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Structure of ear:The ear has 3 parts 1. External ear 2. Middle ear 3.

Internal ear External ear consist of 2 parts a) Pinna b) External auditory meatus

Pinna or auricle consists of a fibrocartilagenous plate is covered by connective tissue & skin. The plate is characteristically folded & ridged. The skin is thin & contains fine hairs & sebaceous gland. On posterior surface sweat glands are present. Pinna collects & reflects sound waves into auditory meatus. The depression in the pinna forming the orifice of auditory meatus is called concha. The external auditory meatus is a long tortuous canal abt 2.54cm(55mm) extending from concha & it is medially shut off by tympanic membrane. The initial part is cartilaginous & is covered by thick skin containing

stiff hairs, sebaceous gland and ceruminous gland. The glands are coiled & tubular and opens on the surface of the skin& its columnar epithelial cells contains brown pigment granules & fat droplets. The secretion of ceruminous gland , sebaceous gland & the desquamated epithelial cells form the earwax or cerumen. The inner part is bony as it adheres closely to the periosteum. This portion is also covered by skin which contains sebaceous gland & small fine hairs(on the superior wall of the canal). The skin covering this portion is continuous with the cuticular layer of tympanic membrane. The external auditory meatus transmits the sound waves perpendicularly to the membrane. The tortuosity of the canal prevents any mechanical injury to the tympanic membrane from outside. Middle ear or tympanic cavity or tympanum is small, narrow,irregular & laterally compressed. It is situated within the temporal bone. The middle ear contains 1. Air 2. Auditory ossicles a. Malleus b. Incus c. stapes 3. Auditory muscles a. Tensor tympani muscle

b. Stapedius muscle The tympanic membrane or eardrum forms the lateral wall of middle ear cavity. It is thin, semitransparent, elliptical in shape & lies obliquely , downwards,inwards& forwards. Size 10mm *9mm. it is concave from outside. The point of maximum concavity is called umbo & to it the handle of the malleus is attached on the inner side. The periphery of the membrane is attached to the tympanic sulcus in the surrounding bony ring by means of the fibrocartilage. The tympanic membrane is formed by 3 layers 1. Lateral cutaneous layer continuous with the skin of auditory meatus. 2. Intermediate fibrous layer formed of collagenous fibres 3. Medial mucous layer (tympanic mucosa) composed of single layer of cuboidal epithelial cells. In the medial wall there are 2 windows Oval window (fenestra ovalis) to which the foot plate of the stapes is attached & sealed by means of a membrane. Round window (fenestra cochlea or rotunda)- which is closed by a membrane. The posterior wall communicates with air cavities in the mastoid process & the largest air cavity is mastoid antrum.

In the anterior wall there are 2 canals, the upper one lodges the tensor tympani & the lower one is called Eustachian tube(auditory tube) which opens into the nasopharynx. Its upper part is surrounded by bony wall & lower part by fibrocartilagenous plate. The Eustachian tube connects the middle ear with posterior part of nose and forms the passage of air between middle ear & atmosphere. Normally it remains closed but opens during chewing , yawning, and sneezing. The main function is to equalise the pressure on both sides of the ear drum. Any imbalance in the static pressure affects the transmission of middle ear structure. Eg:- diving, landing an aircraft,going up in an aeroplane. In these conditions the change in the pressure produce considerable stress on the tympanic membrane if the pressure in the middle ear is not equalised with the outside pressure. Auditory ossicles are 3 minute bones arranged in the form of a chain or complex system of levers extending across the middle ear from tympanic mm to oval window. From outside inwards they are Malleus (hammer) attached to TM with a handle(manubrium), neck & head (capitullum) articulating with the anterior surface of the body of incus. Incus (anvil ) looking like premolar tooth with a body, a short process to which a ligament is attached & a long

process, to its tip (lenticular process) the head of stapes is attached. Stapes(stirrup) is the smallest bone in the body. It has a body, neck, anterior crus , posterior crus & a foot plate which is attached to the oval window. The base of stapes produces a rocking rather than the push pull movement. The 3 bones are bound by ligaments & when the sound waves impinge on the TM these chains of ossicle vibrates as a single unit. Thus inner side of tympanic membrane is linked to the fluid filled cochlea at the oval window. The mechanism of joint & bearing systems of the single unit of the bony ossicles are such that displacements at the tympanic membrane by air will be 3 times higher in the oval window. Thus it acts like a hydraulic press. The force in the oval window is spread over an area of 3.2 sqmm but at the TM this spread is over 65 sqmm. Thus the pressure changes in the liquid of inner ear just inside the oval window will be greater than that of outside the TM. The auditory muscles include Tensor tympani arising from the cartilagenuos portion of ET, adjacent to greater wing of sphenoid bone & osseous canal & its tendon attached to head of malleus. Supplied by the mandibular division of trigeminal nerve. Tensor tympani pulls & keeps the TM stretched or tensed constantly which is essential for the transmission of sound waves reaching

the TM. So paralysis of this muscle causes hearing impairment. Stapedius is the smallest muscle in the body(1mm length). It lies in the conical bony cavity on the posterior wall of the middle ear cavity. It arises from interior pyramid of tympanic cavity &its tendon is attached to the posterior surface of the neck of stapes. Supplied by facial nerve. It prevents excess movement of stapes. when stapedius contracts it pulls the neck of stapes backwards & reduces the movement of footplate against the fluid in cochlea. Tensor tympani & stapedius muscles modify the transmission of sounds of different intensities & provide a protective mechanism. A loud sound causes reflex contraction of tensor tympani & stapedius muscles after a latent period of 40 to 80 miiliseconds. It is called the tympanic reflex. The tympanic reflex protects the TM from being ruptured by loud sound. It also prevents fixation of footplate of stapes, against oval window during exposure to loud sound. When both the muscles contract, the manubrium of malleus moves inward & stapes is pulled outward. This leads to stiffness of auditory ossicles so that the transmission of sound is decreased. Thus helps to protect the inner ear (cochlea)from damaging effects of loud sounds.

Internal ear or labyrinth is a membranous structure, enclosed by a bony labyrinth in petrous part of temporal bone. It consist of the a) sense organ of hearing - cochlea in front b) sense organ of equilibrium vestibular apparatus, including the semicircular canals & otolith organ behind.

Cochlea is a coiled structure resembling the snails shell. It consist of a bony (osseous) canal or tube arranged spirally around a central conical bony (spongy bone) pillar, the modiolus through the axis of which the auditory nerve passes. It makes about 2 turns extending from the base of the cochlea to the apex. The end is called cupula. The base forms the bottom of the internal auditory meatus through which the cochlear nerve fibres enter the modiolus. From the modiolus a bony ridge called osseous spiral lamina projects into the canal & winds around the modiolus like the thread of a screw. The spiral lamina follows the spiral turns of cochlea & ends at the cupula in a hook shaped process called hamulus. The bony canal is divided into 3 spiral canals by 2 partition , namely basilar membrane &

Reissners membrane (vestibular membrane). They are a) Scala vestibuli b) Scala tympani c) Scala media

The basilar membrane is a connective tissue membrane . It extends from the tip of the osseous spiral lamina to spiral ligament ( tough dense fibrous band) which lines the outer wall of the canal. It is called membrous spiral lamina. Along the basilar membrane there are 20,000 to 30,000 tiny fibres called basilar fibres (auditory fibres). Each fibre is different size & shape. The fibres near the oval window are short & stiff. While reaching towards the helicotrema the basilar fibres gradually become longer & soft. Reissners membrane extends obliquely from the upper surface of spiral lamina to the upper part of spiral ligament. Scala vestibuli lies above the reissners membrane. Scala vestibuli ends at the basis of cochlea at oval window which closed by the foot plate of stapes. It is filled with Perilymph.

Scala tympani lies below the basilar membrane. It lies parallel to scala vestibule & at the base it ends at the round window which is covered by the membrane called secondary tympanic membrane. It also is filled with perilymph. At the apex scala vestibuli & scala tympani communicates through a small opening called helicotrema. Scala media also called cochlear duct (canal or partition) or membranous cochlea or otic cochlea is enclosed between basilar membrane& vestibular membrane. It is a triangular fluid filled space. It is called space of Nuel. It extends b/w the spiral lamina & spiral ligament. Its upper wall is formed by vestibular membrane, outer wall by spiral ligament & lower wall (tympanic wall) by basilar membrane & bony spiral lamina. The scala media is filled with the endolymph. It ends blindly at apex & but at the base it communicates with the saccule of the otolith organ of of vestibular apparatus through duct of Hensen or ductus ( canalis ) reuniens.

On the basilar membrane lies the receptor organ of hearing called organ of corti. It is neuroepithelial structure in the cochlea. The organ of corti extends throughout the cochlear duct. It is made

up of sensory elements ,hair cells &supporting cells. They include, from medial to lateral 1. Border cells 2. Inner hair cells 3. Inner phalangeal cells 4. Inner pillar cells 5. Outer pillar cells 6. Outer phalangeal cells 7. Outer hair cells 8. Cells of Hensen 9. Cells of Claudius 10.Tectorial membrane & Reticular lamina The outer & inner pillar cells projects like rods from the basilar membrane and are called rods of corti. Each pillar cell has a broader base, elongated body or pillar & head at the tip of pillar. The head of the rods unite to enclose a triangular tunnel called the inner tunnel or tunnel of corti. Medial to inner pillar cells there is a single row of inner hair cells & lateral to outer pillar cells there are 3 or 4 rows of outer hair cells. There are about 3500 inner hair cells & about 20,000 outer hair cells in the cochlea. They are the receptors of auditory sensations. Inner hair cells are flask shaped & have a broader base, numerous mitochondria & a larger nucleus situated at the base. The outer hair

cells are columnar cells with centrally placed nucleus & aggregates of mitochondria at the base. The base of the inner hair cell & the outer hair cells rests on supporting cells called inner phalangeal & outer phalangeal cells respectively.The inner phalangeal are arranged in a row along the inner surface of inner pillar cells on the basilar membrane. The outer phalangeal cells are tall columnar cells & are called cells of deiters and are arranged in 3-5 rows. From the phalangeal cells stiff phalangeal processes projects upwards b/w the hair cells to form a part of reticular lamina (lamina reticularis). A triangular fluidspace is present b/w the innermost outer phalangeal process & outer pillar cells called space of Nuel.O n the surface of the hair cell there are short stiff hairs called stereocilia. The hairs of the hair cells projects through the pores of the reticular lamina & gets embedded in the tectorial membrane (membrane tectoris). The movement of tectorial membrane in relation to the vibrations in endolymph stimulates the hair of hair cells. The tectorial membrane is made up of gelatinous substance. It is attached to the outer border of the spiral lamina at one end & to the cells of Hensen at the other end. They are tall columnar cells arranged in several rows on the basilar membrane lateral to outer phalangeal cells. The cells of Hensen also send off processes

which help in the formation of reticular lamina. The space b/w the outer phalangeal cells & the cells of Hensen is called the outer tunnel. On the outer side of the cells of Hensen there are cuboidal cells called cells of Claudius. In certain areas some group of cells are present b/w cells of Claudius & basilar membrane called Boettcher cells. Along the inner side of inner hair cells there is a single layer of slender columnar cells called Border cells. Auditory impulses reaching the hair cells are transmitted by the auditory nerve. At the base of each hair cells two types of cochlear nerve endings (sensory nerve fibres) are present. They are the smaller & larger nerve endings. The smaller nerve endings are thinner and less granulated. The larger ones are thicker and densely granulated. The cochlear nerve fibres after losing their sheaths enter the organ of corti. The nerve fibres from the outer hair cells cross the tunnel corti &meet the nerve fibres from the inner hair cells & reach the bipolar cells of the spiral ganglion situated on the osseous spiral lamina.

Auditory pathway :The bipolar cells of spiral ganglion constitutes the First order Neurons. The dendrites of bipolar cells terminate around the hair cells of

the organ of corti and carry the auditory impulses to the ganglion cells. The axons of these cells constitute the cochlear division of the 8th cranial nerve and leaves through the internal auditory meatus and enters the medulla oblongata. In the medulla at the lower border of pons the nerve fibres divide into two parts . One part end in the ventral cochlear nucleus and other part in the dorsal cochlear nucleus lying ventral & dorsal to the restiform body respectively. From these nuclei the second order neurons arise. From the ventral nucleus a transverse band of fibres arises called corpus trapezoideum. Its fibres run in 3 different directions. a) A few fibres end in the superior olivary nucleus and trapezoid body of the same side & some cross midline and enters the trapezoid body & the superior olivary nucleus of opposite side. b) Majority of fibres cross the midline and enters the lateral lemniscus and the joins the nucleus of lateral lemniscus. c) Some of fibres remains uncrossed & enters lateral lemniscus of same side& terminate in the nucleus of lateral lemniscus on same side. The fibres from the dorsal nucleus pass along the floor of the 4th ventricle towards the

midline & forms a band of fibres called the medullary striae or acoustic striae. These fibres also have same course. Therefore , the lateral lemniscus on each side contains auditory fibres of both sides. The fibres then ascends through the pons &midbrain and ends in the a) Inferior colliculus of tectum of midbrain. b) Medial geniculate body of thalamus. The medial geniculate body forms the subcortical auditory centre. The two medial geniculate bodies remain united by commissural fibres , passing through the optic chiasma & forms Guddens commissure. From the medial geniculate body the third order neuron arises and constitute the Auditory radiations. The fibres pass through the posterior limb of internal capsule and end in the auditory centre in the temporal lobe of cerebral cortex. The centre is situated in the Heschls gyrus and in the superior temporal gyrus. Areas 41 & 42 (situated in the anterior transverse gyrus & lateral surface of superior temporal gyrus ) and wernickes area (in the upper part of superior temporal gyrus posterior to areas 41&42) are the auditory areas. Area 41 & 42 are the primary auditory areas. There is a point to point representation of basilar membrane at first in the medial geniculate body and then in

the auditory centre. The apex of cochlea in the anterior end,basal part in the posterior end & the intermediate region in the middle of the centre. The audiopsychic centre lies close to it occupying the superior, middle & inferior temporal gyrus area 20,21,22. The cortical auditory centres are concerned with a) Perception of auditory impulses b) Analysis of pitch & intensity of sound c) Determination of source of sound. The area 41 & 42 are concerned with the perception of auditory impulses only. The analysis & interpretation of the full meaning of a particular sound occurs in the audiopschyic area along with the wernickes area. The auditory impulses from each ear project to the auditory centres of both side. So unilateral removal of one auditory cortex does not produce deafness.

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