministry of Religious Affairs ... was established in 1992." The statement did not add that the religious affairs Ministry is located in the grounds of the World Peace Pagoda (Kaba Aye) in Rangoon, a compound which also serves as the home of the most senior committee of Buddhist monks, the Sangha Maha Nayaka Committee. Nor did he mention that one of the main functions of the Ministry of Religious Affairs is the propagation of Buddhism, both nationally and internationally, through the publication of Buddhist scriptures and the establishment of Buddhist missionary schools in ethnic minority areas. The SLORC policy of promoting Buddhism as an essential facet of being a "true" Burman has led to discrimination against non-Buddhist children on ethnic and religious grounds and in some cases to forced conversions. In northern Sagaing division in December 1994, the Naga people of Konkailon village (who are predominantly Christian) were ordered to demolish their church and construct a Buddhist monastery in its place. The following month, villagers from Konkailon, Kuki, Nurnitmumpi and Pansat were forced to accept sila (Buddhist vows) from monks who had been brought in by the army to occupy church buildings. In the Chin state, also a predominantly Christian area, Human Rights Watch/Asia received reports that in May 1994 government authorities offered six villagers the chance to send their children-all of whom were under fourteen years of age-to boarding schools in Rangoon, where educational standards are much higher. Months later, when the parents requested permission to visit their children, they discovered that the children had been taken to a Buddhist monastery where they had been forced to convert. None of the children were permitted to return home. While we have not been able to confirm either of these reports, we remain concerned that children have been taken away from their parents under false pretenses and denied their right to freely practice the religion of their choice. Muslim children have also been denied the right to freedom of religion. Rakhine Muslims cited religious persecution as one of the factors which drove them to seek refuge in Bangladesh in 1991 and 1992. In northern Arakan state, mosques were destroyed or otherwise closed down, and Muslim children were not permitted to attend madrasahs.
More recently, in September 1996, a 600-year-old mosque in the old capital, Mrauk-Oo, was demolished by the army despite appeals by the local Muslim community. In October 1996 Human Rights Watch obtained anti-Muslim leaflets which had been distributed in Rangoon warning all Burmans to be especially vigilant to the "threat" of Muslim dominance The leaflets told "patriotic Burmese" not to eat at Muslim restaurants, buy from Muslim shops, or employ Muslim workers. The leaflets were not signed by any organization, but Muslims believed they were designed to stir up religious and racial tension to distract from the Student demonstrations which had begun in the same month. Similar tactics were employed in 1988. (See Bertil Lintner, Outrage: Burma's Straggle for Democracy, Bangkok: White Lotus Press, 1990).
Civil Rights and Freedoms

The Child Law includes provisions protecting the civil rights and freedoms of children; however, these rights are subject to important qualifications which essentially undermine their efficacy. For example, Section 14 of the Child Law states: "Every child shall, irrespective of race, religion, status, Culture, birth or sex be (a) equal before the law and (b) given equal opportunities." But this is subject to Article 154(c) of tile constitution which states that only "Children born of citizens shall enjoy equal rights." Further, Section 15 of the Child Law states that every child: Has the right to freedom of expression in accordance with the law; Has the right to freedom of thought and conscience and to freely profess any religion Has the right to participate in organizations relating to the child, social organizations or religious organizations permitted under the law.
Despite these provisions, the Child Law is subject to all existing laws, and in Burma there is a wealth of laws restricting the civil rights of all citizens. The rights of the child to freedom of expression and association are subject to a number of other existing laws, including the Unlawful Association Act (1957); Printers and Publishers Registration Law of 1962 and tile 1989 law amending it; the 1985 Video Law; the Wireless and Telegraphy Act of 1985 (amended in October 1996); tile 1950 Emergency Provisions Act; and the June 1996 Law to Protect the Stable, Peaceful and Systematic Transfer of State Responsibility and the Successful Implementation of National Convention Tasks Free from Disruption and Opposition. Each of these laws have been denounced as being contrary to international norms by the U.N. Special Rapporteurs to Burma and by human rights organizations.
Following is taken from Amnesty Internationals Reports Forcible relocations of Muslims

During February and March 1997 in central Myanmar there were reports of anti-Muslim riots in Mandalay, Prome, and Yangon by Buddhist monks, characterized by damage to mosques and Muslim property. Opposition and Muslim sources have claimed that some of the monks were in fact disguised SLORC operatives acting as agents provocateurs. However Amnesty International has not been able to confirm these reports.
Amnesty International has received reliable reports about the persecution of Muslims during the 1997 SLORC offensive against the KNU in the Kayin State. Mosques were burned, Korans were destroyed, and Muslims were forcibly evicted from their villages. Many Muslims of South Asian origin have lived in the Kayin State for over a century, and relations between ethnic Karen and Muslims have generally been good, characterized by tolerance on both sides. Muslims of South Asian origin in the Kayin State have suffered from a variety of human rights violations at the hands of the SLORC, including forced labour and forcible relocation under threat of death. One Muslim shopkeeper from Kawkareik township who fled in December 1996 described what had happened to him when he was seized as a labourer: In the first month, I worked every day...We have to do everything the SLORC needs - build roads, new buildings, collect water, cook their food...make bricks...I did that work for five months until I left...Everyone has to work, including children...I worked on the SLORC farm - harvesting coconuts, cutting trees, mango and rubber trees, planting and harvesting paddy. Muslims of south Asian origin were forcibly relocated from their villages in March 1997 in Gyaidone township, Kayin State. A 56-year-old Muslim shopkeeper provided the following information about the incidents. When the tatmadaw(Burma army) began to shell her village she fled with 170 people to the jungle. Their mosque was also burned by SLORC troops. A Karen villager, who had been interrogated about the Muslims' whereabouts, came to the jungle hideout to deliver a message to the Muslim headman from the SLORC telling them that if any Muslims returned to the village they would be killed. The Karen villager then urged them to flee from the area quickly, which they did. The Muslim woman concluded her interview by saying, I dare not go back to my place. If I go back I will be killed by the SLORC. Another Muslim shopkeeper was also evicted from her village in Gyaidone township during March 1997. A tatmadaw officer (Myanmar Military officer) called a village meeting of the 300 Muslim families and told them: We will give you 50 minutes to leave this town. You Kala [derogatory term for South Asians] have no place in this country. You have no country. We don't want you to live in Myanmar, under our authority. Go inside Thailand. If you don't leave within 50 minutes, if we find you in the village or near the river, we'll shoot you. The officer then ordered them to take their bullock carts and cross the river to Thailand. Soldiers kicked their belongings off the carts, and waved their guns at them, telling them they would shoot if they returned. She and her family left within the hour. They encountered some other SLORC troops who took all their belongings and food. Her seven-year-old daughter died on the journey to the refugee camp in Thailand. A 50-year-old Muslim shopkeeper from Kawkareik township, Kayin State, was forced by the tatmadaw to leave his village along with all the other Muslims. He said: The SLORC pushed Muslims to leave. Everyone left - to go to Thailand ...SLORC said no Muslims can stay...The villagers didn't follow the order. The order was reissued and they were given three days to leave. The SLORC said don't come back.
The man then proceeded to Kawkareik town where he was told by SLORC officials to leave or he would be arrested. One Muslim woman refugee in her 30's said to Amnesty International: Please tell the Muslim countries of our suffering...The SLORC do not tolerate Muslim people anymore. Amnesty International is concerned by the forcible relocations discussed above, which are in contravention of international humanitarian law. It is also concerned at the high level of cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment which accompany such relocations of members of ethnic minorities. Amnesty International is further concerned by the recent forcible expulsion of Muslim communities from their villages in the Kayin State, and calls on the SLORC to stop such abusive practices against members of the Muslim religious minority.
Conclusion and Recommendations

Given the scale of human rights violations in Myanmar, Amnesty International calls on the SLORC to implement the recommendations made in the April 1997 resolution adopted by the UN Commission on Human Rights, including a guarantee to the end of violations of the right to life and the protection of the rights of ethnic and religious minorities. The issue of impunity for the military also needs to addressed. The resolution calls on the SLORC: To fulfil its obligation to end impunity of perpetrators of human rights violations, including members of the military, and to investigate and prosecute alleged violations committed by government agents in all circumstances; Amnesty International also draws particular attention to the Commission's recommendation that the SLORC engage in a tripartite dialogue with the NLD and ethnic minority leaders as the best means of promoting national reconciliation. In implementing this recommendation, parties should ensure that human rights concerns outlined above are prominent on the agenda of any dialogue which takes place. With regard to the SLORC's treatment of ethnic minorities in areas of armed conflict, Amnesty International urges the SLORC to abide by the basic principles of international human rights and humanitarian law. Common Article 3 of the four Geneva Conventions, which applies to all conflicts of a non-international character, occurring within territories of a party to the Convention, sets forth minimum standards of human conduct, applicable to all parties to the conflict, for the treatment of people taking no active part in the hostilities, including members of the armed forces who have laid down their arms and those hors de combat for any reason. Among other things, paragraph 1 of this article prohibits murder of all kinds The Resolution adopted in 1997 by the UN Commission on Human Rights also calls on the SLORC and all other parties to the hostilities in Myanmar to: ...respect fully its obligations under international humanitarian law, including article 3 common to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and to halt the use of weapons against the civilian population and to protect all civilians, including persons belonging to ethnic or religious minorities, from violations of humanitarian law... With regard to extrajudicial executions, Amnesty International recommends that the SLORC issue clear orders
to halt such killings, to use force and firearms only when strictly necessary to protect life, and to investigate and bring to justice those found responsible. With regard to forced labour and portering, Amnesty International recommends that the SLORC abide by ILO Conventions No 29 and 87, which Myanmar has ratified. Immediate measures should be taken to end illtreatment and torture in the context of forced labour and portering. Forced portering should be abolished. Forcible relocations on ethnic grounds should be abolished and the SLORC should abide by Article 17 of Protocol II Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, which stipulates that civilians should be relocated only for their own security or for imperative military reasons.
Citizenship Legislation and Identity Cards

Burma's first written constitution as an independent nation, following British colonization, in 1947 defined a citizen to be 1. Every person, both of whose parents belong or belonged to any of the indigenous races of Burma; 2. Every person born in the territories included within the Union, at least one of whose grandparents belong or belonged to any of the indigenous races of Burma; 3. Every person born in any of the territories included within the Union, of parents both of whom are, or if they had been alive at the time of the commencement of this Constitution, would have been, citizens of the Union; 4. Every person who was born in any of the territories which at the time of his birth was included within His Britannic Majesty's dominions and who has resided in any of the territories included within the Union for a period of not less than eight years in the ten years immediately preceding the 1st. January 1942 and who intends to reside permanently therein and who signifies his election of citizenship of the Union in the manner within the time prescribed by law. Under the constitution, while Burmese Muslims and Rohingyas were not recognized as an indigenous race, they would have been able to seek citizenship under Section (iv). In 1948, however, a new Citizenship Act was promulgated which restricted Section (iv) to any person "from ancestors who for two generations at least have all made any of the territories included within the Union their permanent home and whose parents and him-self were born in any such territories." As a measure to prevent the continued immigration of Indians into Burma, -all residents in Burma were required to apply for registration within one year of the law and were given identity cards. Many Rohingyas and almost all the Muslims in Burma were registered and were given cards, which enabled them to vote during the democratic period between 1950 and 1962. After the military coup in 1962, Rohingyas claim that it became increasingly difficult for the children of recognized citizens to receive citizenship. The law required parents to register their children when they reached the age of ten, so that in many families those born before 1952 will have cards, whereas when their younger siblings applied, they simply never received a response. In 1974, a new constitution was introduced to enshrine the one-party state that had effectively existed since 1962. Those Rohingyas who were not considered citizens under the 1948 law and who could not provide evidence of their families' residence in Burma for two generations prior to 1948 were only able to apply for
Foreigners Registration Certificates (FRC). Once again new identity cards were issued, and again, Rohingya interviewed claimed that when their cards were given in for replacement they never saw them again. When the 200,000 Rohingyas fled to Bangladesh in 1976, the government of Burma claimed that they were all illegal immigrants who fled when they were unable to produce their identification papers during a routine immigration check. Shortly after the last refugees were forced back to Burma in 1980, the government drafted a new Citizenship Law, which was promulgated in 1982. Both the timing and content of the 1982 law indicate that it was deliberately, targeted at the Rohingyas, while also discriminating against other Asian immigrants who had entered the country during the British period. (This includes others of south Asian origin, and ethnic Chinese. The total population of immigrants is thought to be around one million people. See also Martin Smith, Ethnic Groups of Burma). It defined three categories of citizens: "citizens," "associate citizens" and "naturalized citizens." Full citizenship was limited to "nationals such as the Kachin, Kayah, Karen, Chin, Burman, Mon, Rakhine or Shan and ethnic groups as have settled in any of the territories included within the State as their permanent home from a prior to II 85 B.E.[Buddhist Era], 1823 A.D." (The date of the beginning of the British occupation of Arakan State. The rest of Burma was not fully colonized until 1856). A list of recognized ethnic groups was later published including the Kaman and Zerbadee but not Rohingyas. If a person cannot give proof of residence of all ancestors to this date, he or she can be classified as an associate citizen if one grandparent, or pre- 1823 ancestor, was a citizen of another county. Those persons who had qualified for citizenship under the 1948 law, but who would no longer qualify under this new law (i.e. those people whose ancestors came to Burma two generations prior to 1948), were also considered associate citizens if they had applied for citizenship in 1948. However, under the new law, applications for associate citizenship had to be made within one year of the promulgation of tile law. Since then, all former foreigners or stateless persons can only apply for naturalization. A naturalized citizen, according to the law, is one who has a parent who was a full citizen and one who was an associate citizen (or qualified for citizenship under the 1948 law). But a naturalized citizen must also "speak well one of the national languages", "be of good character" and "be of sound mind." According to the terms of the law, only full and naturalized citizens are "entitled to enjoy the rights of a citizen under the law, with the exception from time to time of the rights stipulated by the State." All forms of citizenship, "except a citizen by birth" (i.e. full citizen), may be revoked by the state. In the case of associate citizens, being imprisoned for one year or more is grounds for the revocation of citizenship. Under law, the Central Body, which comprises the Ministers for Home Affairs, Foreign Affairs and Defense, makes decision as to citizenship. Appeals may be made to the Council of Ministers, whose decision is final. Under the new law, few Burmese Muslims and only a few Rohingyas could qualify for full citizenship, and many would not be entitled to either associate or naturalized citizenship, due not only to their individual histories but also to the difficulty of providing evidence. Thus, most Rohingyas are only recognized as foreign residents. Those Rohingyas who had the old National Registration Cards (NRC) which they had been given after 1948 were ordered to turn in their cards when made an application for citizenship under the new law: many of them complained that they had received neither documents nor the old ones back. When interviewing over one hundred refugees in 1992, Amnesty International came across ten Rohingyas who produced pre-1962 documents." A sixty-year-old man from Buthidaung township showed Amnesty International an old Foreigners Registration Card from 1952, (Issued under the 1949 Residents of Burma Registration Act.)
and a form which he had been issued in March 1979 when he returned from Bangladesh in the 1978-80 repatriation. He said that although his and grandfather had both been born in Burma, he could not get any new identification card." A UNHCR report of interviews with 167 refugees in March 1992 stated that 50 percent of them claimed to have had documents taken from them in the previous year. However, the remaining 50 percent had managed to retain some kinds of documents to prove their residency in Burma, ranging from house registration, land titles, shop license and personal IDs.(UNHCR, "International Protection and the Myanmarese Refugees in Bangladesh," unpublished paper, April 4, 1992.) In 1996, a twenty-four-year-old man told Human Rights Watch/Asia: I had a National Registration Certificate, but none of my family has one. At the end of 1991 new cards were being issued, and I applied for one. On my form I wrote Rohingya for ethnicity, but they said that Rohingyas don't exist. It is impossible to complain about these things. So now, I have no ID card at all. And that story is nowadays routinely repeated in the whole Burma/Myanmar and regularly extended to all the Muslims of Burma/Myanmar. Many Muslims lost their Birth Certificates, Identity Cards and Passports because Military Junta simply revoked them. Following the promulgation of the 1982 law, all residents in Burma had to reapply for citizenship, exchanging their old identity documents for new ones. In 1989, a further change was made and all residents had to apply for new Citizenship Scrutiny Cards (naing-ngan-tha si-sit-ye ka-bya), rather than the old Identity Cards (hmat-hpone-tin). The new cards are color-coded for easy identification of the citizenship status of the bearer. Pink cards are given to full citizens Blue is for associate citizens Green for naturalized citizens Foreigners Registration Cards (FRCS) are white
Most Rohingyas do not have FRCs but can use their "family list," that is, the lists of household members, which are kept by the local village or township-level authorities, as proof of residence. Like the old cards, the post-1989 cards carried a photograph, signature and thumbprint of the holder as well as name, father's name, date of birth, address and occupation. However, unlike the old cards, they also include the holder's ethnicity (lu-myo) and religion (ba-tha). Needless to say, "Rohingya" is not accepted as an ethnic group and Muslims from northern Arakan cannot use this identification when applying for any form of registration. The cards are used to control the movement of people internally and to ensure that associate and naturalized citizens and foreigners do not receive benefits to which they are not legally entitled. ID cards have to be shown in Burma for the smallest of transactions, and at each of these the card number is noted down, often in triplicate to be sent to the relevant ministries and government departments. This includes buying a bus, boat, train or plane ticket, applying for a place in school; visiting a friend outside one's ward, (the smallest division of local administration. A ward in a town can be as small as ten streets); or applying for any government job. When the government began to issue the post- 1989 cards, the IMPD was given technical assistance by the U.N. Fund for Population Activities (UNFPA) to develop a computer database which would form the basis of future population censuses. (At the time, the IMPD was a department of the Home and Religious Affairs Ministry. In June 1995 the SLOKC created a new Ministry of Immigration and Manpower under military
hard-liner, Lt Gen Maung Hla (who is also responsible for military appointments, and was formerly Military Operations Commander). The IMPD is the only department of the new Ministry.) Under this new system, figures from IMPD from November 1992 show that nearly 30 percent of all those who applied for cards from the Arakan state were either rejected or were still waiting a decision. These compares to a national average of 3 percent (see Appendix B). However, while this is already low, it is based on population figures, which omit large numbers of Muslims, most of whom probably never applied for cards. Thus, while the figures do not give a breakdown by ethnic group or religion, it is clear that Arakan State has the worst record for rejection of citizenship applications in Burma. Indeed, it is likely that only those Rohingyas who were successful businessmen or professionals and who needed cards in order to travel were able to get the new green cards. And even then, of the ten Rohingyas whom Human Rights Watch/Asia has met who had obtained these cards, six admitted having paid large bribes to local officials for them. Associate or naturalized citizens are entitled to enjoy "the rights of a citizen under the laws of the State, with the exception of the rights stipulated from time to time by the Council of state" [emphasis added]. (1982 Citizenship Law, sections 30 (c) and 5') (c). It is not clear what the legal framework is for the exceptions, a lack of legal clarity, which was noted as a major obstacle to the rule of law by the former Special Rapporteur to Burma, Professor Yokota, in his report of February 1993. (Yozo Yokota, "Situation of Human Rights in Myanmar" (Geneva: U.N. Commission on Human Rights) E/CN.4/1993/3, February 17, 1993. Yokota resigned as Rapporteur to Burma in April 1996, in protest at a lack of financial and administrative support from the UN for his mandate and has been replaced by Mr. Rajsoomer Lailah.) Many interviewees however, stated that the rights denied associate and naturalized citizens include the right to own immovable property; the right to be employed as civil servants; the right to stand for election. In addition, university admission guidelines prevent all but full citizens from studying medicine, dentistry and engineering at institutes of higher education. Those Rohingyas who are neither associate nor naturalized citizens (that is, the majority) but stateless persons or holders of FRCs are also denied these rights, and in addition they are denied freedom of movement. Under the 1864 (amended in 1940) Foreigners Act they are required to apply for a license to leave their place of residents or travel within Burma. Section 12 of the act states, "Every such license shall state the name of the person to whom the license is granted, the nation to which he belongs, the district or districts through which he is authorized to travel, and the period, if any, during which the license is intended to have effect. Under the 1974 Constitution, foreigners are also denied basic civil and political rights such as the freedom to practice any religion (Article 156a), the right of association (Article 158), and access to courts (Article 101f). There are no similar restrictions on the social and economic rights of foreigners, for example on the right to work, to basic education, and to the ownership of movable property.
International Law and the 1982 Citizenship Act

The 1982 Citizenship Law should be revised or amended to abolish its over-burdensome requirements for citizens in a manner, which has discriminatory effects on racial or ethnic minorities particularly the Rakhine Muslims. It should be brought in line with the principles embodied in the Convention on the Reduction of Statelessness of 30 August 1961. (Prof. Yozo Yokota, "Report on the Situation of Human Rights in Myanmar," UNECOSOC E/CN.4/1993/37, February 17, 1993.)
Burma's citizenship law violates several fundamental principles of international common law and leaves Rohingyas exposed with no legal protection of their rights. Nationality is the principal link between the individual and the law. People invoke the protection of the state by virtue of their nationality. As well as being denied specific rights in Burma, such as the right to freedom of movement, the right to education, the right to own property, and so on, by being denied citizenship Rohingyas are also denied recourse to the law in any situation, including, international law. Since citizenship is thus essential for the protection of all rights, international norms have been developed that impose an obligation on states to grant citizenship to stateless people who are not recognized as citizens of any other state. The International Covenant of Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) address this issue in Article 24 (a), which states: "Every child has the right to acquire a nationality." The 1961 Convention on the Reduction of Statelessness goes further by obliging the state in which a person is born to grant nationality under certain circumstances. Article 1 states: "A Contracting State shall grant its nationality to a person born in its territory who would otherwise be stateless." Burma is not a party to either the ICCPR or the convention on statelessness, but the cited provisions do reflect a clear trend in international law that Burma should follow. In the case of the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC), Burma did accede in 1991 and is therefore legally obliged to respect its provisions. Article 7 of the CRC states: The child shall be registered immediately after birth and shall have the right to a name, the right to acquire a nationality ... States Parties shalI ensure implementation of these rights in accordance with their national law and their obligations under the relevant international instruments in this field, in particular where the child would otherwise be stateless. This means that in the case of children who would otherwise be stateless, Burma is obliged to grant them citizenship. The country with the primary responsibility to provide a nationality is the one where the person has lived for many years or generations than anywhere else, where he or she at one time enjoyed legal status, settled and was given reasonable expectations of being a citizen.' Under this standard, the 1982 Citizenship Act clearly violates international norms by placing an excessive burden of proof on the applicant. Section 8 (b) of the act permits the State to arbitrarily revoke the citizenship of anyone "except a citizen by birth," in contravention of Article 15 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which states: "No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his nationality." The 1982 act is even more objectionable insofar as it was promulgated to deliberately deny citizenship to persons who bad previously been recognized as citizens. While in practice the law is often not actively applied, as can be seen by the fact that Rohingyas were permitted to vote in the 1990 election - a right given only to citizens - the fact remains that the law discriminates Rohingyas and other foreigners, even though they may have resided in Burma for at least three generations.
The above whole part relating to the Citizenship act is taken from the Human Rights Watch/Asias Burma, The Rohingya Muslims, Ending a Cycle of Exodus? Vol. 8, No. 9 (C) September 1996.
Junta to Issue ID Cards

November 06, 2001: Burma's Ministry of Immigration and Population issued a directive on October 20 stating that members of cease-fire groups living in Rangoon and Mandalay are eligible for national identification cards, according to a source in Rangoon. The order states that individuals who have lived in Rangoon or Mandalay for the past five years are eligible. The ID card in Burma equates to full citizenship. The groups with the most applicants thus far are from the Wa and Kokant, according to the source. "The Wa have been recommending that Chinese immigrants who illegally migrated from main-land China to Rangoon and Mandalay take this opportunity to also register," said a businessman from Rangoon's China town. "Many of the recent Chinese immigrants have connections with the Wa and Kokant through different business dealings," he added. Ethnic Chinese and Indians born on Burmese soil, however, have never been granted the aforementioned ID cards and despite the latest directive they are still being prohibited from attaining full citizenship. Their children are also disbarred from attending institutions of higher education such as medical school and technological universities. The government also stated that individual families would also be registered with the government. All Burmese citizens have state issued ID cards and the members of each family are registered with the government under what are called 'family registration lists'. Burmese authorities often conduct surprise checks late at night to examine these registration lists. If someone is found residing in the particular home and is not on the list they are subjected to arrest and detainment. There are two types of cease-fire groups in Burma, groups who have surrendered their arms and groups who still maintain their arms. The registration will be open to members of both groups if they can meet the eligibility requirements. Burmese citizens are becoming increasingly displeased with the ruling military government for its allowance of an increased population of Chinese migrants in Mandalay, Burma's second largest city and the heart of Burmese culture. A few years ago, high-ranking officers located at Immigration Departments along the Burma-China border were arrested for issuing ID cards to illegal Chinese immigrants in return for bribes. The officers are currently imprisoned for the violation. Over 100,000 illegal Chinese immigrants are thought to have become Burmese citizens by bribing immigration officers. Source: Maung Maung Oo (The Irrawaddy)
Chapter11
Request,adviceandsuggestionstothepresentMyanmarMilitaryLeaders
So we hereby want to summarize all our requests into the following points. (A) Basically at least we, all the Muslims in Burma/Myanma, want to request the right to possess the following documents: 1. 2. 3. 4. Birth Certificates National Registration Cards Passports Family Registration Cards
(B) We, all the Muslims in Burma/Myanma, want to request the following basic rights: 1. Right of unrestricted internal travel in the whole Myanmar/Burma. 2. Right to travel abroad according to the current government regulations on all Myanmars/Burmese. 3. Equal access to education at all the levels including postgraduate studies abroad, according to meritocracy. 4. Equal rights to all the government jobs and promotions according to meritocracy. 5. Equal rights to settle and work in any part of Myanmar/Burma. 6. Equal rights to serve and promotion in armed forces, Police, immigration, Ministry of Foreign affairs. 7. Freedom of religion, worship, religious publications, building and repairing of Mosques, religious schools etc. 8. Right to participate and contest in the national and regional politics. 9. Right to hold the political and administrative posts in various level of government and its agencies.
(C) And we, all the Muslims in Burma/Myanma, want to request the protection of all our Minority Rights and Human Rights according to the United Nations standard and Internationally accepted norms. And our last request is not to just refuse our requests by simply just saying that the Muslims in Myanmar/Burma are not citizens of Myanmar/Burma but recent foreign migrants only. We had already presented the undeniable historical facts of long history of all the Muslims of Burma/Myanmar. We could trace our ancestors well in to the first millennium and now we are even in the third millennium. And our youngest brothers-in-Islam migrated more than half a century ago into Myanmar because we gained Independence on 4th. January 1948 and migration stopped much more earlier than that. So it is unfair and gross injustice have been committed if the Muslims in Myammar are labelled as foreigners or new guest citizens. And we must not forget the fact that the Indian subcontinent Burmese Muslims who maintained the umbilical cord intact with the Indian subcontinent had returned for good after General Ne Win had driven them out in 1964 with nationalisation of all their business, property and demonetisations. Despite the Universal Declarations Denunciation of discrimination against minorities some kind of discrimination is almost always seen in many countries including Myanmar.
We have to respect the majority rules in all kinds of governments, including the democracy governments. But the majority must respect and protect the rights of the minority. Even in democracy, there are limits on the concepts of the majority rule, to prevent tyranny of the majority. Majority must rule with the big heart by persuasion, understanding and kindness, but should never coerce the minority with force, threat, cruelty, violence, exploitation and abuse of power or racial riots. Although the population of the Myanmar Muslims increased during the British rule of Burma because of new waves of Indian sub continent Muslim Immigration. This sharply reduced since 1941 because of Indo-Burman Immigration agreement, and totally stopped after Burma (Myanmar) gained independence in Jan.1948. So Myanmar Muslims are at least staying in Myanmar from 50 years and some of them are staying for more than 1000 years already. Myanmar Muslims are descendants of Arabs, Persians, Turks, Moores, Indian-Muslims, Pakistanis, Pathans, Bengalis, Chinese Muslims and Malays intermarried with local Burmese and many ethnic Myanmar groups such as: Rakhine, Shan, Karen, Mon etc. Muslims arrived Burma as travellers, adventurers, pioneers, sailors, Military Personals (voluntary and mercenary), and some of them as prisoners of wars. Some take refuge (from wars, Monsoon storms and weather, shipwreck and some for other various unforeseen circumstances). And some of them are victims of forced slavery. Some of them are professionals and skilled personals such as advisors to the kings and at various ranks of administration. Some are port-authorities and mayors and traditional medicine men. Some of them are good at various vocational skills, culture arts etc. Mixed marriages, intermarriages and assimilation process of throwing away of almost all their foreign languages, foreign dresses and foreign culture slowly shaped them in to Ethnic Myanmar/Burmese Muslim group of today. But we had drawn a line in the ongoing process of assimilation. That line of limit is our religion, Islam. As practising Muslims we could not go beyond the limit of tolerance of Islamic principles. So Myanmar Muslims threw away Urdu, Bengali, Chinese, Hindi and all other foreign languages. Even Arabic is learned just to read Holy Koran and for prayers. Myanmar Muslims speaks Myanmar as our mother tongue, wear Myanmar dress and even have an official Myanmar name as well as Islamic Arabic name. Because we could not compromise our faith in Islam in matters such as: only eating halal foods and drinks, marriage, divorce, inheritance, and other customs which heavily depend on Islam e.g. circumcision, funeral and burial rituals etc. So Myanmar Muslims could not assimilate homogeneously as Chinese, Hindus and others, except for those who convert or renounced Islam. Complete Assimilation of a minority group always needs a compromise of their tradition, their culture and some of their rights. So in view of the present political condition, kindly allow us to present some advice to all the persons and groups involved in the present political arena.
Peace and prosperity always come together. There will be no development, progress nor prosperity if there is no peace. War or any fighting will even destroy what we have already achieved. Enough is enough. It is already half a century that the Second World War had finished. But our country is still plagued with civil wars and infighting. It had destroyed a lot of properties, human lives and wasted valuable manpower. If we have a chance to use all these and the defense budgets from all the opposing sides, our beloved motherland will be on par with all other Asean tigers.
Wars, fighting, angers, revenge and all kind of the violence are prohibited by all the religions including Buddhism. There may be some exception as self-defense or holy war but most of us are misusing and are trying to give various excuses to justify our deeds. There is a saying that the "VICTORY" is an illusion for the fools and the philosophers only. No one could absolutely win the battles and wars. Both sides lost in some other way. Our fifty years' civil and political war attested this. Lord Buddha was against all kinds of aggression. The mildest form of this, a mere anger would burn our own heart and self. Forgive, forget, peace and cooperation with mutual trust and friendship should be the answer to all the problems of our beloved country, Mynnmar (Burma). There must be a compromise, a give and take policy to reach a peaceful settlement. Prosper thy neighbour. No need to kill destroy nor bankrupt the neighbours, other Citizens or other races. Procrastination is the thief of time. Please start the peace and reconciliation talk with the people, opposition parties, especially with the NLD, ethnic minorities, minority religious groups and armed rebels. You can fool some people for some time. But could not trick the whole world all the time with lame excuses of drawing a new constitution or need to prevent the disintegration of the country. Please stop discrimination, persecution and ethnic cleansing of Ethnic minorities and other religious groups. Even the powerful Nazi Germany, Slavs, White South Africa and all others had failed in the world history in crushing the relatively very weak minorities. Those Ethnic cleansing, Religious persecution and prosecution and discriminations are even becoming a blessing in disguise for all of us now. Because of suppression, Jews migrated and progressed enormously. Then Palestanians follow their success. Burmese migrants including Burmese Muslims migrants are now in a better position, better educated, better trained and some of them even became powerful and rich in the new host countries. Some of their children have even married to the families of the host government members. One of them is now even holding a cabinet minister post in a middle-east country. Please stop the selfishness. Always looking for the benefits and dominance for my army, my party, my ethnic group, my religion etc. Greedy selfish concept of : I must lead, I must govern, I must dominate and I must hold the power etc. is not right. We all must work together, cooperate and unite for our country. Please look at our own history.
General Aung San and U Nu trusted U Razak. He never betrayed their trust. He had even looked after the interest of the fellow Burmese Buddhists. He had supported the separation of Burma from India. He had denounced the separation of Pakistan from India. U Khin Maung Latt, U Nus Minister supported the law protecting the Burmese women against the interest of Muslims in Burma. U Razak, U Rashid, U Khin Maung Latt, Hajima Daw Pu, Saya Chair (Ne Win's trusted Muslim, who was appointed as the Head of election Commission), Colonel Tin Soe (General Ne Wins Revolution Council Member) were so loyal to their governments. Even most of the Muslims regarded and accused them to have sold off the interest of the Muslims for their self-benefits. I am not judging them. Just wanted to mention their loyalty only. Please stop looking down on us, Muslims of Myanmer (Burma) as foreigners or migrants not worthy of trust. Please look at the Shwe Byin brothers. Just because they had refused to contribute bricks to build the Pagoda, Anawrttha give the order to punish them, but Kyansittha executed them. Please stop doing the same treatment and perceptions, persecutions on us, Muslims in Myanmar (Burma). Yes! Even if the authorities punish us we will still continue to refuse to obey the orders if they are against our religion, ISLAM. But please trust us, we will even sacrifice for our beloved country, Myanmar, Burma, like that same Shwe Byin brothers. Please don't forget that they had sacrificed their lives to penetrate the very powerful inner defense and innermost security and drawn lines on the forehead of the Chinese king, Utibwa. If Burmese troops have to fight a traditional battle on the ground they were sure to lost. Successful penetration of the most inner circle cracked the morale of the Chinese king, Utibwa and chilled up tohis backbone with fear, leading to peace agreement. So, please allows us, Muslims in Myanmar, to serve the country as same as Shwe Byin brothers. We promise to even risk our lives to draw lines on the forehead of the enemy kings. But dont just simply suspect, persecute and prosecute us. We also love our country, Myanmar, Burma. Redemption and reconciliation is never late. Do not breed the hatred. Stop blowing the wind on the fire of hatred. Do not cook the pressure to increase so that it will be out of control and burst. This is the best time for redemption. This is the time the Myanmar military has almost absolute control of the whole situation in Myanmar. The ball is on your side. The pendulum will definitely swing to the opposite side in the near future. Next time around the People will be very difficult to control because of the pent up pressures and would not be easily controlled like in 1998. At the present condition, if General Ne Win or other Myanmar military leaders started the National Reconciliation process, all of us, actually the whole country, will definitely forgive and forget all the past. Now with the NLD and its leaders, Daw Aung San Su Kyi, U Aung Shwe, U Tin Oo and others are around, and could definitely control the people, especially the extremists. Please reed the book of Daw Aung San Su Kyis discussion with Allan Climent. Even that book alone could convince us that we can trust the NLD and Daw Su. Sure they are sincere. They are not cheating nor bluffing, just to get the power. After reading this book only, I believe and trust them. Then only, I am sure that NLD and the present leaders could form a government with a sincere gentleman face. NLD with Daw Aung San Su Kyi, representatives from all the armed rebels, ethnic minorities and religious group should be invited to participate in the new Coalition Caretaker Government. As the present Myanmar Military have an expertise and experience of running the government for decades, all should cooperate for the benefit of the mother country. No one could deny that there were definitely some excesses done by the present
authorities. It is a nature for those who had suffered would want to demand for the justice and because of that same reason also, those dictators who had perpetrated the injustice have every reason for the fear of revenge. Present Military may want to cling on the power to protect their interest. There must be a give and take from all sides. The opposition, from NLD to rebels and including all the people of Myanmar (Burma) must simply accept the nonspecific apology, if announce by the Military leaders. Full stop. No more. There must be no witch-hunt or any legal action nor any revenge. We must agree this and give a very strong promise to the present leaders. There must be no investigation at all for the property of the military leaders. The people who had suffered, imprisoned, tortured, died, lost job, lost the properties should be allowed to claim compensation from the new caretaker government only. No one of the Myanmar military leaders should be called to testify, condemn, try in court or punish in any way at all against their will. Definitely, there must be some investigations initiated from their claims but we must guarantee for the complete immunity of any form of punishment to all the leaders. I want to make a point again. We must learn from the present and the past but these are not very important when compare to the future. We must accept that for the future of our country, our children, we must try to forgive and forget all our sufferings. We must sacrifice now and must compromise to get an early agreement. Daw Su advised us to overcome our fear. But it is also very important to try to help our opposition of their legitimate fear. Mutual trust is needed to eliminate all the fears. I think it is the time for us to help the other side reduce the fear. Once they give up the power, or share the power with us, if there is the possibility of starting an investigation against them, they would not relinquish their power. It is natural that they have to protect themselves. We have to praise the Shah of Iran, Suharto of Indonesia and President Marcos of Philippines for the giving up the power without resisting up to the end. If they just continue to defend themselves up to the end, there would be more lost of life and more sufferings on the respective people. Our Myanmar (all citizens of Burma) should declare and show that we are more farsighted, mature and we would not resort to any kind of retaliation like the people of Iran, Indonesian, Peru, Argentina and Philippines. I am not telling that they were wrong. They may be right but they had clearly started some shock waves to all the dictators. Now all of the dictators are scared of retaliation and witch-hunt followed by law suites if they relinquish their power. We must be fair to both sides. If the dictators could not be overthrown easily like in our country, and if they agree to transfer or share the power, we should not punish them for doing so. We have to reward them with the unconditioned amnesty. At least they have helped shortened the sufferings of the people. And I hereby want to point out one important thing. Love of the mother country or patriotism. We could not monopolize it. And it is not right to claim by one party only that they are the ones who love the country. And should not suspect, claim or accuse that their enemies or their opposition have no love for the country. No one with the right mind could deny that all the parties concern love the country in their own ways. We should not claim that General Ne Win and the successive military governments did not love the country. And they also should not doubt the NLD leaders including Daw Sus love for the country. Even those armed rebels also love the country. They had sacrificed their entire homes, family lives and the whole civilization for the love of the motherland. It is not right to suspect or accuse or question the other people's love for the
nation. If we really love our country, please show proof by sacrificing our present positions, compromise and let us work together for our country. And please stop thinking that we, Muslims in Myanmar, have no patriotism. We, Muslims in Myanmar (Burma) also love our motherland. Please trust us, allow us to work and contribute in the reconstruction of our country. As the present military government may need concrete assurances of safety, and as they agree to share the power without the oppositions real powerful removal, we should consider giving the ministry of Home Affairs and Defense Ministry to them. We should even consider giving the Presidents post to one of the present military leaders to oversee and control the new government to safeguard the integrity of the Nation. Prime Minister post should be given to Daw Aung San Su Kyi of NLD. Deputy Prime Minister post must be chosen from the ethnic minorities eg. Shan, Kachin and Karen. This Caretaker government should rule, rebuilt and develop the country for ten years without any election. After five years only they should consider for the local Municipal council elections. No one should rule the country more than ten years. If we all compromised and work together, with the help of all the people inside and outside the country and definitely with all the possible investment and help from all the foreign countries, I am sure our country will develop and catch up with others very rapidly. Please stop all the suspicions, discriminations, accusations and hatreds. Please stop the desire to revenge. If we love each other and our country, trust and work together nothing is impossible. We need mutual understanding and mutual trust. Especially as all of us need to forgive, trust and work together with the Present military government. And at the same time, the military leaders must trust the NLD, the oppositions, including the People in exile, students, armed rebels, ethnic minorities and all the other religious groups including all the Muslims in Myanmar. Let us look at the future, progress, goals and march forward together with mutual love, trust and respect. Please recognize and accept our Myanmar (Burmese) Muslims participation in building our country. Please do not shut us out. Today our country has reached a critical state where we must accept to love, trust and cooperate to save our beloved country or perish to doom. There is actually no other alternative. We have fight for half a century without success. Our country only suffered because of our fighting. We all love our country in our own way. The way we love and the system we choose were different. But now all of us have accepted that Democracy and market economy is the only way to rebuild our country. Why should we quarrel any more? We all must sit together to formulate the fair and just laws to protect all of us.

All Muslim in Burma

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THEROOTS,FRUITSANDDREAMS of ALLTHEMUSLIMSINMYANMAR

The Nationalities of Myanmar/Burma, the History

Mon Khmer Group

Thai Chinese Group

Tibeto Burman Group

Population and society

Why people migrate?

Migrations effect on Genes

First, second and successive generations of Migrants

Karens of Myanmar and Thailand

Ethnic Minority based on Religion

Myanmar Traditional Dress

Coins found in Arakan

Types of Indian coinage

Mohamedan Types of Indian coinage

Wesaii, Archacological evidence

Wesaii MSS. evidence

Wesaii a Mahayanist State

The end of Wesaii & the beginning of the Arakanese

The period 957-1430 AD, General Characteristics

Particular Characteristics of the period 957-1430 AD

Origin of Arakanese coinage

The Mrauk-U dynasty l450-1786 Period 1. 1430-1530 as feudatory to Bengal.

The Architecture of the Period

The fall of Mrauk-U

The Burmese administration of Arakan (1784 to 1825) Bodawpaya's medallion

Dhannavati (1st., 2nd, 3rd)

Vesali.(Wai Tha Li)

Anti-foreign sentiment and Nationalism

Bond of brotherhood among Muslim Migrants and hosts

Minority Groups and Civil Liberties

The Principle of Non-Discrimination

Discrimination Against Ethnic Minorities

Discrimination Against Religious Minorities

Civil Rights and Freedoms

Following is taken from Amnesty Internationals Reports Forcible relocations of Muslims

Conclusion and Recommendations

Citizenship Legislation and Identity Cards

International Law and the 1982 Citizenship Act

Junta to Issue ID Cards

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