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Original article

Theoretical aspects of physical-chemical parameters for the correct conservation of mummies on display in museums and preserved in storage rooms
Marco Samadelli a,b, , Graziella Roselli c , Vito C. Fernicola d , Ludwig Moroder e , Albert R. Zink a
a

EURAC, Institute for Mummies and the Iceman, Viale Druso 1, 39100 Bolzano, Italy Museo Archeologico dellAlto Adige, Via Museo 43, 39100 Bolzano, Italy c UNICAM, Scuola di Scienze e Tecnologie, Via S Agostino 1, 62032 Camerino (MC), Italy d INRIM, Istituto Nazionale di Ricerca Metrologica, Starda delle Cacce 73, 10135 Torino, Italy e Azienda Sanitaria dellAlto Adige, Laboratorio Aziendale di Microbiologia e Virologia, Via Amba Alagi 5, 39100 Bolzano, Italy
b

a r t i c l e

i n f o

a b s t r a c t
This study is aimed at evaluating physical and chemical parameters which are considered as the most appropriate for the long-term preservation of mummies, distinguishing between those which are on display in museums and those which are preserved in storage rooms. The objective of this study is also to compare and discuss differences among the most widely known guidelines and norms of the eld and to highlight the single phenomena which affect the decay of this kind of cultural asset. 2012 Published by Elsevier Masson SAS.

Article history: Received 24 May 2012 Accepted 7 November 2012 Available online xxx Keywords: Mummies Conservation Preservation Museums Showcases Physical and chemical parameters

1. Research aims Given the signicant requirements to investigate and standardize the limited and often controversial international regulatory indications relating to the conservation of Egyptian dynastic mummies, this study aims to dene and elucidate those physical and chemical parameters that are considered the most suitable and efcacious. Thus, all the factors that can individually contribute to the decay of cultural heritage of this kind have been thoroughly examined. We, therefore, believe that the scientic and academic community can utilize this study, even if it is of a purely theoretical nature, in order to optimize the conservation conditions currently adopted for the collections preserved worldwide, which often employ only a few of these correct conservation methodologies. Further analysis is dedicated to emphasizing the signicant difference existing between the conservation parameters recommended for those mummies on display in museums and those held in storage rooms.

2. Introduction In anthropology, three main types of mummies are identied [1]. 2.1. Spontaneous (or natural) mummies Spontaneous (or natural) mummies, produced by natural events, are classied in the eco-facts category (i.e. objects which have not been subject to any intervention by man). Many glacier mummies, such as the Iceman, conserved in Bolzano, Italy, fall within this category [2]. 2.2. Anthropogenic (or articial) mummies Anthropogenic (or articial) mummies, created by mans actions. Almost 95% of the best known mummies belong to this category, such as obviously all Egyptian dynastic mummies. 2.3. Mummies obtained by favourable spontaneous processes (or spontaneous enhanced)

Corresponding author. EURAC, Institute for Mummies and the Iceman, Viale Druso 1, 39100 Bolzano, Italy. E-mail addresses: marco.samadelli@eurac.edu (M. Samadelli), graziella.roselli@unicam.it (G. Roselli), v.fernicola@inrim.it (V.C. Fernicola), ludwig.moroder@asbz.it (L. Moroder), albert.zink@eurac.edu (A.R. Zink). 1296-2074/$ see front matter 2012 Published by Elsevier Masson SAS. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.culher.2012.11.004

Mummies obtained by favourable spontaneous processes (or spontaneous enhanced), represented by corpses which underwent mummication as a result of the favourable environmental conditions they were placed into. All Egyptian pre-dynastic

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Table 1 Comparison of the main physical parameters relevant to the conservation of mummies. T Air ( C) (MGC 1992) [36] (GCI 1998) [5] (UNI 10829) [12] (MIBAC 2001) [33] (CSP 2007) [37] 18 1015 2123 1924 1924 RH (%) 50 3050 2035 4060 4060 UV irradiation ( W/lumen) 75 0 75 10 10 Illuminance (lm/m2 ) 200 100 50 50 50

mummies, South American pre-Columbian mummies and many bog mummies fall within this category. The Egyptian mummies of the pre-dynastic period are the object of this specic study on conservation because they are the most representative sample. 3. Theoretical aspects on conservation standards The parameters for the conservation of the mummies on display in museums have been evaluated in documentation drafted by a number of standardization and regulatory bodies. Mummies are not a priority in the cultural heritage world and citations in the various eld studies are not frequent. In Table 1, the recommended physical parameters concerning the conservation of mummies are compared. By reviewing the data in Table 1, it is evident that there is currently no actual agreement on the determination and standardization of the conservation criteria concerning mummies. In order to carry out a better understanding and to implement the most efcacious method for the preservation of a specic mummy, each one should be thoroughly examined and analysed on a case-by-case basis. 4. The composition of a mummy Fundamentally, it can be stated that the mummy of an adult human maintains the same composition characteristics as a living person, except for the substantial difference of the water content in its tissues. Water represents approximately 60% of the total weight of a living adult man; divided into intracellular water (40%) and extracellular water (20%), of which 15% of the latter is interstitial water while the remaining 5% is plasmatic water [3]. Water excluded, the human body is 30% composed of soft tissue and the remaining 70% of bony tissue [4]. The bony tissue and extracellular matrix is composed of organic components (3035%) and mineral inorganic components (the remaining 6570%) [4]. It can be deduced, therefore, that the organic components of the soft and bony tissues represent circa 60% of a mummy. Furthermore, it can be stated that these tissues are composed almost entirely of collagen [5]. Based on these scientic ndings, it is imperative to focus on the collagen protein for evaluations and analyses aimed at determining the most efcacious physical-chemical parameters for conservation, while also taking into consideration that Egyptian dynastic mummies are usually wrapped in linen bandage [1], a natural bre of which 70% is cellulose. 5. Main causes of collagen decay Proteins are above all affected by the following transformation processes: denaturation; proteolysis; putrefaction [6]. Denaturation is the loss of quaternary, tertiary or secondary structure of proteins with no disintegration of the polypeptide chain (primary structure). Denaturation is mainly of a physicalchemical nature, though it can be induced by a microbial process.

Among the most inuential factors are: temperature, water activity (aw ), and ionic concentration. The main effects of denaturation are the loss of solubility, with subsequent aggregation and precipitation (coagulation), and the loss of specic chemical-physical and biological properties. Based on this scientic evidence, it is possible to state the principle according to which it is strongly recommended not to subject mummies to excessive lyophilizing treatments, because, during the rst desiccation stage almost 95% of water is removed from the tissues, while in the second stage, which takes place at a temperature of circa 60 C, the water bound to the proteins is removed, thus activating the decay process [7,8]. Proteolysis and putrefaction are two highly correlated processes since the former is the prelude to the second, while they partly overlap with an ever-increasing intensity of the latter. Proteolysis is the disintegration of the primary structure of protein and results in the creation of smaller polypeptide chains and free amino acids. Putrefaction is dened as the destruction of amino acids with subsequent development of strongly aromatic compounds derived from nitrogen metabolism, e.g. ammonia, amines, cadaverine and putrescine, and from sulphur metabolism, e.g. hydrogen sulphide or mercaptans [6]. A number of biological-molecular studies have demonstrated that the collagen present both in mummy tissues [9] and in ancient parchments [10] is an extremely resistant protein which, when conserved in the correct climatic conditions, undergoes only minimum decay even over thousands of years.

6. Importance of thermo-hygrometric environment in mummy decay The usual procedure is to dene the optimal conditions, i.e. the ranges in temperature and relative humidity, within which the correct conservation of mummies can be ensured. The manifestation and persistence of temperature and relative humidity values outside those falling within the optimal range cause damage in the long term, but even sudden variations or uctuation in the short term (days if not hours) can induce often irreversible alterations [11]. Any object adapts in time to the environment in which it is placed, reaching an equilibrium with its surrounding environment; the nature and speed of the deviation from this equilibrium might accentuate the decay processes [12,13]. As a general principle, lower air temperatures are to be preferred because they reduce the probability of decay resulting from chemical and biochemical processes while also inhibiting microbial activity [14,15]. The continuing uctuation in the temperature of the air in contact with the mummy induces, over time, thermaldriven mechanical stress, causing dilations and micro-cracking of the skin. On the basis of these studies on organic materials and collagen carried out in GCI laboratories, the ideal variation in the conservation temperature, in order to reduce biochemical reactions, lies between 1015 C [5]. The temperature is a fundamental factor not only because it directly inuences local relative humidity and the chemical and biochemical processes, but also because it determines the type of microbial growth, which can be cryophile, psychrophile, psychrotrophic, mesophile or thermophile in nature depending on the temperature range that stimulates their survival and growth (Fig. 1) [6]. Moreover, it is this fundamental principle that provides the guideline for dening the conservation criteria concerning the mummies preserved in storage rooms, while for mummies on display in museums the choice is more dependent on a compromise which allows the ideal conservation temperature to correspond to the display environmental temperature [15,16]. The relative humidity of air (RH) is dened as the ratio of water vapour pressure to its saturation vapour pressure at a given air

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M. Samadelli et al. / Journal of Cultural Heritage xxx (2012) xxxxxx Table 2 Minimum water activity necessary for growth of microorganisms [22]. Microorganisms Bacteria Yeasts Moulds Halophilic bacteria Xerophilic moulds Osmophilic yeasts Water activity (aw ) 0.91 0.88 0.80 0.75 0.65 0.60 3

After a certain time, any substance placed in a sealed environment reaches a thermal and a hygrometric equilibrium with its surrounding air. Accordingly the moisture content of the substance reaches an equilibrium with the humidity of the environment (EMC). In these conditions, the value of the air relative humidity at equilibrium (ERH) corresponds to the water activity (aw ) value of the substance [6].
Fig. 1. Graph illustrating the effects of temperature on microbial growth [38].

aw = ERH/100

(3)

temperature (ta ). It can be expressed in percentage according to eq. (1) [13]. RH = pv 100 pvs (ta ) (1)

In normal atmospheric conditions, where the absolute and specic humidity of an air parcel are constant, relative humidity is anticorrelated with respect to the temperature [16,17]. This parameter inuences the variations in size and in shape of the tissues constituting the mummy, as well as the chemical and biological processes. In particular, all organic materials that absorb water swell when the relative humidity increases and desorb when it decreases, with subsequent variations in weight, deformations, bre fractures and micro-cracking. This effect is technically dened as a physical deterioration mechanism. Very often it is hard to discern the difference between the decay caused by temperature and that due to humidity because of the inextricable synergy existing between these two parameters. The ASHRAE psychrometric chart can be used to obtain a graphical evaluation of the relative humidity as a function of the temperature [13,18]. The importance of relative humidity (RH) to conservation is immense [19] and tightly linked to the concept of water activity (aw ), the parameter proportional to the escaping tendency of the water molecules present in the tissues constituting the mummy. The water activity (aw ) expressed by eq. (2) corresponds to the ratio of the partial vapour pressure of water in the tissues (Pw ) to that of pure water (Pw 0 ) at the surface temperature [6,20]. aw = Pw
0 Pw

(2)

The tissues constituting mummies can be considered as more or less concentrated solutions and the measurement and limitation of the water activity (aw ) are essential to the conservation process because they inuence the life of microorganisms and enzyme activity. The greater the water activity (aw ) value, the faster the decay of organic tissue, as synthetically represented in the chart (Fig. 2) [21]. Table 2 indicates the minimum value of water activity (aw ) for the survival and growth of microorganisms [22], it further conrms GCI [5] afrmations, according to which relative humidity values higher than 65%, combined with temperature values higher than 20 C, favour the development of moulds and accelerate the metabolism of many harmful insects [5]. However, it is still very difcult to dene the importance of water activity (aw ) in organic tissues in relation to lipid oxidation, non-enzymatic browning and enzyme activity, since they are collocated in an extremely dehydrated environment and these types of phenomena have not yet been fully studied nor understood completely [6]. Therefore, it is not possible to provide general indications in the absence of data on the exact chemical composition of the mummied tissues. It is reasonable to assume that with water activity (aw ) lower than 0.3 it is possible to inhibit the majority of the causes of biochemical decay in the organic tissues. In particular, for anthropogenic mummies, whose moisture content in the tissues is already very low, it should not be difcult to set this environmental parameter. However, attention should be paid to the minimum aw threshold value for these types of mummies, which, according to scientic studies, should correspond to the limit set by collagen degeneration, an irreversible process that is instigated when the value of aw decreases below 0.25 [23]. This limit threshold is reasonable because at aw values ranging from 0 to 0.2, water molecules

Fig. 2. Decay speed of organic tissues in function of water activity [21].

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Table 3 pH maximum and minimum values for various microorganisms [26]. Minimum Bacteria Yeasts Moulds 4.5 1.53.5 1.53.5

are strongly bound thanks to the creation of hydrogen bonds or electrostatic interactions between the water molecules themselves and highly polar groups (various forms of amino, carbonylic or hydroxylic groups present in carbohydrates and proteins). In these conditions, there is no water available to favour microbial development or stimulate the onset of chemical reactions that would result in deterioration of the tissues [6]. When evaluating the most effective chemical-physical parameters to be applied for the conservation of mummies, the presence of the linen bandage and its effect on the mummy should be taken into account. This consideration is made in the knowledge that fabrics of organic nature maintain their physical integrity at relative humidity rates ranging from 40 and 55%. Below a 40% threshold, elasticity is lost thus leading to an increase of the fragility rate [1]. 7. The role of the quality of air in the decay of mummies One of the main decay mechanisms in mummies is dened as chemical. It is dependent on the occurrence of chemical reactions and oxidation in particular, but it can include also other undesirable reactions, which could be catalyzed by enzymes, such as proteolysis or lipolysis, isomerization, or photodegradation. The potential to cause irreversible damage depends on the concentration of reagents and on the environment which can favour or inhibit reactions. The elevated presence in the urban air of chemical compounds, such as NO2 , SO2 and O3 and of many volatile organic compounds (VOCs) caused by emissions, which derive from normal anthropogenic activities, into the atmosphere has been known for a long time [24], this is true also for acidic and corrosive compounds originating from secondary reaction that result from the contact of these substances with the humidity present in the air. Moreover, the effects of decay caused by these phenomena on cultural assets and on organic materials are indisputable [25]. The denition of the chemical composition of the air in which mummies are preserved is essential for their conservation since it inuences the growth of microbial ora. Bacteria grow within quite a wide pH range (4.511.0) (Table 3), however, the majority of them enjoy strong growth in optimal conditions of neutral pH values (6.57.5). Nevertheless, it is known that certain microorganisms, in particular yeasts and moulds, are able to grow at very low pH values as well [26]. The inhibiting action of pH, as is the case for any other factor, has a greater effect as the temperature deviates from those values that favour optimal development of the microorganism under analysis. Many studies have demonstrated that the acid tolerability of the organism decreases as the conservation temperature lowers. Furthermore, it should be noted that pH alone can inhibit the development of bacteria with a greater effectiveness, but this effect is diminished for moulds and yeasts, and only the combination with other factors, such as temperature and water activity (aw ), results in a signicant inhibiting effect on micro-ora. The presence of O2 in sufcient quantities can favour the development of the microorganisms, which, by metabolizing the acids, causes the pH to shift towards neutral values thus lowering its inhibiting potential. Therefore, should pH be the main conservation factor, it is necessary that mummies are preserved in environments with reduced O2 concentration [26].

The effects of oxidation activity due to the contact of oxygen with any type of material are well known and widely documented [27]. It is common knowledge that the natural presence of oxygen in the air, equal to circa 20.9 m/m, is essential for human life, but it is equally essential for any type of aerobic life form, though the oxygen percentage present is lower. In order to improve the conservation of mummies, it would be advisable, as a principle, to completely replace the air within the museum showcases with properly humidied inert gas (e.g. argon or nitrogen), since it has been proved that collagen decay is signicantly reduced in oxygenfree conditions [28]. Moreover, interesting experimental studies carried out in GCI [5] laboratories demonstrate the mortality time of many insect species observed in anoxic conditions in function of different thermo-hygrometric conditions [29]. This is a further evidence that the recommended oxygen threshold for the optimal conservation of mummies should be zero or at least be lower than 0.1% [5]. Various scientic studies have investigated the possible consequences which could occur to mummied tissues preserved in anoxic environments. In these conditions the collagen from mummied tissues must be kept at a relative humidity between 25% and 40% in order to prevent decay [30].

8. Photo-oxidation as a cause of decay Photo-oxidation is a degradation process caused by the combined action of light and oxygen. In order to better understand this phenomenon, it is necessary, rstly, to analyze the mechanism instigated by light alone (photochemical degradation) in the absence of oxygen. The Grotthuss-Draper Law (named after the chemists Theodor Grotthuss and John W. Draper) states that light must be absorbed by a chemical substance in order for a photochemical reaction to take place. Photochemical degradation refers to a set of processes which, following interaction with light radiation, leads to the chemical change of a substance. Chemical reactions take place exclusively when a molecule is provided with enough activation energy to cause the breaking of the covalent bonds present along the macro-molecules of natural polymers [31]. These chemical reactions occur within a wide range of electromagnetic radiation starting from the visible spectrum, passing through ultraviolet up to ionizing radiation, which universally has a wavelength ( ) less than 400 nm [32]. International recommendations, in their latest draft form, identify four photosensitivity categories for cultural heritage nds and establish the relevant illuminance maximum values permitted. Mummies belong to 4 - very high category, applied to nds that are extremely sensitive to light [33]. The illuminance maximum value permitted for this category is 50 lx with an annual dose of not higher than 50,000 lx. Furthermore, the maximum acceptable energy density levels for the UV band have been determined, expressed both as absolute values and as relative values dependent on visible light ux. It is interesting to note how some parameters vary according to the type of norm, for example the [34] norms recommend a maximum illuminance of 50 lx and an annual dose of not greater than 15,000 lx. The framework of conservation recommendations and norms in the eld of lighting represents a reasonable compromise between the inevitable degradation action caused by exposing mummies to light and museum requirements of putting the mummy on display. However, it is necessary to pay particular attention to the type of light used for illuminating Egyptian dynastic mummies in oxygenfree environments because, according to scientic studies, the linen bandage they are usually wrapped in is much more sensitive to photo-oxidation [35].

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M. Samadelli et al. / Journal of Cultural Heritage xxx (2012) xxxxxx 5 1416 2540 00.01 0 50 010 00.05 1 0.015 ( C) (%) (%) ( g/m3 ) (lm/m2 ) ( W/lm) ( W/cm2 ) (W/m2 ) (Mlx h/year) [15] prEN 15999-1, Conservation of cultural heritage - Guidelines for management of environmental conditions - Recommendations for showcases used for exhibition and preservation of cultural property - Part 1: General requirements (under approval), European Committee for Standardization. (CEN). [16] D. Camuffo, Microclimate for cultural heritage, Elsevier, 1998, ISBN: 9780444829252. [17] EN 15758, Conservation of Cultural Property - Procedures and instruments for measuring temperatures of the air and the surfaces of objects, European Committee for Standardization (CEN), 2010. [18] ASHRAE, Psychrometrics: theory and practice, ISBN: 1883413397, 1996. [19] FprEN 16242, Conservation of cultural property - Procedures and instruments for measuring humidity in the air and moisture exchanges between air and cultural property (under approval), European Committee for Standardization (CEN), 2012. [20] EN 15803, Conservation of cultural property - Test methods - Determination of water vapour permeability, European Committee for Standardization (CEN), 2009. [21] T.P. Labuza, Sorption phenomena in foods, theoretical and practical aspects, theory, determination and control of physical proprieties of food materials, C.K. RHA (Eds.), 1975. [22] W.J. Scott, Water relations of food spoilage microorganisms, Advanced in Food Research 7 (1957) 83127. [23] N. Valentn, M. Lindstrom, F. Preusser, Microbial control by low oxygen and low relative humidity environment, Studies in Conservation 35 (1990) 222230. [24] A. Bernardi, Conservare le opere darte, Il microclima negli ambienti museali, Casa editrice Il prato, Padova, ISBN: 88-87243-61-1, 2004. [25] A. Schieweck, T. Salthammer, Indoor air quality in passive-type museum showcases, Journal of Cultural Heritage 12-2011 205-213, 2011. [26] G. Tiecco, Igiene e tecnologia alimentare, eds. Edagricole, ISBN: 88-206-4061-9, 1999. [27] R.L. Feller, Stages in the deterioration of organic materials, in: J.C. Williams (Ed.), Preservation of paper and textiles of historic and artistic value, Advances in Chemistry Series, no. 164, American Chemical Society, Washington, D.C., 1977, pp. 314335. [28] H. Sobel, E.F. Hansen, Environmentally produced changes in historic proteins, A: Collagen, Text of a poster presented at the Third Annual Symposium of the Protein Society, Seattle, Wash, 1989. [29] C. Selwitz, S. Maekawa, Inert gases in the control of museum insect pests, Getty Conservation Institute, J. Paul Getty Trust, ISBN: 0-89236-502-1, 1998. [30] E.F. Hansen, S.N. Lee, H. Sobel, The effects of relative humidity on some physical properties of modern vellum, implications for the optimum relative humidity for the display and storage of parchment, Journal of the American Institute for Conservation 31 (3) (1992) 325342. [31] E. Martuscelli, Degradazione delle bre naturali e dei tessuti antichi, PAIDEIA Firenze, ISBN: 8887410259, 2006. [32] EUR-20483, Science and Technology for the Conservation of the European Cultural Heritage, Research Infrastructures, project report, European Commission, Belgium, 2003. [33] MIBAC, Ministero per i Beni e le Attivit Culturali, Italia, D.M. 10 maggio 2001, Atto di indirizzo sui criteri tecnico- scientici e sugli standard di funzionamento e sviluppo dei musei (Art. 150, comma 6, del D. Les. n. 112 del 1998). [34] CIE 157:2004, Control of damage to museum objects by optical radiation, Commission Internationale de Lclairage, ISBN: 9783901906275, 2004. [35] G.J. Leary, The yellowing of wood by light, TAPPI 50 (1) (1967) 1719. [36] MGC, Standards in the Museum Care of Biological Collections, Museums & Galleries Commission, ISBN: 0-948630-18-3, 1992. [37] CSP, Gli Standard museali nella Regione Piemonte, Centro Studi Piemontesi, ISBN: 978-88-8262-123-0, 2007. [38] M.J. Jay, M.J. Loessner, D.A. Golden, Microbiologia degli alimenti, Springer, ISBN: 8847007852, 2009.

Table 4 Physical-chemical parameters for the correct conservation of mummies. Air temperature T Relative humidity RH O2 concentration O3 , SO2 , NO2 , CO2 , VOC concentration Illuminance LUX UV irradiation UV irradiation ES Spectral irradiation E ( 4004000 nm) Annual max. light dose LO

9. Conclusions The denition of the ideal physical-chemical parameters for the correct conservation of mummies is listed in Table 4. Before being applied, however, the purpose of the conservation of the mummy must be properly determined. These parameters are valid in all conditions except for conservation in storage rooms where public display is not a priority. In these circumstances, it is necessary to eliminate any light or irradiation source, in addition to maintaining the threshold temperature at the lowest possible value. References
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