Assignment

On
IMPORTANCE OF THE CULTURE OF SCIENCE & SCIENCE AND TECHNILOGY FOR GROWTH OF CIVILIZATION

Importance of the Culture of Science:

Science as Culture: Our culture is a scientific one, defining what is natural and what is rational. Its values can be seen in what are sought out as facts and made as artefacts, what are designed as processes and products, and what are forged as weapons and filmed as wonders. In our daily experience, power is exercised through expertise, e.g. in science, technology and medicine. Science as Culture explores how all these shape the values which contend for influence over the wider society. Science mediates our cultural experience. It increasingly defines what it is to be a person, through genetics, medicine and information technology. Its values get embodied and naturalized in concepts, techniques, research priorities, gadgets and advertising. Many films, works of art and novels express popular concerns about these developments. Yet the culture of science is open to study like any other culture. Cultural studies analyses the role of expertise throughout society. Many journals address the history, philosophy and social studies of science, its popularisation, and the public understanding of science. However, amidst these journals, Science as Culture is 'the only source of critique of the way science is going', as one reader put it. Science as Culture analyses the underlying frameworks, assumptions and terms of reference of expertise. It emphasises the fundamental role of values, interests, ideology and purposes which would otherwise remain hidden in the guise of neutrality and objectivity. Science as Culture is an interdisciplinary journal placing science within the wider debate on the values which constitute culture. Above all, it encompasses people's experiences - whether in the workplace, at the cinema, computer or hospital, in the home or at the academy. Food:

A Scientific Systems Approach to an Advanced Food Science and Nutrition Course to be Taught in the Home Economics Laboratory! FOOD AND SCIENCE is a curriculum guide of learning experiences that link chemistry and food preparation. The activities illustrate Cook and Eat Chemistry. The chemical composition of proteins, fats and oils, carbohydrates, and water effect the preparation of foods. These are nutrients, but they are known to scientists as food chemicals. As such, they are the focus, in this guide, of a unit each. They are included because of their importance in understanding food preparation rather than their importance to nutrition. The nutrients, vitamins, and minerals do not effect the preparation of foods as much; their importance is their nutritional contribution which is addressed in curriculum guides Volume II (Food and Fitness) and Volume III (Food For Life). This is Volume IV in a series of Food Nutrition and Science Curriculum projects developed for the Utah State Board of Education. Food science is a discipline concerned with all technical aspects of food, beginning with harvesting or slaughtering, and ending with its cooking and consumption. It is considered one of the agricultural sciences, and is usually considered distinct from the field of nutrition. Examples of the activities of food scientists include the development of new food products, design of processes to produce these foods, choice of packaging materials, shelf-life studies, sensory evaluation of the product with trained expert panels or potential consumers, as well as microbiological and chemical testing. Food scientists at universities may study more fundamental phenomena that are directly linked to the production of particular food product and its properties. In the U.S., food science is typically studied at land-grant universities.

Food science is a highly interdisciplinary applied science. It incorporates concepts from many different fields including microbiology, chemical engineering, biochemistry, and many others. Some of the subdisciplines of food science include:

Food safety - the causes, prevention and communication dealing with foodborne illness Food microbiology - the positive and negative interactions between microorganisms and foods Food preservation - the causes and prevention of quality degradation Food engineering - the industrial processes used to manufacture food Product development - the invention of new food products Sensory analysis - the study of how food is perceived by the consumer's senses Food chemistry - the molecular composition of food and the involvement of these molecules in chemical reactions Food packaging - the study of how packaging is used to preserve food after it has been processed and contain it through distribution. Molecular gastronomy - the scientific investigation of processes in cooking, social & artistic gastronomical phenomena Food technology - the technological aspects Food physics - the physical aspects of foods (such as viscosity, creaminess, and texture)

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Take an exciting journey blending Science, Spirit and Health through a new study of Consciousness. Walk a path through contemporary research in the field of Science, Evolution, Neurosciences, and Systems Theory. Receive fresh, intuitive insights from homeodynamics exploring what is perhaps our deepest combined notion yet on what consciousness is all about. Be prepared to learn what the latest research in neuroscience really shows about how ones consciousness affects health and healing. Consciousness is the only way we have to give meaning to our world. Discover what pitfalls we face in grasping this important topic and develop an integrated view by reading how science,

spirit and the study of consciousness can join their efforts to optimize health and survival of the human race. Education: Education in Science is the house magazine of ASE and it is sent to all members of the Association five times a year. It is a professional rather than an academic journal, intended to provide a means of communication between all sections of the membership member to member - as well as being an important vehicle for keeping members informed about what ASE is doing on their behalf. Education in Science (EiS) has a wide appeal across the membership covering all phases of education - early years, primary, secondary and post-16 - as well as carrying material for teacher educators, student teachers, technicians, researchers, curriculum and professional developers. Education in Science contains material falling into the following categories: (1) commissioned articles which may be contributions addressing topical issues in science education or regular features designed to appeal to particular groups within the membership; (2) unsolicited articles about current issues and initiatives in science education, projects and events; (3) updates from ASE groups and committees; Electronics: Electronics is a science, and a very accessible science at that. With other areas of scientific study, expensive equipment is generally required to perform any non-trivial experiments. Not so with electronics. Many advanced concepts may be explored using parts and equipment totaling under a few hundred US dollars. This is good, because hands-on experimentation is vital to gaining scientific knowledge about any subject. When I started writing Lessons In Electric Circuits, my intent was to create a textbook suitable for introductory college use. However, being mostly self-taught in electronics myself, I knew the value of a good textbook to hobbyists and experimenters not enrolled in any formal electronics course. Many people selflessly volunteered their time and expertise in helping me learn electronics when I was younger, and my intent is to honor their service and love by giving back to the world what they gave to me. In order for someone to teach themselves a science such as electronics, they must engage in hands-on experimentation. Knowledge gleaned from books alone has limited use, especially in scientific endeavors. If my contribution to society is to be complete, I

must include a guide to experimentation along with the text(s) on theory, so that the individual learning on their own has a resource to guide their experimental adventures. A formal laboratory course for college electronics study requires an enormous amount of work to prepare, and usually must be based around specific parts and equipment so that the experiments will be sufficient detailed, with results sufficiently precise to allow for rigorous comparison between experimental and theoretical data. A process of assessment, articulated through a qualified instructor, is also vital to guarantee that a certain level of learning has taken place. Peer review (comparison of experimental results with the work of others) is another important component of college-level laboratory study, and helps to improve the quality of learning. Since I cannot meet these criteria through the medium of a book, it is impractical for me to present a complete laboratory course here. The experiments in this volume begin at a level appropriate for someone with no electronics knowledge, and progress to higher levels. They stress qualitative knowledge over quantitative knowledge, although they could serve as templates for more rigorous coursework. Medical:

Surgery Surgical specialties employ operative treatment. In addition, surgeons must decide when an operation is necessary, and also treat many non-surgical issues,

particularly in the surgical intensive care unit (SICU), where a variety of critical issues arise. Surgery has many subspecialties, e.g. general surgery,Transplant surgery, trauma surgery, cardiovascular surgery, neurosurgery, maxillofacial surgery, orthopedic surgery, otolaryngology, plastic surgery, oncologic surgery, vascular surgery, and pediatric surgery. In some centers, anesthesiology is part of the division of surgery (for logistical and planning purposes), although it is not a surgical discipline. Surgical training in the U.S. requires a minimum of five years of residency after medical school. Sub-specialties of surgery often require seven or more years. In addition, fellowships can last an additional one to three years. Because post-residency fellowships can be competitive, many trainees devote two additional years to research. Thus in some cases surgical training will not finish until more than a decade after medical school. Furthermore, surgical training can be very difficult and time consuming. 'Medicine' as a specialty Internal medicine is the medical specialty concerned with the diagnosis, management and nonsurgical treatment of unusual or serious diseases, either of one particular organ system or of the body as a whole. According to some sources, an emphasis on internal structures is implied.[16] In North America, specialists in internal medicine are commonly called "internists". Elsewhere, especially in Commonwealth nations, such specialists are often called physicians.[17] These terms, internist or physician (in the narrow sense, common outside North America), generally exclude practitioners of gynecology and obstetrics, pathology, psychiatry, and especially surgery and its subspecialities. Because their patients are often seriously ill or require complex investigations, internists do much of their work in hospitals. Formerly, many internists were not subspecialized; such general physicians would see any complex nonsurgical problem; this style of practice has become much less common. In modern urban practice, most internists are subspecialists: that is, they generally limit their medical practice to problems of one organ system or to one particular area of medical knowledge. For example, gastroenterologists and nephrologists specialize respectively in diseases of the gut and the kidneys.[18] In Commonwealth and some other countries, specialist pediatricians and geriatricians are also described as specialist physicians (or internists) who have subspecialized by age of patient rather than by organ system. Elsewhere, especially in North America, general pediatrics is often a form of Primary care. There are many subspecialities (or subdisciplines) of internal medicine:

Cardiology Critical care medicine Dermatology Endocrinology

Gastroenterology Geriatrics Hematology Hepatology Infectious diseases Nephrology Neurology Oncology Pediatrics Pulmonology Rheumatology Sleep medicine

Training in internal medicine (as opposed to surgical training), varies considerably across the world: see the articles on Medical education and Physician for more details. In North America, it requires at least three years of residency training after medical school, which can then be followed by a one to three year fellowship in the subspecialties listed above. In general, resident work hours in medicine are less than those in surgery, averaging about 60 hours per week in the USA. Diagnostic specialties

Clinical laboratory sciences are the clinical diagnostic services which apply laboratory techniques to diagnosis and management of patients. In the United States these services are supervised by a pathologist. The personnel that work in these medical laboratory departments are technically trained staff who do not hold medical degrees, but who usually hold an undergraduate medical technology degree, who actually perform the tests, assays, and procedures needed for providing the specific services. Subspecialties include Transfusion medicine, Cellular pathology, Clinical chemistry, Hematology, Clinical microbiology and Clinical immunology. Pathology as a medical specialty is the branch of medicine that deals with the study of diseases and the morphologic, physiologic changes produced by them. As a diagnostic specialty, pathology can be considered the basis of modern scientific medical knowledge and plays a large role in evidence-based medicine. Many modern molecular tests such as flow cytometry, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), immunohistochemistry, cytogenetics, gene rearrangements studies and fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) fall within the territory of pathology. Radiology is concerned with imaging of the human body, e.g. by x-rays, x-ray computed tomography, ultrasonography, and nuclear magnetic resonance tomography. Clinical neurophysiology is concerned with testing the physiology or function of the central and peripheral aspects of the nervous system. These kinds of tests can be divided into recordings of: (1) spontaneous or continuously running electrical activity, or (2) stimulus evoked responses. Subspecialties include Electroencephalography, Electromyography, Evoked potential, Nerve conduction

study and Polysomnography. Sometimes these tests are performed by techs without a medical degree, but the interpretation of these tests is done by a medical professional.

Science & Technology for Growth of Civilization

Countries are becoming increasingly aware of the importance of science and technology in relation to national development and the necessity of formulating a concise science and technology policy. The need for strengthening and orienting the scientific and technological infrastructure in line with national development goals, through more effective use of available qualified manpower and the higher education system, is being

widely recognised. This, in turn, generates a need for appropriate methods of assessing the impacts of science and technology on national development so that efforts are concentrated on areas, which could have substantial impact. Numerous cases and planning studies have been undertaken to this end, particularly by some international organisations such as UNESCO, UNIDO, OECD AND IEA. This study deals with the analysis of the interrelationships of disciplines of science and technology with energy and the environment research and development (R&D) activities, particularly for the developing countries. The intimate connections between science and technology, energy and technology, and energy and the environment are discussed in detail along with the basic techniques and methods that can be used, particularly for the developing countries. Some descriptive and illustrative examples are also presented. As a result, it is believed that the present study will serve as a preliminary step for more comprehensive studies by providing an example for the utilization of formal methods in formulating science and technology policy for energy and the environment R&D. Overview: Our basic research goal is to observe and study the internal structure and composition of white dwarf stars, the remnants of a nuclear fusion furnace that once turned hydrogen into helium and energy, a process which still powers stars like the Sun. An unexpected circumstance allows us to probe their structure: some of these stars vibrate in a periodic manner that sends seismic waves deep through their interior and brings information to the surface. We see this manifested as complex periodic variations in their brightness, which we can study and analyze, much as seismologists study the inner structure of the earth using earthquakes. White dwarfs once supported steady nuclear fusion, and would again if hydrogen were injected into them. We essentially have a working fusion laboratory to study, one that we must understand in detail if we are ever to master this clean sustainable energy source and duplicate the process on this planet. Whole Earth Telescope We can determine the internal structure of pulsating white dwarfs using the techniques of high speed photometry to observe their variations in brightness over time, and then matching these observations with a computer model which behaves the same way. The parameters of the model are chosen to correspond one-to-one with the physical processes that give rise to the variations, so a good fit to the data gives us confidence that our model reflects the actual physics of the stars themselves. In the past decade, the observational requirements of white dwarf seismology have been satisfied by the development of the Whole Earth Telescope (WET) -- an informal collaboration of astronomers at observatories around the globe who cooperate to produce nearly continuous time-series photometry of white dwarfs for up to 14 days at a time. This instrument has provided a wealth of seismological data on the different varieties of pulsating white dwarf stars. We are working to establish a permanent WET endowment, which would support the general operating expenses of this instrument through secure investments. Ideally,

this fund would allow for two runs of the WET each year, and provide for travel expenses to send astronomers to remote observatories and to bring international collaborators to headquarters for logistical support. Evolutionary Computing In an effort to bring the analysis of WET data to the level of sophistication demanded by the observations, we are developing a model-fitting method based on a genetic algorithm. The underlying ideas for genetic algorithms were inspired by Charles Darwin's notion of biological evolution through natural selection. The basic idea is to solve a problem by evolving the best solution from an initial set of random guesses. The computer model provides the framework within which the evolution takes place, and the individual parameters controlling it serve as the genetic building blocks. Observations provide the selection pressure. Asteroseismology Metacomputer Although extremely effective and objective in their application, genetic algorithms still require a very large amount of computer time because they involve running thousands of complex models for each set of observations. To make this approach practical, we designed and built a specialized computer -- a collection of 64 minimal PCs connected by a network, which can run our models in parallel about 60 times faster than any one of them by itself. Our initial application of this new method to a well-observed pulsating white dwarf demonstrated that our models are very sensitive to the central composition, and allowed us to measure the astrophysically-important (C + He O) nuclear fusion reaction rate with much greater precision than is possible in terrestrial laboratories. The potential of this approach to probe interesting physics is clear. What we can accomplish by applying it to other classes of objects is limited only by the computational resources that we can devote to each problem. Time-series CCD photometer The study of pulsating white dwarfs requires a special kind of instrument capable of high speed imaging. When studying phenomena that change rapidly, we do not have the luxury of increasing our exposure time to improve the signal. Our instrument must be highly efficient even with short exposures. We also need high timing precision to determine the beginning and duration of each exposure accurately. Most CCD cameras cannot obtain data continuously -- there is a dead time between exposures when the detector is busy reading out the previous image.