POLLUTION Part 1 of 2 Overview

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Contents
Articles
Overview
Pollution Pollutant 1 1 11 14 14 27 44 56 60 63 66 70 72 73 83 88 88 90 94 95 102 106 106 112 127 128 130

Types of pollution
Air pollution Light pollution Marine pollution Noise pollution Radioactive contamination Soil contamination Ship pollution Thermal pollution Visual pollution Water pollution Waste

Pollution control
Environmental management Regulation and monitoring of pollution Pollution prevention Waste management Waste minimisation

International treaties
Montreal Protocol Kyoto Protocol CLRTAP OSPAR Convention Stockholm Convention

References
Article Sources and Contributors Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 134 139

Article Licenses
License 142

Overview
Pollution
Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into a natural environment that causes instability, disorder, harm or discomfort to the ecosystem i.e. physical systems or living organisms.[1] Pollution can take the form of chemical substances or energy, such as noise, heat, or light. Pollutants, the elements of pollution, can be foreign substances or energies, or naturally occurring; when naturally occurring, they are considered contaminants when they exceed natural levels. Pollution is often classed as point source or nonpoint source pollution. The Blacksmith Institute issues annually a list of the world's worst polluted places. In the 2007 issues the ten top nominees are located in Azerbaijan, China, India, Peru, Russia, Ukraine, and Zambia.[2]

Air pollution from World War II weapon production in Alabama

Ancient cultures
Air pollution has always been with us. According to a 1983 article in the journal Science, "soot found on ceilings of prehistoric caves provides ample evidence of the high levels of pollution that was associated with inadequate ventilation of open fires."[3] The forging of metals appears to be a key turning point in the creation of significant air pollution levels outside the home. Core samples of glaciers in Greenland indicate increases in pollution associated with Greek, Roman and Chinese metal production.[4]

Official acknowledgement
The earliest known writings concerned with pollution were written between the 9th and 13th centuries by Persian scientists such as Muhammad ibn Zakarya Rzi (Rhazes), Ibn Sina (Avicenna), and al-Masihi or were Arabic medical treatises written by physicians such as al-Kindi (Alkindus), Qusta ibn Luqa (Costa ben Luca), Ibn Al-Jazzar, al-Tamimi, Ali ibn Ridwan, Ibn Jumay, Isaac Israeli ben Solomon, Abd-el-latif, Ibn al-Quff, and Ibn al-Nafis. Their works covered a number of subjects related to pollution such as air contamination, water contamination, soil contamination, solid waste mishandling, and environmental assessments of certain localities.[5] King Edward I of England banned the burning of sea-coal by proclamation in London in 1272, after its smoke had become a problem.[6] [7] But the fuel was so common in England that this earliest of names for it was acquired because it could be carted away from some shores by the wheelbarrow. Air pollution would continue to be a problem in England, especially later during the industrial revolution, and extending into the recent past with the Great Smog of 1952. This same city also recorded one of the earlier extreme cases of water quality problems with the Great Stink on the Thames of 1858, which led to construction of the London sewerage system soon afterward. It was the industrial revolution that gave birth to environmental pollution as we know it today. The emergence of great factories and consumption of immense quantities of coal and other fossil fuels gave rise to unprecedented air pollution and the large volume of industrial chemical discharges added to the growing load of untreated human waste. Chicago and Cincinnati were the first two American cities to enact laws ensuring cleaner air in 1881. Other cities followed around the country until early in the 20th century, when the short lived Office of Air Pollution was

Pollution created under the Department of the Interior. Extreme smog events were experienced by the cities of Los Angeles and Donora, Pennsylvania in the late 1940s, serving as another public reminder.[8]

Modern awareness
Pollution became a popular issue after World War II, due to radioactive fallout from atomic warfare and testing. Then a non-nuclear event, The Great Smog of 1952 in London, killed at least 4000 people.[9] This prompted some of the first major modern environmental legislation, The Clean Air Act of 1956. Pollution began to draw major public attention in the United States between the mid-1950s and early 1970s, when Congress passed the Noise Control Act, the Clean Air Act, the Clean Water Act and the National Environmental Policy Act. Bad bouts of local pollution helped increase consciousness. PCB dumping in the Hudson River resulted in a ban by the EPA on consumption of its fish in 1974. Long-term dioxin contamination at Love Canal starting in 1947 became a national news story in 1978 and led to the Superfund legislation of 1980. Legal proceedings in the 1990s helped bring to light Chromium-6 releases in California--the champions of whose victims became famous. The pollution of industrial land gave rise to the name brownfield, a term now common in city planning. DDT was banned in most of the developed world after the publication of Rachel Carson's Silent Spring. The development of nuclear science introduced radioactive contamination, which can remain lethally radioactive for hundreds of thousands of years. Lake Karachay, named by the Worldwatch Institute as the "most polluted spot" on earth, served as a disposal site for the Soviet Union thoroughout the 1950s and 1960s. Second place may go to the area of Chelyabinsk U.S.S.R. (see reference below) as the "Most polluted place on the planet". Nuclear weapons continued to be tested in the Cold War, sometimes near inhabited areas, especially in the earlier stages of their development. The toll on the worst-affected populations and the growth since then in understanding about the critical threat to human health posed by radioactivity has also been a prohibitive complication associated with nuclear power. Though extreme care is practiced in that industry, the potential for disaster suggested by incidents such as those at Three Mile Island and Chernobyl pose a lingering specter of public mistrust. One legacy of nuclear testing before most forms were banned has been significantly raised levels of background radiation. International catastrophes such as the wreck of the Amoco Cadiz oil tanker off the coast of Brittany in 1978 and the Bhopal disaster in 1984 have demonstrated the universality of such events and the scale on which efforts to address them needed to engage. The borderless nature of atmosphere and oceans inevitably resulted in the implication of pollution on a planetary level with the issue of global warming. Most recently the term persistent organic pollutant (POP) has come to describe a group of chemicals such as PBDEs and PFCs among others. Though their effects remain somewhat less well understood owing to a lack of experimental data, they have been detected in various ecological habitats far removed from industrial activity such as the Arctic, demonstrating diffusion and bioaccumulation after only a relatively brief period of widespread use. Growing evidence of local and global pollution and an increasingly informed public over time have given rise to environmentalism and the environmental movement, which generally seek to limit human impact on the environment.

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Forms of pollution
The major forms of pollution are listed below along with the particular pollutants relevant to each of them: Air pollution, the release of chemicals and particulates into the atmosphere. Common gaseous air pollutants include carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and nitrogen oxides produced by industry and motor vehicles. Photochemical ozone and smog are created as nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons react to sunlight. Particulate matter, or fine dust is characterized by their micrometre size PM10 to PM2.5. Light pollution, includes light trespass, over-illumination and astronomical interference. Littering Noise pollution, which encompasses roadway noise, aircraft noise, industrial noise as well as high-intensity sonar. Soil contamination occurs when chemicals are released by spill or underground leakage. Among the most significant soil contaminants are hydrocarbons, heavy metals, MTBE,[10] herbicides, pesticides and chlorinated hydrocarbons.

The Lachine Canal in Montreal Canada, is polluted.

Radioactive contamination, resulting from 20th century activities in atomic physics, such as nuclear power generation and nuclear weapons research, manufacture and deployment. (See alpha emitters and actinides in the environment.) Thermal pollution, is a temperature change in natural water bodies caused by human influence, such as use of water as coolant in a power plant. Visual pollution, which can refer to the presence of overhead power lines, motorway billboards, scarred landforms (as from strip mining), open storage of trash or municipal solid waste. Water pollution, by the release of waste products and contaminants into surface runoff into river drainage systems, leaching into groundwater, liquid spills, wastewater discharges, eutrophication and littering.

Pollutants
A pollutant is a waste material that pollutes air, water or soil. Three factors determine the severity of a pollutant: its chemical nature, the concentration and the persistence.

Sources and causes

Air pollution comes from both natural and man made sources. Though globally man made pollutants from combustion, construction, mining, agriculture and warfare are increasingly significant in the air pollution equation.[11] Motor vehicle emissions are one of the leading causes of air pollution.[12] [13] [14] China, United States, Russia, Mexico, and Japan are the world leaders in air pollution emissions. Principal stationary pollution sources include chemical plants, coal-fired power plants, oil refineries,[15] petrochemical plants, nuclear waste disposal activity, incinerators, large livestock farms (dairy cows, pigs, poultry, etc.), PVC factories, metals production factories, plastics factories, and other heavy industry. Agricultural air pollution comes from contemporary practices which include clear felling and burning of natural vegetation as well as spraying of pesticides and herbicides[16]

Pollution About 400 million metric tons of hazardous wastes are generated each year.[17] The United States alone produces about 250 million metric tons.[18] Americans constitute less than 5% of the world's population, but produce roughly 25% of the worlds CO2,[19] and generate approximately 30% of worlds waste.[20] [21] In 2007, China has overtaken the United States as the world's biggest producer of CO2.[22] In February 2007, a report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), representing the work of 2,500 scientists from more than 130 countries, said that humans have been the primary cause of global warming since 1950. Humans have ways to cut greenhouse gas emissions and avoid the consequences of global warming, a major climate report concluded. But in order to change the climate, the transition from fossil fuels like coal and oil needs to occur within decades, according to the final report this year from the UN's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).[23] Some of the more common soil contaminants are chlorinated hydrocarbons (CFH), heavy metals (such as chromium, cadmium--found in rechargeable batteries, and lead--found in lead paint, aviation fuel and still in some countries, gasoline), MTBE, zinc, arsenic and benzene. In 2001 a series of press reports culminating in a book called Fateful Harvest unveiled a widespread practice of recycling industrial byproducts into fertilizer, resulting in the contamination of the soil with various metals. Ordinary municipal landfills are the source of many chemical substances entering the soil environment (and often groundwater), emanating from the wide variety of refuse accepted, especially substances illegally discarded there, or from pre-1970 landfills that may have been subject to little control in the U.S. or EU. There have also been some unusual releases of polychlorinated dibenzodioxins, commonly called dioxins for simplicity, such as TCDD.[24] Pollution can also be the consequence of a natural disaster. For example, hurricanes often involve water contamination from sewage, and petrochemical spills from ruptured boats or automobiles. Larger scale and environmental damage is not uncommon when coastal oil rigs or refineries are involved. Some sources of pollution, such as nuclear power plants or oil tankers, can produce widespread and potentially hazardous releases when accidents occur. In the case of noise pollution the dominant source class is the motor vehicle, producing about ninety percent of all unwanted noise worldwide.

Effects
Human health

Pollution

Adverse air quality can kill many organisms including humans. Ozone pollution can cause respiratory disease, cardiovascular disease, throat inflammation, chest pain, and congestion. Water pollution causes approximately 14,000 deaths per day, mostly due to contamination of drinking water by untreated sewage in developing countries. An estimated 700 million Indians have no access to a proper toilet, and 1,000 Indian children die of diarrhoeal sickness every day.[28] Nearly 500 million Chinese [25] lack access to safe drinking water.[29] Overview of main health effects on humans from some common types of pollution. [26] [27] 656,000 people die prematurely each year in China because of air pollution. In India, air pollution is believed to cause 527,700 fatalities a year.[30] Studies have estimated that the number of people killed annually in the US could be over 50,000.[31] Oil spills can cause skin irritations and rashes. Noise pollution induces hearing loss, high blood pressure, stress, and sleep disturbance. Mercury has been linked to developmental deficits in children and neurologic symptoms. Older people are majorly exposed to diseases induced by air pollution. Those with heart or lung disorders are under additional risk. Children and infants are also at serious risk. Lead and other heavy metals have been shown to cause neurological problems. Chemical and radioactive substances can cause cancer and as well as birth defects.

Environment
Pollution has been found to be present widely in the environment. There are a number of effects of this: Biomagnification describes situations where toxins (such as heavy metals) may pass through trophic levels, becoming exponentially more concentrated in the process. Carbon dioxide emissions cause ocean acidification, the ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth's oceans as CO2 becomes dissolved. The emission of greenhouse gases leads to global warming which affects ecosystems in many ways. Invasive species can out compete native species and reduce biodiversity. Invasive plants can contribute debris and biomolecules (allelopathy) that can alter soil and chemical compositions of an environment, often reducing native species competitiveness. Nitrogen oxides are removed from the air by rain and fertilise land which can change the species composition of ecosystems. Smog and haze can reduce the amount of sunlight received by plants to carry out photosynthesis and leads to the production of tropospheric ozone which damages plants. Soil can become infertile and unsuitable for plants. This will affect other organisms in the food web. Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides can cause acid rain which lowers the pH value of soil.

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Environmental health information

The Toxicology and Environmental Health Information Program (TEHIP)[32] at the United States National Library of Medicine (NLM) maintains a comprehensive toxicology and environmental health web site that includes access to resources produced by TEHIP and by other government agencies and organizations. This web site includes links to databases, bibliographies, tutorials, and other scientific and consumer-oriented resources. TEHIP also is responsible for the Toxicology Data Network (TOXNET)[33] an integrated system of toxicology and environmental health databases that are available free of charge on the web. TOXMAP is a Geographic Information System (GIS) that is part of TOXNET. TOXMAP uses maps of the United States to help users visually explore data from the United States Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) Toxics Release Inventory and Superfund Basic Research Programs.

Regulation and monitoring

To protect the environment from the adverse effects of pollution, many nations worldwide have enacted legislation to regulate various types of pollution as well as to mitigate the adverse effects of pollution.

Pollution control
Pollution control is a term used in environmental management. It means the control of emissions and effluents into air, water or soil. Without pollution control, the waste products from consumption, heating, agriculture, mining, manufacturing, transportation and other human activities, whether they accumulate or disperse, will degrade the environment. In the hierarchy of controls, pollution prevention and waste minimization are more desirable than pollution control.

Practices
recycling

Pollution control devices

Dust collection systems Baghouses Cyclones Electrostatic precipitators Scrubbers Baffle spray scrubber Cyclonic spray scrubber Ejector venturi scrubber Mechanically aided scrubber Spray tower Wet scrubber Sewage treatment Activated sludge biotreaters API oil-water separators[15] [34] Biofilters Dissolved air flotation (DAF) Powdered activated carbon treatment Sedimentation (water treatment) Vapor recovery systems

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Perspectives
The earliest precursor of pollution generated by life forms would have been a natural function of their existence. The attendant consequences on viability and population levels fell within the sphere of natural selection. These would have included the demise of a population locally or ultimately, species extinction. Processes that were untenable would have resulted in a new balance brought about by changes and adaptations. At the extremes, for any form of life, consideration of pollution is superseded by that of survival. For humankind, the factor of technology is a distinguishing and critical consideration, both as an enabler and an additional source of byproducts. Short of survival, human concerns include the range from quality of life to health hazards. Since science holds experimental demonstration to be definitive, modern treatment of toxicity or environmental harm involves defining a level at which an effect is observable. Common examples of fields where practical measurement is crucial include automobile emissions control, industrial exposure (e.g. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) PELs), toxicology (e.g. LD50), and medicine (e.g. medication and radiation doses). "The solution to pollution is dilution", is a dictum which summarizes a traditional approach to pollution management whereby sufficiently diluted pollution is not harmful.[35] [36] It is well-suited to some other modern, locally scoped applications such as laboratory safety procedure and hazardous material release emergency management. But it assumes that the dilutant is in virtually unlimited supply for the application or that resulting dilutions are acceptable in all cases. Such simple treatment for environmental pollution on a wider scale might have had greater merit in earlier centuries when physical survival was often the highest imperative, human population and densities were lower, technologies were simpler and their byproducts more benign. But these are often no longer the case. Furthermore, advances have enabled measurement of concentrations not possible before. The use of statistical methods in evaluating outcomes has given currency to the principle of probable harm in cases where assessment is warranted but resorting to deterministic models is impractical or unfeasible. In addition, consideration of the environment beyond direct impact on human beings has gained prominence. Yet in the absence of a superseding principle, this older approach predominates practices throughout the world. It is the basis by which to gauge concentrations of effluent for legal release, exceeding which penalties are assessed or restrictions applied. The regressive cases are those where a controlled level of release is too high or, if enforceable, is neglected. Migration from pollution dilution to elimination in many cases is confronted by challenging economical and technological barriers.

Pollution

Greenhouse gases and global warming

Carbon dioxide, while vital for photosynthesis, is sometimes referred to as pollution, because raised levels of the gas in the atmosphere are affecting the Earth's climate. Disruption of the environment can also highlight the connection between areas of pollution that would normally be classified separately, such as those of water and air. Recent studies have investigated the potential for long-term rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide to cause slight but critical increases in the acidity of ocean waters, and the possible effects of this on marine ecosystems.

Historical and projected CO2 emissions by country. [37] [38] Source: Energy Information Administration.

See also
Environmental health Hazardous Substances Data Bank
Air pollution Air dispersion modeling Arden Pope Atmospheric Chemistry Observational Databases links to freely available data. Climate change Emission standard Greenhouse gas Soil contamination Environmental soil science List of solid waste treatment technologies List of waste management companies List of waste management topics Water pollution Cruise ship pollution Marine debris Marine pollution Ship pollution Stormwater Wastewater Wastewater quality indicators Other Contamination control Earth Day Externality Genetic pollution Global warming Heat pollution List of environmental issues Noise health effects

References
[1] "Pollution - Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary" (http:/ / www. merriam-webster. com/ dictionary/ pollution). Merriam-webster.com. 2010-08-13. . Retrieved 2010-08-26. [2] The World's most polluted places, Blcksmith Institute - September 2007 (http:/ / www. blacksmithinstitute. org/ wwpp2007/ finalReport2007. pdf) [3] Spengler, John D. and Sexton, Ken (1983) "Indoor Air Pollution: A Public Health Perspective" Science (New Series) 221(4605 ): pp. 9-17, page 9 [4] Hong, Sungmin et al. (1996) "History of Ancient Copper Smelting Pollution During Roman and Medieval Times Recorded in Greenland Ice" Science (New Series) 272(5259): pp. 246-249, page 248 [5] L. Gari (2002), "Arabic Treatises on Environmental Pollution up to the End of the Thirteenth Century", Environment and History 8 (4), pp. 475-488. [6] David Urbinato (Summer 1994). "London's Historic "Pea-Soupers"" (http:/ / www. epa. gov/ history/ topics/ perspect/ london. htm). United States Environmental Protection Agency. . Retrieved 2006-08-02. [7] "Deadly Smog" (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ now/ science/ smog. html). PBS. 2003-01-17. . Retrieved 2006-08-02. [8] James R. Fleming; Bethany R. Knorr of Colby College. "History of the Clean Air Act" (http:/ / www. ametsoc. org/ sloan/ cleanair/ ). American Meteorological Society. . Retrieved 2006-02-14. [9] 1952: London fog clears after days of chaos (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ onthisday/ hi/ dates/ stories/ december/ 9/ newsid_4506000/ 4506390. stm) (BBC News)

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[10] Concerns about MTBE (http:/ / www. epa. gov/ mtbe/ water. htm#concerns) from U.S. EPA website [11] Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, 1972 [12] Environmental Performance Report 2001 (http:/ / www. tc. gc. ca/ programs/ environment/ ems/ epr2001/ awareness. htm) (Transport, Canada website page) [13] State of the Environment, Issue: Air Quality (http:/ / www. environment. gov. au/ soe/ 2006/ publications/ drs/ atmosphere/ issue/ 188/ index. html) (Australian Government website page) [14] Pollution and Society (http:/ / www. umich. edu/ ~gs265/ society/ pollution. htm) Marisa Buchanan and Carl Horwitz, University of Michigan [15] Beychok, Milton R. (1967). Aqueous Wastes from Petroleum and Petrochemical Plants (1st ed.). John Wiley & Sons. LCCN 67019834. [16] Silent Spring, R Carlson, 1962 [17] " Pollution (http:/ / encarta. msn. com/ encyclopedia_761570933_2/ Pollution. html)". Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2009. [18] " Chapter 23 Solid, Toxic, and Hazardous Waste (http:/ / zoology. muohio. edu/ oris/ cunn06/ cs6_23. htm)" [19] " Revolutionary CO2 maps zoom in on greenhouse gas sources (http:/ / news. uns. purdue. edu/ x/ 2008a/ 080407GurneyVulcan. html)". Purdue University. April 7, 2008. [20] "Waste Watcher" (http:/ / www. oregon. gov/ DAS/ FAC/ docs/ ww092001. pdf) (PDF). . Retrieved 2010-08-26. [21] Alarm sounds on US population boom (http:/ / www. boston. com/ news/ nation/ washington/ articles/ 2006/ 08/ 31/ alarm_sounds_on_us_population_boom/ ). August 31, 2006. The Boston Globe. [22] " China overtakes US as world's biggest CO2 emitter (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ environment/ 2007/ jun/ 19/ china. usnews)". Guardian.co.uk. June 19, 2007. [23] "Global Warming Can Be Stopped, World Climate Experts Say" (http:/ / news. nationalgeographic. com/ news/ 2007/ 05/ 070504-global-warming. html). News.nationalgeographic.com. . Retrieved 2010-08-26. [24] Beychok, Milton R. (January 1987). "A data base for dioxin and furan emissions from refuse incinerators". Atmospheric Environment 21 (1): 2936. doi:10.1016/0004-6981(87)90267-8. [25] World Resources Institute: August 2008 Monthly Update: Air Pollution's Causes, Consequences and Solutions (http:/ / earthtrends. wri. org/ updates/ node/ 325) Submitted by Matt Kallman on Wed, 2008-08-20 18:22. Retrieved on April 17, 2009 [26] waterhealthconnection.org (http:/ / www. waterhealthconnection. org/ chapter3. asp) Overview of Waterborne Disease Trends] By Patricia L. Meinhardt, MD, MPH, MA, Author. Retrieved on April 16, 2009 [27] Pennsylvania State University > Potential Health Effects of Pesticides. (http:/ / pubs. cas. psu. edu/ FreePubs/ pdfs/ uo198. pdf) by Eric S. Lorenz. 2007. [28] "A special report on India: Creaking, groaning: Infrastructure is Indias biggest handicap" (http:/ / www. economist. com/ specialreports/ displaystory. cfm?story_id=12749787). The Economist. 11 December 2008. . [29] " As China Roars, Pollution Reaches Deadly Extremes (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2007/ 08/ 26/ world/ asia/ 26china. html)". The New York Times. August 26, 2007. [30] Chinese Air Pollution Deadliest in World, Report Says (http:/ / news. nationalgeographic. com/ news/ 2007/ 07/ 070709-china-pollution. html). National Geographic News. July 9, 2007. [31] David, Michael, and Caroline. "Air Pollution - Effects" (http:/ / library. thinkquest. org/ 26026/ Environmental_Problems/ air_pollution_-_effects. html). Library.thinkquest.org. . Retrieved 2010-08-26. [32] "SIS.nlm.nih.gov" (http:/ / sis. nlm. nih. gov/ enviro. html). SIS.nlm.nih.gov. 2010-08-12. . Retrieved 2010-08-26. [33] "Toxnet.nlm.nih.gov" (http:/ / toxnet. nlm. nih. gov/ ). Toxnet.nlm.nih.gov. . Retrieved 2010-08-26. [34] American Petroleum Institute (API) (February 1990). Management of Water Discharges: Design and Operations of Oil-Water Separators (1st ed.). American Petroleum Institute. [35] Gershon Cohen Ph.D.. "The 'Solution' to Pollution Is Still 'Dilution'" (http:/ / www. earthisland. org/ eijournal/ new_articles. cfm?articleID=299& journalID=49). Earth Island Institute. . Retrieved 2006-02-14. [36] "What is required" (http:/ / www. cleanocean. org/ index_general. asp?menuid=240. 010). Clean Ocean Foundation. 2001. . Retrieved 2006-02-14. [37] World Carbon Dioxide Emissions (ftp:/ / ftp. eia. doe. gov/ pub/ oiaf/ 1605/ cdrom/ pdf/ ggrpt/ 057304. pdf) (Table 1, Report DOE/EIA-0573, 2004, Energy Information Administration) [38] Carbon dioxide emissions chart (http:/ / rainforests. mongabay. com/ 09-carbon_emissions. htm) (graph on Mongabay website page based on Energy Information Administration's tabulated data)

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External links
OEHHA proposition 65 list (http://www.oehha.ca.gov/prop65/prop65_list/Newlist.html) OSHA limits for air contaminants (http://www.osha-slc.gov/SLTC/pel/index.html) National Toxicology Program (http://ntp-server.niehs.nih.gov/) - from USA National Institutes of Health. Reports and studies on how pollutants affect people TOXNET (http://toxnet.nlm.nih.gov/) - NIH databases and reports on toxicology TOXMAP (http://toxmap.nlm.nih.gov/) - Geographic Information System (GIS) that uses maps of the United States to help users visually explore data from the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Toxics Release Inventory and Superfund Basic Research Programs EPA.gov (http://www.epa.gov/superfund/) - manages Superfund sites and the pollutants in them (CERCLA). Map the EPA Superfund (http://toxmap.nlm.nih.gov/toxmap/main/index.jsp/) Toxic Release Inventory (http://www.epa.gov/tri/) - tracks how much waste USA companies release into the water and air. Gives permits for releasing specific quantities of these pollutants each year. Map EPA's Toxic Release Inventory (http://toxmap.nlm.nih.gov/toxmap/main/index.jsp) Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/index.html) - Top 20 pollutants, how they affect people, what USA industries use them and the products in which they are found Toxicology Tutorials from the National Library of Medicine (http://sis.nlm.nih.gov/enviro/toxtutor. html#toxtutor) - resources to review human toxicology. Pollution Information from (http://www.whoi.edu/page.do?pid=12049), Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution World's Worst Polluted Places 2007 (http://www.blacksmithinstitute.org/ten.php), according to the Blacksmith Institute The World's Most Polluted Places (http://www.time.com/time/specials/2007/article/ 0,28804,1661031_1661028_1661020,00.html) at Time.com (a division of Time Magazine) Chelyabinsk: The Most Contaminated Spot on the Planet (http://www.logtv.com/films/chelyabinsk/index. htm) Documentary Film by Slawomir Grnberg (1996) Kids' Lower IQ Scores Linked To Prenatal Pollution (http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/07/20/ kids-lower-iq-scores-link_1_n_240541.html) by Lindsey Tanner, The Huffington Post, July 20, 2009 Nieman Reports | Tracking Toxics When the Data Are Polluted (http://www.nieman.harvard.edu/reportsitem. aspx?id=100933)

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Pollutant
A pollutant is a waste material that pollutes air, water or soil, and is the cause of pollution. Three factors determine the severity of a pollutant: its chemical nature, its concentration and its persistence.[1] Some pollutants are biodegradable and therefore will not persist in the environment in the long term. However the degradation products of some pollutants are themselves polluting such as the products DDE and DDD produced from degradation of DDT

Types of pollutants
Stock pollutants

Surface runoff, also called nonpoint source pollution, from a farm field in Iowa, United States during a rain storm. Topsoil as well as farm fertilizers and other potential pollutants run off unprotected farm fields when heavy rains occur.

Pollutants that the environment has little or no absorptive capacity are called stock pollutants[2] (e.g. persistent synthetic chemicals, non-biodegradable plastics, and heavy metals). Stock pollutants accumulate in the environment over time. The damage they cause increases as more pollutant is emitted, and persists as the pollutant accumulates. Stock pollutants can create a burden for future generations by passing on damage that persists well after the benefits received from incurring that damage have been forgotten.[2]

Fund pollutants
Fund pollutants are those for which the environment has some absorptive capacity. Fund pollutants do not cause damage to the environment unless the emission rate exceeds the receiving environment's absorptive capacity (e.g. carbon dioxide, which is absorbed by plants and oceans).[2] Fund pollutants are not destroyed, but rather converted into less harmful substances, or diluted/dispersed to non-harmful concentrations.[2]

Notable pollutants
Notable pollutants include the following groups: Heavy metals Persistent organic pollutants Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons Volatile organic compounds Environmental xenobiotics

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Zones of influence
Pollutants can also be defined by their zones of influence, both horizontally and vertically.[2]

Horizontal zone
The horizontal zone refers to the area that is damaged by a pollutant. Local pollutants cause damage near the emission source. Regional pollutants cause damage further from the emission source.[2]

Vertical zone
The vertical zone is referred to whether the damage is ground-level or atmospheric. Surface pollutants cause damage by concentrations of the pollutant accumulating near the Earth's surface Global pollutants cause damage by concentrations in the atmosphere

Regulation
International
Pollutants can cross international borders and therefore international regulations are needed for their control. The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, which entered into force in 2004, is an international legally binding agreement for the control of persistent organic pollutants. Pollutant Release and Transfer Registers (PRTR) are systems to collect and disseminate information on environmental releases and transfers of toxic chemicals from industrial and other facilities.

European Union
The European Pollutant Emission Register is a type of PRTR providing access to information on the annual emissions of industrial facilities in the Member States of the European Union, as well as Norway.

United States
Clean Air Act standards. Under the Clean Air Act, the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) are standards developed for outdoor air quality. The National Emissions Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants are emission standards that are set by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) which are not covered by the NAAQS. Clean Water Act standards. Under the Clean Water Act, EPA promulgated national standards for municipal sewage treatment plants, also called publicly owned treatment works, in the Secondary Treatment Regulation.[3] National standards for industrial dischargers are called Effluent guidelines (for existing sources) and New Source Performance Standards, and currently cover over 50 industrial categories.[4] In addition, the Act requires states to publish water quality standards for individual water bodies to provide additional protection where the national standards are insufficient. RCRA standards. The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) regulates the management, transport and disposal of municipal solid waste, hazardous waste and underground storage tanks.[5]

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See also
Conventional pollutant - U.S. Clean Water Act List of environmental issues Pollutant Standards Index

References
[1] Miller, G Tyler (1995). Environmental science: working with the Earth (5th ed.). California: ITP. ISBN0-534-21588-2. [2] Tietenberg, T. (2006). Economics of Pollution Control, Chapter 15 in Environmental and Natural Resource Economics, 7th Edition, Pearson, Boston. [3] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Washington, DC. "Secondary Treatment Regulation." (http:/ / www. access. gpo. gov/ nara/ cfr/ waisidx_07/ 40cfr133_07. html) Code of Federal Regulations, 40 CFR Part 133. [4] EPA. "Effluent Limitation Guidelines: Industrial Regulations." (http:/ / epa. gov/ guide/ industry. html) Accessed 2010-07-15. [5] U.S. Resource Conservation and Recovery Act. P.L. 94-580, 42 U.S.C. 6901 (http:/ / www. law. cornell. edu/ uscode/ 42/ 6901. html) et seq. October 21, 1976. Amended by the Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments of 1984, P.L. 98-616, November 8, 1984.

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Types of pollution
Air pollution
Air pollution is the introduction of chemicals, particulate matter, or biological materials that cause harm or discomfort to humans or other living organisms, or damages the natural environment into the atmosphere. The atmosphere is a complex dynamic natural gaseous system that is essential to support life on planet Earth. Stratospheric ozone depletion due to air pollution has long been recognized as a threat to human health as well as to the Earth's ecosystems. Indoor air pollution and urban air quality are listed as two of the world's worst pollution problems in the 2008 Blacksmith Institute World's Worst Polluted Places report.[1]
Air pollution from World War II production

Smog over Santiago, Chile

Pollutants
An air pollutant is known as a substance in the air that can cause harm to humans and the environment. Pollutants can be in the form of solid particles, liquid droplets, or gases. In addition, they may be natural or man-made.[2] Pollutants can be classified as either primary or secondary. Usually, primary pollutants are substances directly emitted from a process, such as ash from a volcanic eruption, the

Before flue gas desulfurization was installed, the emissions from this power plant in New Mexico contained excessive amounts of sulfur dioxide.

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carbon monoxide gas from a motor vehicle exhaust or sulfur dioxide released from factories. Secondary pollutants are not emitted directly. Rather, they form in the air when primary pollutants react or interact. An important example of a secondary pollutant is ground level ozone one of the many secondary pollutants that make up photochemical smog. Note that some pollutants may be both primary and secondary: that is, they are both emitted directly and formed from other primary pollutants.

About 4 percent of deaths in the United States can be attributed to air pollution, according to the Environmental Science Engineering Program at the Harvard School of Public Health. Major primary pollutants produced by human activity include:

Schematic drawing, causes and effects of air pollution: (1) greenhouse effect, (2) particulate contamination, (3) increased UV radiation, (4) acid rain, (5) increased ozone concentration, (6) increased levels of nitrogen oxides

Sulfur oxides (SOx) - especially sulfur dioxide, a chemical compound with the formula SO2. SO2 is produced by volcanoes and in various industrial processes. Since coal and petroleum often contain sulfur compounds, their combustion generates sulfur dioxide. Further oxidation of SO2, usually in the presence of a catalyst such as NO2, forms H2SO4, and thus acid rain.[2] This is one of the causes for concern over the environmental impact of the use of these fuels as power sources. Nitrogen oxides (NOx) - especially nitrogen dioxide are emitted from high temperature combustion. Can be seen as the brown haze dome above or plume downwind of cities. Nitrogen dioxide is the chemical compound with the formula NO2. It is one of the several nitrogen oxides. This reddish-brown toxic gas has a characteristic sharp, biting odor. NO2 is one of the most prominent air pollutants. Carbon monoxide - is a colourless, odourless, non-irritating but very poisonous gas. It is a product by incomplete combustion of fuel such as natural gas, coal or wood. Vehicular exhaust is a major source of carbon monoxide. Carbon dioxide (CO2) - a greenhouse gas emitted from combustion but is also a gas vital to living organisms. It is a natural gas in the atmosphere. Volatile organic compounds - VOCs are an important outdoor air pollutant. In this field they are often divided into the separate categories of methane (CH4) and non-methane (NMVOCs). Methane is an extremely efficient greenhouse gas which contributes to enhanced global warming. Other hydrocarbon VOCs are also significant greenhouse gases via their role in creating ozone and in prolonging the life of methane in the atmosphere, although the effect varies depending on local air quality. Within the NMVOCs, the aromatic compounds benzene, toluene and xylene are suspected carcinogens and may lead to leukemia through prolonged exposure. 1,3-butadiene is another dangerous compound which is often associated with industrial uses. Particulate matter - Particulates, alternatively referred to as particulate matter (PM) or fine particles, are tiny particles of solid or liquid suspended in a gas. In contrast, aerosol refers to particles and the gas together. Sources of particulate matter can be man made or natural. Some particulates occur naturally, originating from volcanoes, dust storms, forest and grassland fires, living vegetation, and sea spray. Human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels in vehicles, power plants and various industrial processes also generate significant amounts of aerosols. Averaged over the globe, anthropogenic aerosolsthose made by human activitiescurrently account for about 10 percent of the total amount of aerosols in our atmosphere. Increased levels of fine particles in the air

Air pollution are linked to health hazards such as heart disease,[3] altered lung function and lung cancer. Persistent free radicals connected to airborne fine particles could cause cardiopulmonary disease.[4] [5] Toxic metals, such as lead, cadmium and copper. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) - harmful to the ozone layer emitted from products currently banned from use. Ammonia (NH3) - emitted from agricultural processes. Ammonia is a compound with the formula NH3. It is normally encountered as a gas with a characteristic pungent odor. Ammonia contributes significantly to the nutritional needs of terrestrial organisms by serving as a precursor to foodstuffs and fertilizers. Ammonia, either directly or indirectly, is also a building block for the synthesis of many pharmaceuticals. Although in wide use, ammonia is both caustic and hazardous. Odors such as from garbage, sewage, and industrial processes Radioactive pollutants - produced by nuclear explosions, war explosives, and natural processes such as the radioactive decay of radon. Secondary pollutants include: Particulate matter formed from gaseous primary pollutants and compounds in photochemical smog. Smog is a kind of air pollution; the word "smog" is a portmanteau of smoke and fog. Classic smog results from large amounts of coal burning in an area caused by a mixture of smoke and sulfur dioxide. Modern smog does not usually come from coal but from vehicular and industrial emissions that are acted on in the atmosphere by sunlight to form secondary pollutants that also combine with the primary emissions to form photochemical smog. Ground level ozone (O3) formed from NOx and VOCs. Ozone (O3) is a key constituent of the troposphere (it is also an important constituent of certain regions of the stratosphere commonly known as the Ozone layer). Photochemical and chemical reactions involving it drive many of the chemical processes that occur in the atmosphere by day and by night. At abnormally high concentrations brought about by human activities (largely the combustion of fossil fuel), it is a pollutant, and a constituent of smog. Peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) - similarly formed from NOx and VOCs. Minor air pollutants include: A large number of minor hazardous air pollutants. Some of these are regulated in USA under the Clean Air Act and in Europe under the Air Framework Directive. A variety of persistent organic pollutants, which can attach to particulate matter. Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are organic compounds that are resistant to environmental degradation through chemical, biological, and photolytic processes. Because of this, they have been observed to persist in the environment, to be capable of long-range transport, bioaccumulate in human and animal tissue, biomagnify in food chains, and to have potential significant impacts on human health and the environment.

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Sources
Sources of air pollution refer to the various locations, activities or factors which are responsible for the releasing of pollutants in the atmosphere. These sources can be classified into two major categories which are: Anthropogenic sources (human activity) mostly related to burning different kinds of fuel "Stationary Sources" include smoke stacks of power plants, manufacturing facilities (factories) and waste incinerators, as well as furnaces and other types of fuel-burning heating devices

Dust storm approaching Stratford, Texas

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"Mobile Sources" include motor vehicles, marine vessels, aircraft and the effect of sound etc. Chemicals, dust and controlled burn practices in agriculture and forestry management. Controlled or prescribed burning is a technique sometimes used in forest management, farming, prairie restoration or greenhouse gas abatement. Fire is a natural part of both forest and grassland ecology and controlled fire can be a tool for foresters. Controlled burning stimulates the germination of some desirable forest trees, thus renewing the forest. Fumes from paint, hair spray, varnish, aerosol sprays and other solvents Waste deposition in landfills, which generate methane.Methane is not toxic; however, it is highly flammable and may form explosive mixtures with air. Methane is also an asphyxiant and may displace oxygen in an enclosed space. Asphyxia or suffocation may result if the oxygen concentration is reduced to below 19.5% by displacement Military, such as nuclear weapons, toxic gases, germ warfare and rocketry Natural sources Dust from natural sources, usually large areas of land with little or no vegetation. Methane, emitted by the digestion of food by animals, for example cattle. Radon gas from radioactive decay within the Earth's crust. Radon is a colorless, odorless, naturally occurring, radioactive noble gas that is formed from the decay of radium. It is considered to be a health hazard. Radon gas from natural sources can accumulate in buildings, especially in confined areas such as the basement and it is the second most frequent cause of lung cancer, after cigarette smoking. Smoke and carbon monoxide from wildfires. Volcanic activity, which produce sulfur, chlorine, and ash particulates.

Controlled burning of a field outside of Statesboro, Georgia in preparation for spring planting

Emission factors
Air pollutant emission factors are representative values that attempt to relate the quantity of a pollutant released to the ambient air with an activity associated with the release of that pollutant. These factors are usually expressed as the weight of pollutant divided by a unit weight, volume, distance, or duration of the activity emitting the pollutant (e.g., kilograms of particulate emitted per megagram of coal burned). Such factors facilitate estimation of emissions from various sources of air pollution. In most cases, these factors are simply averages of all available data of acceptable quality, and are generally assumed to be representative of long-term averages. The United States Environmental Protection Agency has published a compilation of air pollutant emission factors for a multitude of industrial sources.[6] The United Kingdom, Australia, Canada and many other countries have published similar compilations, as well as the European Environment Agency.[7] [8] [9] [10] [11]

Indoor air quality (IAQ)

A lack of ventilation indoors concentrates air pollution where people often spend the majority of their time. Radon (Rn) gas, a carcinogen, is exuded from the Earth in certain locations and trapped inside houses. Building materials including carpeting and plywood emit formaldehyde (H2CO) gas. Paint and solvents give off volatile organic compounds (VOCs) as they dry. Lead paint can degenerate into dust and be inhaled. Intentional air pollution is introduced with the use of air fresheners, incense, and other scented items. Controlled wood fires in stoves and fireplaces can add significant amounts of smoke particulates into the air, inside and out.[12] Indoor pollution fatalities may be caused by using pesticides and other chemical sprays indoors without proper ventilation.

Air pollution Carbon monoxide (CO) poisoning and fatalities are often caused by faulty vents and chimneys, or by the burning of charcoal indoors. Chronic carbon monoxide poisoning can result even from poorly adjusted pilot lights. Traps are built into all domestic plumbing to keep sewer gas, hydrogen sulfide, out of interiors. Clothing emits tetrachloroethylene, or other dry cleaning fluids, for days after dry cleaning. Though its use has now been banned in many countries, the extensive use of asbestos in industrial and domestic environments in the past has left a potentially very dangerous material in many localities. Asbestosis is a chronic inflammatory medical condition affecting the tissue of the lungs. It occurs after long-term, heavy exposure to asbestos from asbestos-containing materials in structures. Sufferers have severe dyspnea (shortness of breath) and are at an increased risk regarding several different types of lung cancer. As clear explanations are not always stressed in non-technical literature, care should be taken to distinguish between several forms of relevant diseases. According to the World Health Organisation (WHO) [13], these may defined as; asbestosis, lung cancer, and mesothelioma (generally a very rare form of cancer, when more widespread it is almost always associated with prolonged exposure to asbestos). Biological sources of air pollution are also found indoors, as gases and airborne particulates. Pets produce dander, people produce dust from minute skin flakes and decomposed hair, dust mites in bedding, carpeting and furniture produce enzymes and micrometre-sized fecal droppings, inhabitants emit methane, mold forms in walls and generates mycotoxins and spores, air conditioning systems can incubate Legionnaires' disease and mold, and houseplants, soil and surrounding gardens can produce pollen, dust, and mold. Indoors, the lack of air circulation allows these airborne pollutants to accumulate more than they would otherwise occur in nature.

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Health effects
The World Health Organization states that 2.4 million people die each year from causes directly attributable to air pollution, with 1.5 million of these deaths attributable to indoor air pollution.[14] "Epidemiological studies suggest that more than 500,000 Americans die each year from cardiopulmonary disease linked to breathing fine particle air pollution. . ."[15] A study by the University of Birmingham has shown a strong correlation between pneumonia related deaths and air pollution from motor vehicles.[16] Worldwide more deaths per year are linked to air pollution than to automobile accidents. Published in 2005 suggests that 310,000 Europeans die from air pollution annually. Causes of deaths include aggravated asthma, emphysema, lung and heart diseases, and respiratory allergies. The US EPA estimates that a proposed set of changes in diesel engine technology (Tier 2) could result in 12,000 fewer premature mortalities, 15,000 fewer heart attacks, 6,000 fewer emergency room visits by children with asthma, and 8,900 fewer respiratory-related hospital admissions each year in the United States. The worst short term civilian pollution crisis in India was the 1984 Bhopal Disaster.[17] Leaked industrial vapors from the Union Carbide factory, belonging to Union Carbide, Inc., U.S.A., killed more than 2,000 people outright and injured anywhere from 150,000 to 600,000 others, some 6,000 of whom would later die from their injuries. The United Kingdom suffered its worst air pollution event when the December 4 Great Smog of 1952 formed over London. In six days more than 4,000 died, and 8,000 more died within the following months. An accidental leak of anthrax spores from a biological warfare laboratory in the former USSR in 1979 near Sverdlovsk is believed to have been the cause of hundreds of civilian deaths. The worst single incident of air pollution to occur in the United States of America occurred in Donora, Pennsylvania in late October, 1948, when 20 people died and over 7,000 were injured.[18] The health effects caused by air pollutants may include difficulty in breathing, wheezing, coughing and aggravation of existing respiratory and cardiac conditions. These effects can result in increased medication use, increased doctor or emergency room visits, more hospital admissions and premature death. The human health effects of poor air quality are far reaching, but principally affect the body's respiratory system and the cardiovascular system. Individual reactions to air pollutants depend on the type of pollutant a person is exposed to, the degree of exposure, the individual's health status and genetics.

Air pollution A new economic study of the health impacts and associated costs of air pollution in the Los Angeles Basin and San Joaquin Valley of Southern California shows that more than 3800 people die prematurely (approximately 14 years earlier than normal) each year because air pollution levels violate federal standards. The number of annual premature deaths is considerably higher than the fatalities related to auto collisions in the same area, which average fewer than 2,000 per year.[19] Diesel exhaust (DE) is a major contributor to combustion derived particulate matter air pollution. In several human experimental studies, using a well validated exposure chamber setup, DE has been linked to acute vascular dysfunction and increased thrombus formation.[20] [21] This serves as a plausible mechanistic link between the previously described association between particulate matter air pollution and increased cardiovascular morbidity and mortality.

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Effects on cystic fibrosis

A study from around the years of 1999 to 2000, by the University of Washington, showed that patients near and around particulate matter air pollution had an increased risk of pulmonary exacerbations and decrease in lung function.[22] Patients were examined before the study for amounts of specific pollutants like Pseudomonas aeruginosa or Burkholderia cenocepacia as well as their socioeconomic standing. Participants involved in the study were located in the United States in close proximity to an Environmental Protection Agency. During the time of the study 117 deaths were associated with air pollution. Many patients in the study lived in or near large metropolitan areas in order to be close to medical help. These same patients had higher level of pollutants found in their system because of more emissions in larger cities. As cystic fibrosis patients already suffer from decreased lung function, everyday pollutants such as smoke, emissions from automobiles, tobacco smoke and improper use of indoor heating devices could further compromise lung function.[23]

Effects on COPD
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) include diseases such as chronic bronchitis, emphysema, and some forms of asthma.[24] A study conducted in 1960-1961 in the wake of the Great Smog of 1952 compared 293 London residents with 477 residents of Gloucester, Peterborough, and Norwich, three towns with low reported death rates from chronic bronchitis. All subjects were male postal truck drivers aged 40 to 59. Compared to the subjects from the outlying towns, the London subjects exhibited more severe respiratory symptoms (including cough, phlegm, and dyspnea), reduced lung function (FEV1 and peak flow rate), and increased sputum production and purulence. The differences were more pronounced for subjects aged 50 to 59. The study controlled for age and smoking habits, so concluded that air pollution was the most likely cause of the observed differences.[25] It is believed that much like cystic fibrosis, by living in a more urban environment serious health hazards become more apparent. Studies have shown that in urban areas patients suffer mucus hypersecretion, lower levels of lung function, and more self diagnosis of chronic bronchitis and emphysema.[26]

Effects on children
Cities around the world with high exposure to air pollutants have the possibility of children living within them to develop asthma, pneumonia and other lower respiratory infections as well as a low initial birth rate. Protective measures to ensure the youths' health are being taken in cities such as New Delhi, India where buses now use compressed natural gas to help eliminate the pea-soup smog.[27] Research by the World Health Organization shows there is the greatest concentration of particulate matter particles in countries with low economic world power and high poverty and population rates. Examples of these countries include Egypt, Sudan, Mongolia, and Indonesia. The Clean Air Act was passed in 1970, however in 2002 at least 146 million Americans were living in areas that did not meet at least one of the criteria pollutants laid out in the 1997 National Ambient Air Quality Standards.[28] Those

Air pollution pollutants included: ozone, particulate matter, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, and lead. Because children are outdoors more and have higher minute ventilation they are more susceptible to the dangers of air pollution.

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Health effects in relatively "clean" areas

Even in areas with relatively low levels of air pollution, public health effects can be substantial and costly. This is because effects can occur at very low levels and a large number of people can potentially breathe in such pollutants. A 2005 scientific study for the British Columbia Lung Association showed that a 1% improvement in ambient PM2.5 and ozone concentrations will produce a $29 million in annual savings in the region in 2010.[29] This finding is based on health valuation of lethal (mortality) and sub-lethal (morbidity) effects.

Reduction efforts
There are various air pollution control technologies and land use planning strategies available to reduce air pollution. At its most basic level land use planning is likely to involve zoning and transport infrastructure planning. In most developed countries, land use planning is an important part of social policy, ensuring that land is used efficiently for the benefit of the wider economy and population as well as to protect the environment. Efforts to reduce pollution from mobile sources includes primary regulation (many developing countries have permissive regulations), expanding regulation to new sources (such as cruise and transport ships, farm equipment, and small gas-powered equipment such as lawn trimmers, chainsaws, and snowmobiles), increased fuel efficiency (such as through the use of hybrid vehicles), conversion to cleaner fuels (such as bioethanol, biodiesel, or conversion to electric vehicles).

Control devices
The following items are commonly used as pollution control devices by industry or transportation devices. They can either destroy contaminants or remove them from an exhaust stream before it is emitted into the atmosphere. Particulate control Mechanical collectors (dust cyclones, multicyclones) Electrostatic precipitators An electrostatic precipitator (ESP), or electrostatic air cleaner is a particulate collection device that removes particles from a flowing gas (such as air) using the force of an induced electrostatic charge. Electrostatic precipitators are highly efficient filtration devices that minimally impede the flow of gases through the device, and can easily remove fine particulate matter such as dust and smoke from the air stream. Baghouses Designed to handle heavy dust loads, a dust collector consists of a blower, dust filter, a filter-cleaning system, and a dust receptacle or dust removal system (distinguished from air cleaners which utilize disposable filters to remove the dust). Particulate scrubbersWet scrubber is a form of pollution control technology. The term describes a variety of devices that use pollutants from a furnace flue gas or from other gas streams. In a wet scrubber, the polluted gas stream is brought into contact with the scrubbing liquid, by spraying it with the liquid, by forcing it through a pool of liquid, or by some other contact method, so as to remove the pollutants. Scrubbers Baffle spray scrubber Cyclonic spray scrubber Ejector venturi scrubber Mechanically aided scrubber Spray tower

Air pollution Wet scrubber NOx control Low NOx burners Selective catalytic reduction (SCR) Selective non-catalytic reduction (SNCR) NOx scrubbers Exhaust gas recirculation Catalytic converter (also for VOC control)

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VOC abatement Adsorption systems, such as activated carbon Flares Thermal oxidizers Catalytic oxidizers Biofilters Absorption (scrubbing) Cryogenic condensers Vapor recovery systems

Acid Gas/SO2 control Wet scrubbers Dry scrubbers Flue gas desulfurization Mercury control Sorbent Injection Technology Electro-Catalytic Oxidation (ECO) K-Fuel Dioxin and furan control Miscellaneous associated equipment Source capturing systems Continuous emissions monitoring systems (CEMS)

Legal regulations
In general, there are two types of air quality standards. The first class of standards (such as the U.S. National Ambient Air Quality Standards) set maximum atmospheric concentrations for specific pollutants. Environmental agencies enact regulations which are intended to result in attainment of these target levels. The second class (such as the North American Air Quality Index) take the form of a scale with various thresholds, which is used to communicate to the public the relative risk of outdoor activity. The scale may or may not distinguish between different pollutants.
Smog in Cairo

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Cities
Air pollution is usually concentrated in densely populated metropolitan areas, especially in developing countries where environmental regulations are relatively lax or nonexistent. However, even populated areas in developed countries attain unhealthy levels of pollution.

Carbon dioxide emissions

Most Polluted World Cities by PM Particulate matter, g/m (2004) 169 150 128 125 123 109 109 104 101 City [30]

Cairo, Egypt Delhi, India Kolkata, India (Calcutta) Tianjin, China Chongqing, China Kanpur, India Lucknow, India Jakarta, Indonesia Shenyang, China

Total CO2 emissions

Countries with the highest CO2 emissions Country Carbon dioxide emissions per year (106 Tons) (2006) 6,103 5,752 1,564 1,510 1293 805 Percentage of global total

China United States Russia India Japan Germany

21.5% 20.2% 5.5% 5.3% 4.6% 2.8% 2.0% 1.9% 1.7% 1.7%

United Kingdom 568 Canada South Korea Italy 544 475 474

Per capita CO2 emissions[31]

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Countries with the highest per capita CO2 emissions Country Carbon dioxide emissions per year (Tons per person) (2006) 56.2

Qatar

United Arab Emirates 32.8 Kuwait Bahrain Trinidad and Tobago Luxembourg Netherlands Antilles Aruba United States Australia 31.2 28.8 25.3 24.5 22.8 22.3 19 18.1

Atmospheric dispersion
The basic technology for analyzing air pollution is through the use of a variety of mathematical models for predicting the transport of air pollutants in the lower atmosphere. The principal methodologies are: Point source dispersion, used for industrial sources. Line source dispersion, used for airport and roadway air dispersion modeling Area source dispersion, used for forest fires or duststorms Photochemical models, used to analyze reactive pollutants that form smog

The point source problem is the best understood, since it involves simpler mathematics and has been studied for a long period of time, dating back to about the year 1900. It uses a Gaussian dispersion model for buoyant pollution plumes to forecast the air pollution isopleths, with consideration given to wind velocity, stack height, emission rate and stability class (a measure of atmospheric turbulence).[32] [33] This model has been extensively validated and calibrated with experimental data for all sorts of atmospheric conditions. The roadway air dispersion model was developed starting in the late 1950s Visualization of a buoyant Gaussian air pollution dispersion plume as used in many atmospheric dispersion models and early 1960s in response to requirements of the National Environmental Policy Act and the U.S. Department of Transportation (then known as the Federal Highway Administration) to understand impacts of proposed new highways upon air quality, especially in urban areas. Several research groups were active in this model development, among which were: the Environmental Research and

Air pollution Technology (ERT) group in Lexington, Massachusetts, the ESL Inc. group in Sunnyvale, California and the California Air Resources Board group in Sacramento, California. The research of the ESL group received a boost with a contract award from the United States Environmental Protection Agency to validate a line source model using sulfur hexafluoride as a tracer gas. This program was successful in validating the line source model developed by ESL inc. Some of the earliest uses of the model were in court cases involving highway air pollution, the Arlington, Virginia portion of Interstate 66 and the New Jersey Turnpike widening project through East Brunswick, New Jersey. Area source models were developed in 1971 through 1974 by the ERT and ESL groups, but addressed a smaller fraction of total air pollution emissions, so that their use and need was not as widespread as the line source model, which enjoyed hundreds of different applications as early as the 1970s. Similarly photochemical models were developed primarily in the 1960s and 1970s, but their use was more specialized and for regional needs, such as understanding smog formation in Los Angeles, California.

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Environmental impacts of greenhouse gas pollutants

The greenhouse effect is a phenomenon whereby greenhouse gases create a condition in the upper atmosphere causing a trapping of heat and leading to increased surface and lower tropospheric temperatures. Carbon dioxide from combustion of fossil fuels is the major problem. Other greenhouse gases include methane, hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, chlorofluorocarbons, nitrogen oxides, and ozone. This effect has been understood by scientists for about a century, and technological advancements during this period have helped increase the breadth and depth of data relating to the phenomenon. Currently, scientists are studying the role of changes in composition of greenhouse gases from natural and anthropogenic sources for the effect on climate change. A number of studies have also investigated the potential for long-term rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide to cause increases in the acidity of ocean waters and the possible effects of this on marine ecosystems.

See also
Acid rain Air Hygiene Foundation Air pollutant concentrations Air Quality Index Air stagnation AP 42 Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution Asian brown cloud Atmospheric chemistry Atmospheric dispersion modeling Beehive burner Best Available Control Technology Bibliography of atmospheric dispersion modeling Building biology List of atmospheric dispersion models Critical load Emission standard Environmental agreement Flue gas desulfurization Flue gas emissions from fossil fuel combustion Global Atmosphere Watch Global dimming Global warming Greenhouse effect Health Effects Institute (HEI) Indicator value International Agency for Research on Cancer Kyoto Protocol Light water reactor sustainability List of natural disasters by death toll#Smog Lowest Achievable Emissions Rate NASA Clean Air Study Particulate Polluter pays principle Smog and Haze Stench Tire fire

Emissions & Generation Resource Integrated Database (eGRID)

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References
[1] "Reports" (http:/ / www. worstpolluted. org/ ). WorstPolluted.org. . Retrieved 2010-08-29. [2] "EPA: Air Pollutants" (http:/ / www. epa. gov/ ebtpages/ airairpollutants. html). Epa.gov. 2006-06-28. . Retrieved 2010-08-29. [3] Evidence growing of air pollutions link to heart disease, death (http:/ / www. newsroom. heart. org/ index. php?s=43& item=1029) // American Heart Association. May 10, 2010 [4] "Newly detected air pollutant mimics damaging effects of cigarette smoke" (http:/ / www. physorg. com/ pdf138201201. pdf) (PDF). . Retrieved 2010-08-29. [5] "Infant Inhalation Of Ultrafine Air Pollution Linked To Adult Lung Disease" (http:/ / www. sciencedaily. com/ releases/ 2009/ 07/ 090722123751. htm). Sciencedaily.com. 2009-07-23. . Retrieved 2010-08-29. [6] "AP 42, Volume I" (http:/ / www. epa. gov/ ttn/ chief/ ap42/ index. html). Epa.gov. . Retrieved 2010-08-29. [7] "United Kingdom's emission factor database" (http:/ / www. naei. org. uk/ emissions/ index. php). Naei.org.uk. . Retrieved 2010-08-29. [8] European Environment Agency's 2005 Emission Inventory Guidebook (http:/ / reports. eea. eu. int/ EMEPCORINAIR4/ en) [9] "Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories (reference manual)" (http:/ / www. ipcc-nggip. iges. or. jp/ public/ gl/ invs6. htm). Ipcc-nggip.iges.or.jp. . Retrieved 2010-08-29. [10] Australian National Pollutant Inventory Emissions Estimation Technique Manuals (http:/ / www. npi. gov. au/ handbooks/ approved_handbooks/ sector-manuals. html) [11] Canadian GHG Inventory Methodologies (http:/ / www. ec. gc. ca/ pdb/ ghg/ guidance/ calcu_pro_e. cfm) [12] "Duflo, E., Greenstone, M., and Hanna, R. (2008) Indoor air pollution, health and economic well-being. ''S.A.P.I.EN.S.'' '''1''' (1)" (http:/ / sapiens. revues. org/ index130. html). Sapiens.revues.org. . Retrieved 2010-08-29. [13] http:/ / www. euro. who. int/ document/ aiq/ 6_2_asbestos. pdf [14] "Estimated deaths & DALYs attributable to selected environmental risk factors, by WHO Member State, 2002" (http:/ / www. who. int/ entity/ quantifying_ehimpacts/ countryprofilesebd. xls). . Retrieved 2010-08-29. [15] "Newly detected air pollutant mimics damaging effects of cigarette smoke" (http:/ / www. eurekalert. org/ pub_releases/ 2008-08/ acs-nda072308. php). www.eurekalert.org. . Retrieved 2008-08-17. [16] "Study links traffic pollution to thousands of deaths" (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ society/ 2008/ apr/ 15/ health). The Guardian (London, UK: Guardian Media Group). 2008-04-15. . Retrieved 2008-04-15. [17] Simi Chakrabarti. "20th anniversary of world's worst industrial disaster" (http:/ / www. abc. net. au/ worldtoday/ content/ 2004/ s1257352. htm). Australian Broadcasting Corporation. . [18] Davis, Devra (2002). When Smoke Ran Like Water: Tales of Environmental Deception and the Battle Against Pollution. Basic Books. ISBN0-465-01521-2. [19] (http:/ / www. sacbee. com/ 378/ story/ 1393268. html) , http:/ / www. latimes. com/ features/ health/ la-me-pollute13-2008nov13,0,5432723. story , http:/ / www. sfgate. com/ cgi-bin/ article. cgi?f=/ c/ a/ 2008/ 11/ 13/ MNQP143CPV. DTL [20] Diesel exhaust inhalation increases thrombus formation in man Andrew J. Lucking1*, Magnus Lundback2, Nicholas L. Mills1, Dana Faratian1, Stefan L. Barath2, Jamshid Pourazar2, Flemming R. Cassee3, Kenneth Donaldson1, Nicholas A. Boon1, Juan J. Badimon4, Thomas Sandstrom2, Anders Blomberg2, and David E. Newby1 [21] Persistent Endothelial Dysfunction in Humans after Diesel Exhaust Inhalation Hakan Tornqvist1*, Nicholas L. Mills2*, Manuel Gonzalez3, Mark R. Miller2, Simon D. Robinson2, Ian L. Megson4, William MacNee5, Ken Donaldson5, Stefan Soderberg3, David E. Newby2, Thomas Sandstrom1, and Anders Blomberg1 [22] Christopher H. Goss, Stacey A. Newsom, Jonathan S. Schildcrout, Lianne Sheppard and Joel D. Kaufman (2004). "Effect of Ambient Air Pollution on Pulmonary Exacerbations and Lung Function in Cystic Fibrosis". American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine 169 (7): 816821. doi:10.1164/rccm.200306-779OC. PMID14718248. [23] Michael Kymisis, Konstantinos Hadjistavrou (2008). "Short-Term Effects Of Air Pollution Levels On Pulmonary Function Of Young Adults" (http:/ / www. ispub. com/ ostia/ index. php?xmlFilePath=journals/ ijpm/ vol9n2/ pollution. xml). The Internet Journal of Pulmonary Medicine 9 (2). . [24] Zoidis, John D. (1999). "The Impact of Air Pollution on COPD" (http:/ / www. rtmagazine. com/ issues/ articles/ 1999-10_06. asp). RT: for Decision Makers in Respiratory Care. . [25] Holland WW, Reid DD. The urban factor in chronic bronchitis. Lancet. 1965;I:445-448. [26] J. Sunyer (2001). "Urban air pollution and Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary disease: a review" (http:/ / erj. ersjournals. com/ cgi/ content/ abstract/ 17/ 5/ 1024). European Respiratory Journal 17 (5): 10241033. doi:10.1183/09031936.01.17510240. PMID11488305. . [27] "Polluted Cities: The Air Children Breathe" (http:/ / www. who. int/ ceh/ publications/ en/ 11airpollution. pdf) (PDF). World Health Organization. . [28] Committee on Environmental Health (2004). "Ambient Air Pollution: Health Hazards to Children". Pediatrics 114 (6): 16991707. doi:10.1542/peds.2004-2166. PMID15574638. [29] "2005 BC Lung Association report on the valuation of health impacts from air quality in the Lower Fraser Valley airshed" (http:/ / www. bc. lung. ca/ pdf/ health_and_air_quality_2005. pdf) (PDF). . Retrieved 2010-08-29. [30] "World Bank Statistics" (http:/ / siteresources. worldbank. org/ DATASTATISTICS/ Resources/ table3_13. pdf) (PDF). . Retrieved 2010-08-29.

Air pollution
[31] International Carbon Dioxide Emissions and Carbon Intensity (http:/ / www. eia. doe. gov/ emeu/ international/ carbondioxide. html) Energy Information Administration [32] Turner, D.B. (1994). Workbook of atmospheric dispersion estimates: an introduction to dispersion modeling (2nd ed.). CRC Press. ISBN1-56670-023-X. [33] Beychok, M.R. (2005). Fundamentals Of Stack Gas Dispersion (4th ed.). author-published. ISBN0-9644588-0-2. www.air-dispersion.com (http:/ / www. air-dispersion. com/ )

26

External links
Air quality science and general information International Conference on Urban Air Quality (http://www.urbanairquality.org/). UNEP Urban Issues (http://www.unep.org/urban_environment/) European Commission > Environment > Policies > Air >Air Quality (http://ec.europa.eu/environment/air/ index.htm). UNEP Partnership for Clean Fuels and Vehicles (http://www.unep.org/pcfv/) Air quality modelling Stuff in the Air (http://www.stuffintheair.com/airqualitymodeling.html) Standard air quality modelling procedure for industrial sources. Wiki on Atmospheric Dispersion Modelling (http://atmosphericdispersion.wikia.com/). Addresses the international community of atmospheric dispersion modellers primarily researchers, but also users of models. Its purpose is to pool experiences gained by dispersion modellers during their work. Air Dispersion Modeling Conversions and Formulas (http://www.air-dispersion.com/formulas.html) One of six technical articles devoted to air quality and air pollution dispersion modeling. Effects on human health World Health Organization Fact Sheet on Air quality and health (http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/ fs313/en/) Air Pollution Triggers Blood Clots (http://www.planetark.com/dailynewsstory.cfm/newsid/44436/story. htm) American Lung Association of New England on air quality (http://www.ownyourair.org/).

Light pollution

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Light pollution
Light pollution, also known as photopollution or luminous pollution, is excessive or obtrusive artificial light. The International Dark-Sky Association (IDA) defines light pollution as: Any adverse effect of artificial light including sky glow, glare, light trespass, light clutter, decreased visibility at night, and energy waste.[1] This approach confuses the cause and its result, however. Pollution is the adding-of/added light itself, in analogy to added sound, carbon dioxide, etc. Adverse consequences are multiple; some of them may be not known yet. Scientific definitions thus include the following: Alteration of natural light levels in the outdoor environment owing to artificial light sources.[2] Light pollution is the alteration of light levels in the outdoor environment (from those present naturally) due to man-made sources of light. Indoor light pollution is such alteration of light levels in the indoor environment due to sources of light, which compromises human health.[3] Light pollution is the introduction by humans, directly or indirectly, of artificial light into the environment.[4] The first two of the above three scientific definitions describe the state of the environment. The third (and newest) one describes the process of polluting by light. Light pollution obscures the stars in the night sky for city dwellers, interferes with astronomical observatories, and, like any other form of pollution, disrupts ecosystems and has adverse health effects. Light A comparison of the view of the night sky from a small rural town (top) and a metropolitan area pollution can be divided into two main types: (1) annoying light that (bottom). Light pollution vastly reduces the intrudes on an otherwise natural or low-light setting and (2) excessive visibility of stars. light (generally indoors) that leads to discomfort and adverse health effects. Since the early 1980s, a global dark-sky movement has emerged, with concerned people campaigning to reduce the amount of light pollution. Light pollution is a side effect of industrial civilization. Its sources include building exterior and interior lighting, advertising, commercial properties, offices, factories, streetlights, and illuminated sporting venues. It is most severe in highly industrialized, densely populated areas of North America, Europe, and Japan and in major cities in the Middle East and North Africa like Tehran and Cairo, but even relatively small amounts of light can be noticed and create problems. Like other forms of pollution (such as air, water, and noise pollution) light pollution causes damage to the environment.
This time exposure photo of New York City at night shows skyglow, one form of light pollution.

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Impact on energy usage

Energy conservation advocates contend that light pollution must be addressed by changing the habits of society, so that lighting is used more efficiently, with less waste and less creation of unwanted or unneeded illumination. Several industry groups also recognize light pollution as an important issue. For example, the Institution of Lighting Engineers in the United Kingdom provides its members information about light pollution, the problems it causes, and how to reduce its impact.[5] Since not everyone is irritated by the same lighting sources, it is common for one person's light "pollution" to be light that is desirable for another. One example of this is found in advertising, when an advertiser wishes for particular lights to be bright and visible, even though others find them annoying. Other types of light pollution are more certain. For instance, light that accidentally crosses a property boundary and annoys a neighbor is generally wasted and pollutive light. Disputes are still common when deciding appropriate action, and differences in opinion over what light is considered reasonable, and who should be responsible, mean that negotiation must sometimes take place between parties. Where objective measurement is desired, light levels can be quantified by field measurement or mathematical modeling, with results typically displayed as an isophote map or light contour map. Authorities have also taken a variety of measures for dealing with light pollution, depending on the interests, beliefs and understandings of the society involved. Measures range from doing nothing at all, to implementing strict laws and regulations about how lights may be installed and used.

Types
Light pollution is a broad term that refers to multiple problems, all of which are caused by inefficient, unappealing, or (arguably) unnecessary use of artificial light. Specific categories of light pollution include light trespass, over-illumination, glare, light clutter, and skyglow. A single offending light source often falls into more than one of these categories.

Light trespass
Light trespass occurs when unwanted light enters one's property, for instance, by shining over a neighbor's fence. A common light trespass problem occurs when a strong light enters the window of one's home from the outside, causing problems such as sleep deprivation or the blocking of an evening view. A number of cities in the U.S. have developed standards for outdoor An example of a light pollution source, using a lighting to protect the rights of their citizens against light trespass. To broad spectrum metal halide lamp, pointing assist them, the International Dark-Sky Association has developed a set upward in Uniqema Gouda, the Netherlands. of model lighting ordinances.[6] The Dark-Sky Association was started to reduce the light going up into the sky which reduces visibility of stars, see sky glow below. This is any light which is emitted more than 90 degrees above nadir. By limiting light at this 90 degree mark they have also reduced the light output in the 80-90 degree range which creates most of the light trespass issues. U.S. federal agencies may also enforce standards and process complaints within their areas of jurisdiction. For instance, in the case of light trespass by white strobe lighting from communication towers in excess of FAA minimum lighting requirements[7] the Federal Communications Commission maintains an Antenna Structure

Light pollution Registration database[8] information which citizens may use to identify offending structures and provides a mechanism for processing consumer inquiries and complaints.[9] The US Green Building Council (USGBC) has also incorporated into their environmentally friendly building standard known as LEED, a credit for reducing the amount of light trespass and sky glow. Light trespass can be reduced by selecting light fixtures which limit the amount of light emitted more than 80 degrees above the nadir. The IESNA definitions include full cutoff (0%), cutoff (10%), and semi-cutoff (20%). (These definitions also include limits on light emitted above 90 degrees to reduce sky glow.)

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Over-illumination
Over-illumination is the excessive use of light. Specifically within the United States, over-illumination is responsible for approximately two million barrels of oil per day in energy wasted. This is based upon U.S. consumption of equivalent of 50million barrels per day ( m3/d) of petroleum.[10] It is further noted in the same U.S. Department of Energy source that over 30 percent of all energy is consumed by commercial, industrial and residential sectors. Energy audits of existing buildings demonstrate that the lighting component of residential, commercial and industrial uses consumes about 20 to 40 percent of those land uses, variable with region and land use. (Residential use lighting consumes only 10 to 30 percent of the energy bill while commercial buildings major use is lighting.[11] ) Thus lighting energy accounts for about four or five million barrels of oil (equivalent) per day. Again energy audit data demonstrates that about 30 to 60 percent of energy consumed in lighting is unneeded or gratuitous.[12] An alternative calculation starts with the fact that commercial building lighting consumes in excess of 81.68 terawatts (1999 data) of electricity,[13] according to the U.S. DOE. Thus commercial lighting alone consumes about four to five million barrels per day (equivalent) of petroleum, in line with the alternate rationale above to estimate U.S. lighting energy consumption. Over-illumination stems from several factors: Not using timers, occupancy sensors or other controls to extinguish lighting when not needed Improper design, especially of workplace spaces, by specifying higher levels of light than needed for a given task Incorrect choice of fixtures or light bulbs, which do not direct light into areas as needed

An office building is illuminated by high pressure sodium (HPS) lamps shining upward, of which much light goes into the sky and neighboring apartment blocks and causes light pollution, in Nijmegen, the Netherlands.

A satellite image of Earth at night.

Improper selection of hardware to utilize more energy than needed to accomplish the lighting task Incomplete training of building managers and occupants to use lighting systems efficiently Inadequate lighting maintenance resulting in increased stray light and energy costs

A composite image of the Earth at night in 199495.

"Daylight lighting" can be required by citizens to reduce crime or by shop owners to attract customers, so over-illumination can be a design choice, not a fault. In both cases target achievement is questionable.

Light pollution Substitution of old mercury lamps with more efficient sodium or metal halide lamps using the same electrical power Indirect lighting techniques, such as lighting a vertical wall to bounce photons on the ground. Most of these issues can be readily corrected with available, inexpensive technology, and with landlord/tenant practices that create barriers to rapid correction of these matters. Most importantly public awareness would need to improve for industrialized countries to realize the large payoff in reducing over-illumination.

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Glare
Glare can be categorized into different types. One such classification is described in a book by Bob Mizon, coordinator for the British Astronomical Association's Campaign for Dark Skies.[14] According to this classification: Blinding glare describes effects such as that caused by staring into the Sun. It is completely blinding and leaves temporary or permanent vision deficiencies. Disability glare describes effects such as being blinded by oncoming car lights, or light scattering in fog or in the eye, reducing contrast, as well as reflections from print and other dark areas that render them bright, with significant reduction in sight capabilities. Discomfort glare does not typically cause a dangerous situation in itself, though it is annoying and irritating at best. It can potentially cause fatigue if experienced over extended periods. According to Mario Motta, president of the Massachusetts Medical Society, "... glare from bad lighting is a public-health hazardespecially the older you become. Glare light scattering in the eye causes loss of contrast and leads to unsafe driving conditions, much like the glare on a dirty windshield from low-angle sunlight or the high beams from an oncoming car."[15] In essence bright and/or badly shielded lights around roads may partially blind drivers or pedestrians and contribute to accidents. The blinding effect is caused in large part by reduced contrast due to light scattering in the eye by excessive brightness, or to reflection of light from dark areas in the field of vision, with luminance similar to the background luminance. This kind of glare is a particular instance of disability glare, called veiling glare. (This is not the same as loss of accommodation of night vision which is caused by the direct effect of the light itself on the eye.)

Light clutter
Light clutter refers to excessive groupings of lights. Groupings of lights may generate confusion, distract from obstacles (including those that they may be intended to illuminate), and potentially cause accidents. Clutter is particularly noticeable on roads where the street lights are badly designed, or where brightly lit advertising surrounds the roadways. Depending on the motives of the person or organization who installed the lights, their placement and design may even be intended to distract drivers, and can contribute to accidents. Clutter may also present a hazard in the aviation environment if aviation safety lighting must compete for pilot attention with non-relevant lighting.[16] For instance, runway lighting may be confused with an array of suburban commercial lighting and aircraft collision avoidance lights may be confused with ground lights.
Las Vegas displays excessive groupings of colorful lights. This is a classic example of light clutter.

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Skyglow
Skyglow refers to the "glow" effect that can be seen over populated areas. It is the combination of all light reflected from what it has illuminated escaping up into the sky and from all of the badly directed light in that area that also escapes into the sky, being scattered (redirected) by the atmosphere back toward the ground. This scattering is very strongly related to the wavelength of the light when the air is very clear (with very little aerosols). Rayleigh scattering dominates in such clear air, making the sky appear blue in the daytime. When there Mexico City at night, with a brightly illuminated is significant aerosol (typical of most modern polluted conditions), the sky. scattered light has less dependence on wavelength, making a whiter daytime sky. Because of this Rayleigh effect, and because of the eye's increased sensitivity to white or blue-rich light sources when adapted to very low light levels (see Purkinje effect), white or blue-rich light contributes significantly more to sky-glow than an equal amount of yellow light. Sky glow is of particular irritation to astronomers, because it reduces contrast in the night sky to the extent where it may even become impossible to see any but the brightest stars. The Bortle Dark-Sky Scale, originally published in Sky & Telescope magazine,[17] [18] is sometimes used (by groups like the U.S. National Park Service[19] ) to quantify skyglow and general sky clarity. The nine-class scale rates the darkness of the night sky and the visibility of its phenomena, such as the gegenschein and the zodiacal light (easily masked by skyglow), providing a detailed description of each level on the scale (with Class 1 being the best). Light is particularly problematic for amateur astronomers, whose ability to observe the night sky from their property is likely to be inhibited by any stray light from nearby. Most major optical astronomical observatories are surrounded by zones of strictly enforced restrictions on light emissions. "Direct" skyglow can be reduced by selecting lighting fixtures which limit the amount of light emitted more than 90 degrees above the nadir. The IESNA definitions include full cutoff (0%), cutoff (2.5%), and semi-cutoff (5%). "Indirect" skyglow produced by reflections from vertical and horizontal surfaces is harder to manage; the only effective method for preventing it is by minimizing over-illumination.

Measurement and global effects

Measuring the effect of sky glow on a global scale is a complex procedure. The natural atmosphere is not completely dark, even in the absence of terrestrial sources of light and illumination from the Moon. This is caused by two main sources: airglow and scattered light. At high altitudes, primarily above the mesosphere, there is enough UV radiation from the sun of very short wavelength that ionization occurs. When these ions collide with electrically neutral particles they recombine and emit photons in the process, causing airglow. The degree of ionization is sufficiently large to allow a constant emission of radiation even during the night when the upper atmosphere is in the Earth's shadow. Lower in the atmosphere all of the solar photons with energies above the ionization potential of N2 and O2 have already been absorbed by the higher layers and thus no appreciable ionization occurs.

False colors show various intensities of radiation, both direct and indirect, from artificial light sources that reach space

Light pollution Apart from emitting light, the sky also scatters incoming light, primarily from distant stars and the Milky Way, but also the zodiacal light, sunlight that is reflected and backscattered from interplanetary dust particles. The amount of airglow and zodiacal light is quite variable (depending, amongst other things on sunspot activity and the Solar cycle) but given optimal conditions the darkest possible sky has a brightness of about 22 magnitude/square arcsecond. If a full moon is present, the sky brightness increases to 18 magnitude/sq. arcsecond, 40 times brighter than the darkest sky. In densely populated areas a sky brightness of 17 magnitude/sq. arcsecond is not uncommon, or as much as 100 times brighter than is natural. To precisely measure how bright the sky gets, night time satellite imagery of the earth is used as raw input for the number and intensity of light sources. These are put into a physical model[20] of scattering due to air molecules and aerosoles to calculate cumulative sky brightness. Maps that show the enhanced sky brightness have been prepared for the entire world.[21] Inspection of the area surrounding Madrid reveals that the effects of light pollution caused by a single large conglomeration can be felt up to 100km (62 mi) away from the center. Global effects of light pollution are also made obvious. The entire area consisting of southern England, Netherlands, Belgium, west Germany, and northern France have a sky brightness of at least 2 to 4 times above normal (see above right). The only place in continental Europe where the sky can attain its natural darkness is in northern Scandinavia. In North America the situation is comparable. From the east coast to west Texas up to the Canadian border there is very significant global light pollution.

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Consequences
Energy waste
Lighting is responsible for one-fourth of all electricity consumption worldwide,[22] and case studies have shown that several forms of over-illumination constitute energy wastage, including non-beneficial upward direction of night-time lighting. In 2007, Terna, the company responsible for managing electricity flow in Italy, reported a saving of 645.2 million kWh in electricity consumption during the daylight saving period from April to October. It attributes this saving to the delayed need for artificial lighting during the evenings.[23] In Australia,
Christmas lights in Dublin, California.

public lighting is the single largest source of local government's greenhouse gas emissions, typically accounting for 30 to 50% of their emissions. There are 1.94 million public lightsone for every 10 Australiansthat annually cost A$210 million, use 1,035 GWh of electricity and are responsible for 1.15 million tonnes of CO2 emissions. Current public lighting in Australia, particularly for minor roads and streets, uses large amounts of energy and financial resources, while often failing to provide high quality lighting. There are many ways to improve lighting quality while reducing energy use and greenhouse gas emissions as well as lowering costs.[24]

Effects on animal and human health and psychology

Medical research on the effects of excessive light on the human body suggests that a variety of adverse health effects may be caused by light pollution or excessive light exposure, and some lighting design textbooks[25] use human health as an explicit criterion for proper interior lighting. Health effects of over-illumination or improper spectral composition of light may include: increased headache incidence, worker fatigue, medically defined stress, decrease in sexual function and increase in anxiety.[26] [27] [28] [29] Likewise, animal models have been studied demonstrating

Light pollution unavoidable light to produce adverse effect on mood and anxiety.[30] For those who need to be awake at night, light at night also has an acute effect on alertness and mood.[31] Common levels of fluorescent lighting in offices are sufficient to elevate blood pressure by about eight points. Specifically within the USA, there is evidence that levels of light in most office environments lead to increased stress as well as increased worker errors.[32] [33] Several published studies also suggest a link between exposure to light at night and risk of breast cancer, due to suppression of the normal nocturnal production of melatonin.[34] [35] In 1978 Cohen et al. proposed that reduced production of the hormone melatonin might increase the risk of breast cancer and citing "environmental lighting" as a possible causal factor.[36] Researchers at the National Cancer Institute (NCI) and National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences have also concluded a study that suggests that artificial light during the night can be a factor for breast cancer.[37] In 2007, "shift work that involves circadian disruption" was listed as a probable carcinogen by the World Health Organization's International Agency for Research on Cancer. (IARC Press release No. 180).[38] Multiple studies have documented a correlation between night shift work and the increased incidence of breast cancer.[39] [40] [41] [42] [43] A good review of current knowledge of the health consequences of exposure to artificial light at night and an explanation of the causal mechanisms has been published in the Journal of Pineal Research in 2007.[44] A more recent discussion (2009), written by Professor Steven Lockley, Harvard Medical School, can be found in the CfDS handbook "Blinded by the Light?".[45] Chapter 4, "Human health implications of light pollution" states that "... light intrusion, even if dim, is likely to have measurable effects on sleep disruption and melatonin suppression. Even if these effects are relatively small from night to night, continuous chronic circadian, sleep and hormonal disruption may have longer-term health risks". The New York Academy of Sciences hosted a meeting in 2009 on Circadian Disruption and Cancer.[46] Forty Danish female shift workers in 2009 were awarded compensation for breast cancer "caused" by shift work made possible by light at night - the most common cause of light pollution. In June 2009, the American Medical Association developed a policy in support of control of light pollution. News about the decision emphasized glare as a public health hazard leading to unsafe driving conditions. Especially in the elderly, glare produces loss of contrast, obscuring night vision.[15]

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Disruption of ecosystems
Light pollution poses a serious threat to wildlife, having negative impacts on plant and animal physiology. Light pollution can confuse animal navigation, alter competitive interactions, change predator-prey relations, and cause physiological harm.[47] The rhythm of life is orchestrated by the natural diurnal patterns of light and dark, so disruption to these patterns impacts the ecological dynamics.[48] Studies suggest that light pollution around lakes prevents zooplankton, such as Daphnia, from eating surface algae, helping cause algal blooms that can kill off the lakes' plants and lower water quality.[49] Light pollution may also affect ecosystems in other ways. For example, lepidopterists and entomologists have documented that nighttime light may interfere with the ability of moths and other nocturnal insects to navigate.[50] Night-blooming flowers that depend on moths for pollination may be affected by night lighting, as there is no replacement pollinator that would not be affected by the artificial light. This can lead to species decline of plants that are unable to reproduce, and change an area's longterm ecology. A 2009 study[51] also suggests deleterious impacts on animals and ecosystems because of perturbation of polarized light or artificial polarisation of light (even during the day, because direction of natural polarization of sun light and its reflexion is a source of information for a lot of animals). This form of pollution is named polarized light pollution (PLP). Unnatural polarized light sources can trigger maladaptive behaviors in polarization-sensitive taxa and alter ecological interactions.[51]

Light pollution Lights on tall structures can disorient migrating birds. Estimates by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service of the number of birds killed after being attracted to tall towers range from 4 to 5 million per year to an order of magnitude higher.[52] The Fatal Light Awareness Program (FLAP) works with building owners in Toronto, Canada and other cities to reduce mortality of birds by turning out lights during migration periods. Similar disorientation has also been noted for bird species migrating close to offshore production and drilling facilities. Studies carried out by Nederlandse Aardolie Maatschappij b.v. (NAM) and Shell have led to development and trial of new lighting technologies in the North Sea. In early 2007, the lights were installed on the Shell production platform L15. The experiment proved a great success since the number of birds circling the platform declined by 50 to 90%.[53] Sea turtle hatchlings emerging from nests on beaches are another casualty of light pollution. It is a common misconception that hatchling sea turtles are attracted to the moon. Rather, they find the ocean by moving away from the dark silhouette of dunes and their vegetation, a behavior with which artificial lights interfere.[54] The breeding activity and reproductive phenology of toads, however, are cued by moonlight.[55] Juvenile seabirds may also be disoriented by lights as they leave their nests and fly out to sea.[56] Amphibians and reptiles are also affected by light pollution. Introduced light sources during normally dark periods can disrupt levels of melatonin production. Melatonin is a hormone that regulates photoperiodic physiology and behaviour. Some species of frogs and salamanders utilize a light-dependent "compass" to orient their migratory behaviour to breeding sites. Introduced light can also cause developmental irregularities, such as retinal damage, reduced sperm production, and genetic mutation.[47] [57] [58] [59] [60] [61] In September 2009, the 9th European Dark-Sky Symposium in Armagh, Northern Ireland had a session on the environmental effects of light at night (LAN). It dealt with bats, turtles, the "hidden" harms of LAN, and many other topics.[62] The environmental effects of LAN were mentioned as early as 1897, in a Los Angeles Times articlethe text of which can be obtained from Dr. Travis Longcore of the Urban Wildlands Trust, California. The following is an excerpt from that article, called "Electricity and English songbirds": An English journal has become alarmed at the relation of electricity to songbirds, which it maintains is closer than that of cats and fodder crops. How many of us, it asks, foresee that electricity may extirpate the songbird?...With the exception of the finches, all the English songbirds may be said to be insectivorous, and their diet consists chiefly of vast numbers of very small insects which they collect from the grass and herbs before the dew is dry. As the electric light is finding its way for street illumination into the country parts of England, these poor winged atoms are slain by thousands at each light every warm summer evening....The fear is expressed, that when England is lighted from one end to the other with electricity the song birds will die out from the failure of their food supply.[63]

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Effect on astronomy

Light pollution

35

Skyglow reduces the contrast between stars and galaxies in the sky and the sky itself, making it more difficult to detect fainter objects. This is one factor that has caused newer telescopes to be built in increasingly remote areas. Some astronomers use narrow-band "nebula filters" which only allow specific wavelengths of light commonly seen in nebulae, or broad-band "light pollution filters" which are designed to reduce (but not eliminate) the effects of light pollution by filtering out spectral lines commonly emitted by sodium- and mercury-vapor lamps, thus enhancing contrast and improving the view of dim objects such as The constellation Orion, imaged at left from dark galaxies and nebulae. Unfortunately this affects color perception, so skies, and at right from within the Provo/Orem, these filters cannot be used to visually estimate variable star brightness, Utah metropolitan area. and no filter can match the effectiveness of a dark sky for visual or photographic purposes. Due to low surface brightness, the visibility of diffuse sky objects such as nebulae and galaxies is affected by light pollution more than are stars. A simple method for estimating the darkness of a location is to look for the Milky Way. Light trespass can impact observations when stray light enters the tube of the telescope from off-axis, and is reflected from surfaces other than the telescope's mirrors (if any) so that it eventually reaches the eyepiece, causing a glow across the field of view since it has not been focused. The usual measures to reduce this glare, if reducing the light directly (e.g., by changing one's location or having the light turned off) is not an option, include flocking the telescope tube and accessories to reduce reflection, and putting a light shield (also usable as a dew shield) on the telescope to reduce light entering from angles other than those near the target. In one Italian regional lighting code this effect of stray light is defined as "optical pollution", due to the fact that there is a direct path from the light source to the "optic" - the observer's eye or telescope.

Reduction
Reducing light pollution implies many things, such as reducing sky glow, reducing glare, reducing light trespass, and reducing clutter. The method for best reducing light pollution, therefore, depends on exactly what the problem is in any given instance. Possible solutions include: Utilizing light sources of minimum intensity necessary to accomplish the light's purpose. Turning lights off using a timer or occupancy sensor or manually when not needed. Improving lighting fixtures, so that they direct their light more accurately towards where it is needed, and with less side effects. Adjusting the type of lights used, so that the light waves emitted are those that are less likely to cause severe light pollution problems. Evaluating existing lighting plans, and re-designing some or all of the plans depending on whether existing light is actually needed.
This kind of LED droplight could reduce unnecessary light pollution in building interiors

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Improving lighting fixtures

The use of full cutoff lighting fixtures, as much as possible, is advocated by most campaigners for the reduction of light pollution. It is also commonly recommended that lights be spaced appropriately for maximum efficiency, and that lamps within the fixtures not be overpowered. Full cutoff fixtures first became available in 1959 with the introduction of General Electric's M100 fixture.[64] A full cutoff fixture, when correctly installed, reduces the chance for light to escape above the plane of the horizontal. Light released above the horizontal may sometimes be lighting an intended target, but often serves no purpose. When it enters into the atmosphere, light contributes to sky glow. Some governments and organizations are now considering, or have already implemented, full cutoff fixtures in street lamps and stadium lighting. The use of full cutoff fixtures may help to reduce sky glow by preventing light from escaping unnecessarily. Full cutoff typically reduces the visibility of the lamp and reflector within a luminaire, so the effects of glare may also be reduced. Campaigners also commonly argue that full cutoff fixtures are more efficient than other fixtures, since light that would otherwise have escaped into the atmosphere may instead be directed towards the ground. However, full cutoff fixtures may also trap more light in the fixture than other types of luminaires, corresponding to lower luminaire efficiency.
This drop-lens cobra luminaire allows light to The use of full cutoff fixtures may allow for lower wattage lamps to be escape sideways and upwards, where it may used in the fixtures, producing the same or sometimes a better effect, cause problems. due to being more carefully controlled. In every lighting system, some sky glow also results from light reflected from the ground. This reflection can be reduced, however, by being careful to use only the lowest wattage necessary for the lamp, and setting spacing between lights appropriately.[65]

A flat-lens cobra luminaire, which is a full-cutoff fixture, may be effective in reducing light pollution. It ensures that light is only directed below the horizontal, which means less light is wasted through directing it outwards and upwards.

A common criticism of full cutoff lighting fixtures is that they are sometimes not as aesthetically pleasing to look at. This is most likely because historically there has not been a large market specifically for full cutoff fixtures, and because people typically like to see the source of illumination. Due to the specificity with their direction of light, full cutoff fixtures sometimes also require expertise to install for maximum effect. The effectiveness of using full cutoff roadway lights to combat light pollution has also been called into question. According to design investigations, luminaires with full cutoff distributions (as opposed to cutoff or semi cutoff, compared here [66] ) have to be closer together to meet the same light level, uniformity and glare requirements specified by the IESNA.[67] [68] [69] [70] These simulations optimized the height and spacing of the lights while constraining the overall design to meet the IESNA requirements, and then compared total uplight and energy consumption of different luminaire designs and powers. Cutoff designs performed better than full cutoff designs, and semi-cutoff performed better than either cutoff or full cutoff. This indicates that, in roadway installations, over-illumination or poor uniformity produced by full cutoff fixtures may be more detrimental than direct uplight created by fewer cutoff or semi-cutoff fixtures. Therefore, the overall performance of existing systems could be improved more by reducing the number of luminaires than by switching to full cutoff designs.

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However, using the definition of "light pollution" from some Italian regional bills (i.e., "every irradiance of artificial light outside competence areas and particularly upward the sky") only full cutoff design prevents light pollution.The Italian Lombardy region, where only full cutoff design is allowed (Lombardy act no. 17/2000, promoted by Cielobuio-coordination for the protection of the night sky), in 2007 had the lowest per capita energy consumption for public lighting in Italy: this information can be verified using data released by Terna [71] company. The same legislation also imposes a minimum distance between street lamps of about four times their height, so full cut off street lamps are the best solution to reduce both light pollution and electrical power usage.

The majority of Italian regions require "zero upward light", which usually implies use of overall full cut-off lamps for new luminaries, but violations are common.

Adjusting types of light sources

Several different types of light sources exist, each having different properties that affect their appropriateness for certain tasks, particularly efficiency and spectral power distribution. It is often the case that inappropriate light sources have been selected for a task, either due to ignorance or because more sophisticated light sources were unavailable at the time of installation. Therefore, badly chosen light sources often contribute unnecessarily to light pollution and energy waste. By re-assessing and changing the light sources used, it is often possible to reduce energy use and pollutive effects while simultaneously greatly improving efficiency and visibility. Some types of light sources are listed in order of energy efficiency in the table below.
Type of light source Color Luminous effectiveness (in lumens per watt) 80200 90130 60120

Low Pressure Sodium (LPS/SOX)

yellow/amber

High Pressure Sodium (HPS/SON) pink/amber-white Metal Halide Mercury-Vapour Incandescent bluish-white/white

blue-greenish white 1348 yellow/white 825

Many astronomers request that nearby communities use low pressure sodium lights as much as possible, because the principal wavelength emitted is comparably easy to work around or in rare cases filter out.[72] The low cost of operating sodium lights is another feature. In 1980, for example, San Jose, California, replaced all street lamps with low pressure sodium lamps, whose light is easier for nearby Lick Observatory to filter out. Similar programs are now in place in Arizona and Hawaii. Disadvantages of low pressure sodium lighting are that fixtures must usually be larger than competing fixtures, and that color cannot be distinguished, due to its emitting principally a single wavelength of light (see security lighting). Due to the substantial size of the lamp, particularly in higher wattages such as 135 W and 180 W, control of light emissions from low pressure sodium luminaires is more difficult. For applications requiring more precise direction of light (such as narrow roadways) the native lamp efficacy advantage of this lamp type is decreased and may be entirely lost compared to high pressure sodium lamps. Allegations that this also leads to higher amounts of light pollution from luminaires running these lamps arise principally because of older luminaires with poor shielding, still widely in use in the UK and in some other locations. Modern low-pressure sodium fixtures with better optics and full shielding, and the decreased skyglow impacts of yellow light preserve the luminous efficacy advantage of

Light pollution low-pressure sodium and result in most cases is less energy consumption and less visible light pollution. Unfortunately, due to continued lack of accurate information,[73] many lighting professionals continue to disparage low-pressure sodium, contributing to its decreased acceptance and specification in lighting standards and therefore its use. Another disadvantage of low-pressure sodium lamps is that some people find the characteristic yellow light very displeasing aesthetically. Because of the scatter of light by the atmosphere, different sources produce dramatically different amounts of skyglow from the same amount of light sent into the atmosphere.

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Re-designing lighting plans

In some cases, evaluation of existing plans has determined that more efficient lighting plans are possible. For instance, light pollution can be reduced by turning off unneeded outdoor lights, and only lighting stadiums when there are people inside. Timers are especially valuable for this purpose. One of the world's first coordinated legislative efforts to reduce the adverse effect of this pollution on the environment began in Flagstaff, Arizona, in the U.S. Here, over three decades of ordinance development has taken place, with the full support of the population,[74] often with government support,[75] with community advocates,[76] and with the help of major local observatories,[77] including the United States Naval Observatory Flagstaff Station. Each component helps to educate, protect and enforce the imperatives to intelligently reduce detrimental light pollution. One example of a lighting plan assessment can be seen in a report originally commissioned by the Office of the Deputy Prime Minister in the United Kingdom, and now available through the Department for Communities and Local Government.[78] The report details a plan to be implemented throughout the UK, for designing lighting schemes in the countryside, with a particular focus on preserving the environment. In another example, the city of Calgary has recently replaced most residential street lights with models that are comparably energy efficient.[79] The motivation is primarily operation cost and environmental conservation. The costs of installation are expected to be regained through energy savings within six to seven years. The Swiss Agency for Energy Efficiency (SAFE) uses a concept that promises to be of great use in the diagnosis and design of road lighting, "consommation lectrique spcifique (CES)", which can be translated into English as "specific electric power consumption (SEC)".[80] Thus, based on observed lighting levels in a wide range of Swiss towns, SAFE has defined target values for electric power consumption per metre for roads of various categories. Thus, SAFE currently recommends an SEC of 2 to 3 watts per meter for roads of less than 10 metre width (4 to 6 watts per metre for wider roads). Such a measure provides an easily applicable environmental protection constraint on conventional "norms", which usually are based on the recommendations of lighting manufacturing interests, who may not take into account environmental criteria. In view of ongoing progress in lighting technology, target SEC values will need to be periodically revised downwards. A newer method for predicting and measuring various aspects of light pollution was described in the journal Lighting Research Technology (September 2008). Scientists at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute's Lighting Research Center have developed a comprehensive method called Outdoor Site-Lighting Performance (OSP), which allows users to quantify, and thus optimize, the performance of existing and planned lighting designs and applications to minimize excessive or obtrusive light leaving the boundaries of a property. OSP can be used by lighting engineers immediately, particularly for the investigation of glow and trespass (glare analyses are more complex to perform and current commercial software does not readily allow them), and can help users compare several lighting design alternatives for the same site.[81] In the effort to reduce light pollution, researchers have developed a Unified System of Photometry, which is a way to measure how much or what kind of street lighting is needed. The Unified System of Photometry allows light fixtures to be designed to reduce energy use while maintaining or improving perceptions of visibility, safety, and security.[82] There was a need to create a new system of light measurement at night because the biological way in which the eyes rods and cones process light is different in nighttime conditions versus daytime conditions. Using

Light pollution this new system of photometry, results from recent studies have indicated that replacing traditional, yellowish, high-pressure sodium (HPS) lights with cool white light sources, such as induction, fluorescent, ceramic metal halide, or LEDs can actually reduce the amount of electric power used for lighting while maintaining or improving visibility in nighttime conditions.[83] The International Commission on Illumination, also known as the CIE from its French title, le Commission Internationale de l'Eclairage, will soon be releasing its own form of unified photometry for outdoor lighting.

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See also
Bortle Dark-Sky Scale Dark-sky preserve Earth Hour History of street lighting in the United States International Dark-Sky Association Lighting List of environmental health hazards National Dark-Sky Week Over-illumination Scotobiology Tribute in Light Polarized light pollution

References
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[73] For example, see section 4.10 What Types of Lamps Are Used in Outdoor Lighting? in the IDA (http:/ / www. darksky. org) Outdoor Lighting Code Handbook (http:/ / data. nextrionet. com/ site/ idsa/ Lighting Code Handbook. pdf) [74] Flagstaff Dark Skies Coalition (http:/ / www. flagstaffdarkskies. org) [75] Coconino County Lighting and General Codes (http:/ / www. coconino. az. gov/ comdev. aspx?id=144& terms=lighting) [76] Arizona IDA presentation on Lighting issues (PowerPoint) (http:/ / docs. darksky. org/ AGM/ 2009/ Luginbuhl. ppt) [77] Lowell Observatory (http:/ / www. lowell. edu/ ) [78] "Towards good practice" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080108232309/ http:/ / www. communities. gov. uk/ publications/ planningandbuilding/ lighting). Lighting in the countryside. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. communities. gov. uk/ publications/ planningandbuilding/ lighting) on January 8, 2008. . Retrieved 2008-01-16. 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Lighting Research and Technology 41: 51. doi:10.1177/1477153508095735.

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External links
Related organizations
International Dark-Sky Association (http://www.darksky.org/) Links and Web Resources (http://darksky.org/links/links.html) Austria: Verein Kuffner Sternwarte (http://kuffner-sternwarte.at/) ( How many stars? (http://sternhell.at/)) NPS Night Sky Team of Air Resources Division. "Explore Air: Natural Lightscapes" (http://www.nature.nps. gov/air/lightscapes/index.cfm). Explore Nature. National Park Service. Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute's Lighting Research Center (http://www.lrc.rpi.edu) Campaign for Dark Skies (http://www.dark-skies.org) (UK) New England Light Pollution Advisory Group (http://nelpag.harvee.org) SELENE (http://selene-ny.org/) (New York) Citizens for Responsible Lighting (http://www.crlaction.org) (based on a distributed discussion group) Virginia Outdoor Lighting Taskforce (http://www.volt.org) Italian site of Cielobuio-coordination for the protection of the night sky (http://www.cielobuio.org) Spanish Cel Fosc (http://www.celfosc.org/indice.html) Fatal Light Awareness Program (FLAP) (http://www.flap.org) (Toronto) Starlight: a common heritage. (http://www.starlight2007.net/) Sydney Outdoor Lighting Improvement Society (http://www.solis.org.au) Adelaide Dark Sky Group (http://groups.google.com.au/group/adelaide-darksky?hl=en) (Adelaide South Australia)

Research about light pollution

Need-Less (http://www.need-less.org.uk/) interactive simulations that demonstrate the effects of light pollution "Lighting and Astronomy: Light Pollution" (http://www.darkskiesawareness.org/files/PTarticle_Lighting& Astronomy.pdf) article "What is Light Pollution" (http://www.savethenight.eu/What is.html) technical slide show "Lamp Spectrum and Light Pollution: The Other Side of Light Pollution" (http://www. cormusa.org/uploads/Lamp_Spectrum_and_Light_Pollution.pdf) MAG Dark Skies Outdoor Lighting Codes and Issues (http://www.mag.maricopa.gov/pdf/cms.resource/ DSSG_2009-04-07_Outdoor-Lighting-Lighting-Codes35271.pdf) Link to the MAG Lighting Code handbook (http://www.mag.maricopa.gov/detail.cms?item=9926) Mail Tribune Article "Seeing Stars: The fight against light pollution" (http://www.mailtribune.com/apps/pbcs. dll/article?AID=/20080208/LIFE/802080321) European Light pollution - technical articles (http://www.lightpollution.it/cinzano/en/index.html) U.S. National Parks technical article "Modeling Light Pollution from Population Data" (http://www. georgewright.org/184albers.pdf) Dark Skies Coalition (http://www.flagstaffdarkskies.org/) Northern Arizona Lighting Ordinances with technical lighting Guides "Section 17.0: Purpose and Intent" (http:// www.coconino.az.gov/uploadedFiles/Community_Development/Section17.pdf) The Challenge article "Is Light Pollution Killing Our Birds" (http://www.lightpollution.org.uk/) The Discover article relating light pollution to insects, birds, and breast cancer (http://www.discover.com/ issues/jul-03/features/featlights/) (requires paid registration) Ecology of the night symposium (http://www.muskokaheritage.org/ecology-night/index.asp) (2003 conference)

Light pollution "Ecological Consequences of Artificial Night Lighting" (http://www.urbanwildlands.org/conference.html) (2002 conference, by the Urban Wildlands Group) Light pollution and the protection of the night environment (http://www.inquinamentoluminoso.it/istil/venice/ index.html), UNESCO, IDA Regional Meeting, 360 pages,(2002) English Italian. Proceedings are available as a downloadable PDF. Sherbrooke College Light pollution research activities (http://cegepsherbrooke.qc.ca/~aubema/index.php/ Prof/Recherches) Examples of the good, bad and ugly lighting (http://www.fraserf.id.au/astronomy/martin-lewicki/lpgallry. htm) "Blinded by the Light?", CfDS 2009, Various authors discussing the "hidden" environmental harm, the human health harm, the money waste, lighting failing to prevent crime and even astronomy. (http://www.britastro.org/ dark-skies/handbook.html) Outdoor Lighting: Visual Efficacy Recommendations on how to design energy-efficient outdoor lighting while reducing light pollution. (http://www.lrc.rpi.edu/programs/solidstate/assist/pdf/AR-VisualEfficacy-Jan2009. pdf) Alliance for Solid State Lighting. Volume 6, Issue 2: Outdoor Lighting: Visual Efficacy

43

Collections of links related to light pollution

Light Pollution (http://www.dmoz.org/Society/Issues/Environment/Light_Pollution/) at the Open Directory Project Dark Skies Awareness (http://www.darkskiesawareness.org/) An IYA2009 Cornerstone Project BAA CfDS Discussion Forum (http://cfds.proboards58.com/index.cgi) Dark Sky Importance gallery (http://www.twanight.org/newTWAN/gallery.asp?Gallery=Dark Skies Importance&page=1) at The World at Night (http://www.twanight.org/) (TWAN) Owen, David (August 20, 2007). "The Dark Side" (http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2007/08/20/ 070820fa_fact_owen?currentPage=all). The New Yorker. Cond Nast Publications. Klinkenborg, Verlyn (November 2008). "Our Vanishing Night" (http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2008/11/ light-pollution/klinkenborg-text.html). National Geographic. National Geographic Society. Dobrzynski, Judith H. (March 3, 2009). "Reclaiming the Night Sky" (http://www.judithdobrzynski.com/4677/ reclaiming-the-night-sky). The New Republic. "Light Pollution" (http://www.assa.org.au/lightpollution). Adelaide, South Australia: Astronomical Society of South Australia. Good, Bad, and Ugly Outdoor Lighting (http://www.fraserf.id.au/astronomy/martin-lewicki/lpgallry.htm) and update (http://sites.google.com/site/skywalkdownunder/home/adelaide-light-pollution) in Adelaide, South Australia Turn Out the Lights! (http://harcourtscience.com/newsbreak/night_sky.html) The Alliance for Lighting Information (http://www.resodance.com/ali/home.html) (ALI) contains information about light, lighting, and related topics. Sample Lighting Ordinance (http://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Lighting_ordinance)

Marine pollution

44

Marine pollution
Marine pollution occurs when harmful effects, or potentially harmful effects, can result from the entry into the ocean of chemicals, particles, industrial, agricultural and residential waste, noise, or the spread of invasive organisms. Most sources of marine pollution are land based. The pollution often comes from nonpoint sources such as agricultural runoff and wind blown debris. Many potentially toxic chemicals adhere to tiny particles which are then taken up by plankton and benthos animals, most of which are either deposit or filter feeders. In this way, the toxins are concentrated upward within ocean food chains. Many particles combine chemically in a manner highly depletive of oxygen, causing estuaries to become anoxic. When pesticides are incorporated into the marine ecosystem, they quickly become absorbed into marine food webs. Once in the food webs, these pesticides can cause mutations, as well as diseases, which can be harmful to humans as well as the entire food web. Toxic metals can also be introduced into marine food webs. These can cause a change to tissue matter, biochemistry, behaviour, reproduction, and suppress growth in marine life. Also, many animal feeds have a high fish meal or fish hydrolysate content. In this way, marine toxins can be transferred to land animals, and appear later in meat and dairy products.

While marine pollution can be obvious, as with the marine debris shown above, it is often the pollutants that cannot be seen that cause most harm.

History
Although marine pollution has a long history, significant international laws to counter it were enacted in the twentieth century. Marine pollution was a concern during several United Nations Conferences on the Law of the Sea beginning in the 1950s. Most scientists believed that the oceans were so vast that they had unlimited ability to dilute, and thus render harmless, pollution.. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, there were several controversies

Parties to the MARPOL 73/78 convention on marine pollution

about dumping radioactive waste off the coasts of the United States by companies licensed by the Atomic Energy Commission, into the Irish Sea from the British reprocessing facility at Windscale, and into the Mediterranean Sea

Marine pollution by the French Commissariat l'Energie Atomique. After the Mediterranean Sea controversy, for example, Jacques Cousteau became a worldwide figure in the campaign to stop marine pollution. Marine pollution made further international headlines after the 1967 crash of the oil tanker Torrey Canyon, and after the 1969 Santa Barbara oil spill off the coast of California. Marine pollution was a major area of discussion during the 1972 United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, held in Stockholm. That year also saw the signing of the Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter, sometimes called the London Convention. The London Convention did not ban marine pollution, but it established black and gray lists for substances to be banned (black) or regulated by national authorities (gray). Cyanide and high-level radioactive waste, for example, were put on the black list. The London Convention applied only to waste dumped from ships, and thus did nothing to regulate waste discharged as liquids from pipelines.[1]

45

Pathways of pollution
There are many different ways to categorize, and examine the inputs of pollution into our marine ecosystems. Patin (n.d.) notes that generally there are three main types of inputs of pollution into the ocean: direct discharge of waste into the oceans, runoff into the waters due to rain, and pollutants that are released from the atmosphere. One common path of entry by contaminants to the sea are rivers. The evaporation of water from oceans exceeds precipitation. The balance is restored by rain over the continents entering rivers and then being returned to the sea. The Hudson in New York State and the Raritan in Septic river. New Jersey, which empty at the northern and southern ends of Staten Island, are a source of mercury contamination of zooplankton (copepods) in the open ocean. The highest concentration in the filter-feeding copepods is not at the mouths of these rivers but 70 miles south, nearer Atlantic City, because water flows close to the coast. It takes a few days before toxins are taken up by the planktonGerlach. Pollution is often classed as point source or nonpoint source pollution. Point source pollution occurs when there is a single, identifiable, and localized source of the pollution. An example is directly discharging sewage and industrial waste into the ocean. Pollution such as this occurs particularly in developing nations. Nonpoint source pollution occurs when the pollution comes from ill-defined and diffuse sources. These can be difficult to regulate. Agricultural runoff and wind blown debris are prime examples.

Direct discharge
Pollutants enter rivers and the sea directly from urban sewerage and industrial waste discharges, sometimes in the form of hazardous and toxic wastes. Inland mining for copper, gold. etc., is another source of marine pollution. Most of the pollution is simply soil, which ends up in rivers flowing to the sea. However, some minerals discharged in the course of the mining can cause problems, such as copper, a common industrial pollutant, which can interfere with the life history and development of coral polyps.[2] Mining has a poor environmental track record. For Acid mine drainage in the Rio Tinto River. example, according to the United States Environmental Protection Agency, mining has contaminated portions of the headwaters of over 40% of watersheds in the western continental US.[3] Much of this pollution finishes up in the sea.

Marine pollution

46

Land runoff
Surface runoff from farming, as well as urban runoff and runoff from the construction of roads, buildings, ports, channels, and harbours, can carry soil and particles laden with carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and minerals. This nutrient-rich water can cause fleshy algae and phytoplankton to thrive in coastal areas, known as algal blooms, which have the potential to create hypoxic conditions by using all available oxygen. Polluted runoff from roads and highways can be a significant source of water pollution in coastal areas. About 75 percent of the toxic chemicals that flow into Puget Sound are carried by stormwater that runs off paved roads and driveways, rooftops, yards and other developed land.[4]

Ship pollution
Ships can pollute waterways and oceans in many ways. Oil spills can have devastating effects. While being toxic to marine life, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), the components in crude oil, are very difficult to clean up, and last for years in the sediment and marine environment.[5] Discharge of cargo residues from bulk carriers can pollute ports, waterways and oceans. In many instances vessels intentionally discharge illegal wastes despite foreign and domestic regulation prohibiting such actions. It has been estimated that container ships lose over 10,000 containers at sea each year (usually during storms).[6] Ships also create noise pollution that disturbs natural wildlife, and water from ballast tanks can spread harmful algae and other invasive species.[7] Ballast water taken up at sea and released in port is a major source of unwanted exotic marine life. The invasive freshwater zebra mussels, A cargo ship pumps ballast water over the side. native to the Black, Caspian and Azov seas, were probably transported to the Great Lakes via ballast water from a transoceanic vessel.[8] Meinesz believes that one of the worst cases of a single invasive species causing harm to an ecosystem can be attributed to a seemingly harmless jellyfish. Mnemiopsis leidyi, a species of comb jellyfish that spread so it now inhabits estuaries in many parts of the world. It was first introduced in 1982, and thought to have been transported to the Black Sea in a ships ballast water. The population of the jellyfish shot up exponentially and, by 1988, it was wreaking havoc upon the local fishing industry. The anchovy catch fell from 204,000 tons in 1984 to 200 tons in 1993; sprat from 24,600 tons in 1984 to 12,000 tons in 1993; horse mackerel from 4,000 tons in 1984 to zero in 1993.[7] Now that the jellyfish have exhausted the zooplankton, including fish larvae, their numbers have fallen dramatically, yet they continue to maintain a stranglehold on the ecosystem. Invasive species can take over once occupied areas, facilitate the spread of new diseases, introduce new genetic material, alter underwater seascapes and jeopardize the ability of native species to obtain food. Invasive species are responsible for about $138billion annually in lost revenue and management costs in the US alone.[9]

Marine pollution

47

Atmospheric pollution
Another pathway of pollution occurs through the atmosphere. Wind blown dust and debris, including plastic bags, are blown seaward from landfills and other areas. Dust from the Sahara moving around the southern periphery of the subtropical ridge moves into the Caribbean and Florida during the warm season as the ridge builds and moves northward through the subtropical Atlantic. Dust can also be attributed to a global transport from the Gobi and Taklamakan deserts across Korea, Japan, and the Northern Pacific to the Hawaiian Islands.[11] Since 1970, dust outbreaks have worsened due to periods of drought in Graph linking atmospheric dust to various coral [10] Africa. There is a large variability in dust transport to the Caribbean deaths across the Caribbean Sea and Florida [12] and Florida from year to year; however, the flux is greater during positive phases of the North Atlantic Oscillation.[13] The USGS links dust events to a decline in the health of coral reefs across the Caribbean and Florida, primarily since the 1970s.[14] Climate change is raising ocean temperatures[15] and raising levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. These rising levels of carbon dioxide are acidifying the oceans.[16] This, in turn, is altering aquatic ecosystems and modifying fish distributions,[17] with impacts on the sustainability of fisheries and the livelihoods of the communities that depend on them. Healthy ocean ecosystems are also important for the mitigation of climate change.[18]

Deep sea mining

Deep sea mining is a relatively new mineral retrieval process that takes place on the ocean floor. Ocean mining sites are usually around large areas of polymetallic nodules or active and extinct hydrothermal vents at about 1,400 3,700 meters below the oceans surface.[19] The vents create sulfide deposits, which contain precious metals such as silver, gold, copper, manganese, cobalt, and zinc.[20] [21] The deposits are mined using either hydraulic pumps or bucket systems that take ore to the surface to be processed. As with all mining operations, deep sea mining raises questions about environmental damages to the surrounding areas Because deep sea mining is a relatively new field, the complete consequences of full scale mining operations are unknown. However, experts are certain that removal of parts of the sea floor will result in disturbances to the benthic layer, increased toxicity of the water column and sediment plumes from tailings.[22] Removing parts of the sea floor disturbs the habitat of benthic organisms, possibly, depending on the type of mining and location, causing permanent disturbances.[19] Aside from direct impact of mining the area, leakage, spills and corrosion would alter the mining areas chemical makeup. Among the impacts of deep sea mining, sediment plumes could have the greatest impact. Plumes are caused when the tailings from mining (usually fine particles) are dumped back into the ocean, creating a cloud of particles floating in the water. Two types of plumes occur: near bottom plumes and surface plumes.[19] Near bottom plumes occur when the tailings are pumped back down to the mining site. The floating particles increase the turbidity, or cloudiness, of the water, clogging filter-feeding apparatuses used by benthic organisms.[23] Surface plumes cause a more serious problem. Depending on the size of the particles and water currents the plumes could spread over vast areas.[19] [24] The plumes could impact zooplankton and light penetration, in turn affecting the food web of the area.[19] [24]

Marine pollution

48

Acidification
The oceans are normally a natural carbon sink, absorbing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Because the levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide are increasing, the oceans are becoming more acidic.[26] [27] The potential consequences of ocean acidification are not fully understood, but there are concerns that structures made of calcium carbonate may become vulnerable to dissolution, affecting corals and the ability of shellfish to form shells.[28] Oceans and coastal ecosystems play an important role in the global carbon cycle and have removed about 25% of the carbon dioxide Island with fringing reef in the Maldives. Coral [25] emitted by human activities between 2000 and 2007 and about half the reefs are dying around the world. anthropogenic CO2 released since the start of the industrial revolution. Rising ocean temperatures and ocean acidification means that the capacity of the ocean carbon sink will gradually get weaker,[29] giving rise to global concerns expressed in the Monaco[30] and Manado[31] Declarations. A report from NOAA scientists published in the journal Science in May 2008 found that large amounts of relatively acidified water are upwelling to within four miles of the Pacific continental shelf area of North America. This area is a critical zone where most local marine life lives or is born. While the paper dealt only with areas from Vancouver to northern California, other continental shelf areas may be experiencing similar effects.[32] A related issue is the methane clathrate reservoirs found under sediments on the ocean floors. These trap large amounts of the greenhouse gas methane, which ocean warming has the potential to release. In 2004 the global inventory of ocean methane clathrates was estimated to occupy between one and five million cubic kilometres.[33] If all these clathrates were to be spread uniformly across the ocean floor, this would translate to a thickness between three and fourteen metres.[34] This estimate corresponds to 500-2500 gigatonnes carbon (GtC), and can be compared with the 5000 GtC estimated for all other fossil fuel reserves.[33] [35]

Eutrophication
Eutrophication is an increase in chemical nutrients, typically compounds containing nitrogen or phosphorus, in an ecosystem. It can result in an increase in the ecosystem's primary productivity (excessive plant growth and decay), and further effects including lack of oxygen and severe reductions in water quality, fish, and other animal populations. The biggest culprit are rivers that empty into the ocean, and with it the many chemicals used as fertilizers in agriculture as well as waste from livestock and humans. An excess of oxygen depleting chemicals in the water can lead to hypoxia and the creation of a dead zone.[36]

Polluted lagoon.

Estuaries tend to be naturally eutrophic because land-derived nutrients are concentrated where runoff enters the marine environment in a confined channel. The World Resources Institute has identified 375 hypoxic coastal zones around the world, concentrated in coastal areas in Western Europe, the Eastern and Southern coasts of the US, and East Asia, particularly in Japan.[37] In the ocean, there are frequent red

Marine pollution tide algae blooms[38] that kill fish and marine mammals and cause respiratory problems in humans and some domestic animals when the blooms reach close to shore. In addition to land runoff, atmospheric anthropogenic fixed nitrogen can enter the open ocean. A study in 2008 found that this could account for around one third of the oceans external (non-recycled) nitrogen supply and up to three per cent of the annual new marine biological production.[39] It has been suggested that accumulating reactive nitrogen in the environment may have consequences as serious as putting carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.[40]

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Effect of eutrophication on marine benthic life

Plastic debris
Marine debris is mainly discarded human rubbish which floats on, or is suspended in the ocean. Eighty percent of marine debris is plastic - a component that has been rapidly accumulating since the end of World War II.[41] The mass of plastic in the oceans may be as high as one hundred million metric tons.[42] Discarded plastic bags, six pack rings and other forms of plastic waste which finish up in the ocean present dangers to wildlife and fisheries.[43] Aquatic life can be threatened through entanglement, suffocation, and ingestion.[44] [45] [46] Fishing nets, usually made of A mute swan builds a nest using plastic garbage. plastic, can be left or lost in the ocean by fishermen. Known as ghost nets, these entangle fish, dolphins, sea turtles, sharks, dugongs, crocodiles, seabirds, crabs, and other creatures, restricting movement, causing starvation, laceration and infection, and, in those that need to return to the surface to breathe, suffocation.[47] Many animals that live on or in the sea consume flotsam by mistake, as it often looks similar to their natural prey.[48] Plastic debris, when bulky or tangled, is difficult to pass, and may become permanently lodged in the digestive tracts of these animals, blocking the passage of food and causing death through starvation or infection.[49] [50] Plastics accumulate because they don't biodegrade in the way many other substances do. They will photodegrade on exposure to the sun, but they do so properly only under dry conditions, and water inhibits Remains of an albatross containing ingested this process.[51] In marine environments, photodegraded plastic flotsam disintegrates into ever smaller pieces while remaining polymers, even down to the molecular level. When floating plastic particles photodegrade down to zooplankton sizes, jellyfish attempt to consume them, and in this way the plastic enters the ocean food chain. [52] [53] Many of these long-lasting pieces end up in the stomachs of marine birds and animals,[54] including sea turtles, and black-footed albatross.[55]

Marine pollution

50 Plastic debris tends to accumulate at the centre of ocean gyres. In particular, the Great Pacific Garbage Patch has a very high level of plastic particulate suspended in the upper water column. In samples taken in 1999, the mass of plastic exceeded that of zooplankton (the dominant animal life in the area) by a factor of six.[41] [56] Midway Atoll, in common with all the Hawaiian Islands, receives substantial amounts of debris from the garbage patch. Ninety percent plastic, this debris accumulates on the beaches of Midway where it becomes a hazard to the bird population of the island. Midway Atoll is home to two-thirds (1.5 million) of the global population of Laysan Albatross.[57] Nearly all of these albatross have plastic in their digestive system[58] and one-third of their chicks die.[59]

Marine debris on Kamilo Beach, Hawaii, washed up from the Great Pacific Garbage Patch

Toxic additives used in the manufacture of plastic materials can leach out into their surroundings when exposed to water. Waterborne hydrophobic pollutants collect and magnify on the surface of plastic debris,[42] thus making plastic far more deadly in the ocean than it would be on land.[41] Hydrophobic contaminants are also known to bioaccumulate in fatty tissues, biomagnifying up the food chain and putting pressure on apex predators. Some plastic additives are known to disrupt the endocrine system when consumed, others can suppress the immune system or decrease reproductive rates.[56] Floating debris can also absorb persistent organic pollutants from seawater, including PCBs, DDT and PAHs.[60] Aside from toxic effects,[61] when ingested some of these are mistaken by the animal brain for estradiol, causing hormone disruption in the affected wildlife.[55]

Toxins
Apart from plastics, there are particular problems with other toxins that do not disintegrate rapidly in the marine environment. Examples of persistent toxins are PCBs, DDT, pesticides, furans, dioxins, phenols and radioactive waste. Heavy metals are metallic chemical elements that have a relatively high density and are toxic or poisonous at low concentrations. Examples are mercury, lead, nickel, arsenic and cadmium. Such toxins can accumulate in the tissues of many species of aquatic life in a process called bioaccumulation. They are also known to accumulate in benthic environments, such as estuaries and bay muds: a geological record of human activities of the last century. Specific examples Chinese and Russian industrial pollution such as phenols and heavy metals in the Amur River have devastated fish stocks and damaged its estuary soil.[62] Wabamun Lake in Alberta, Canada, once the best whitefish lake in the area, now has unacceptable levels of heavy metals in its sediment and fish. Acute and chronic pollution events have been shown to impact southern California kelp forests, though the intensity of the impact seems to depend on both the nature of the contaminants and duration of exposure.[63] [64]
[65] [66] [67]

Due to their high position in the food chain and the subsequent accumulation of heavy metals from their diet, mercury levels can be high in larger species such as bluefin and albacore. As a result, in March 2004 the United States FDA issued guidelines recommending that pregnant women, nursing mothers and children limit their intake of tuna and other types of predatory fish.[68] Some shellfish and crabs can survive polluted environments, accumulating heavy metals or toxins in their tissues. For example, mitten crabs have a remarkable ability to survive in highly modified aquatic habitats, including polluted waters.[69] The farming and harvesting of such species needs careful management if they are to be used as a food.[70] [71]

Marine pollution Surface runoff of pesticides can alter the gender of fish species genetically, transforming male into female fish.[72] Heavy metals enter the environment through oil spills - such as the Prestige oil spill on the Galician coast - or from other natural or anthropogenic sources.[73] In 2005, the 'Ndrangheta, an Italian mafia syndicate, was accused of sinking at least 30 ships loaded with toxic waste, much of it radioactive. This has led to widespread investigations into radioactive waste disposal rackets.[74] Since the end of World War II, various nations, including the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, the United States, and Germany, have disposed of chemical weapons in the Baltic Sea, raising concerns of environmental contamination.[75] [76]

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Noise pollution
Marine life can be susceptible to noise or sound pollution from sources such as passing ships, oil exploration seismic surveys, and naval low-frequency active sonar. Sound travels more rapidly and over larger distances in the sea than in the atmosphere. Marine animals, such as cetaceans, often have weak eyesight, and live in a world largely defined by acoustic information. This applies also to many deeper sea fish, who live in a world of darkness.[77] Between 1950 and 1975, ambient noise in the ocean increased by about ten decibels (that is a ten-fold increase).[78] Noise also makes species communicate louder, which is called the Lombard vocal response.[79] Whale songs are longer when submarine-detectors are on.[80] If creatures don't "speak" loud enough, their voice can be masked by anthropogenic sounds. These unheard voices might be warnings, finding of prey, or preparations of net-bubbling. When one species begins speaking louder, it will mask other specie voices, causing the whole ecosystem to eventually speak louder.[81] According to the oceanographer Sylvia Earle, "Undersea noise pollution is like the death of a thousand cuts. Each sound in itself may not be a matter of critical concern, but taken all together, the noise from shipping, seismic surveys, and military activity is creating a totally different environment than existed even 50 years ago. That high level of noise is bound to have a hard, sweeping impact on life in the sea."[82]

Adaptation and mitigation

Much anthropogenic pollution ends up in the ocean. Bjorn Jennssen (2003) notes in his article, Anthropogenic pollution may reduce biodiversity and productivity of marine ecosystems, resulting in reduction and depletion of human marine food resources (p. A198). There are two ways the overall level of this pollution can be mitigated: either the human population is reduced, or a way is found to reduce the ecological footprint left behind by the average human. If the second way is not adopted, then the first way may be imposed as world ecosystems falter.

Aerosol can polluting a beach.

The second way is for humans, individually, to pollute less. That requires social and political will, together with a shift in awareness so more people respect the environment and are less disposed to abuse it. At an operational level, regulations, and international government participation is needed. It is often very difficult to regulate marine pollution because pollution spreads over international barriers, thus making regulations hard to create as well as enforce. Perhaps the most important strategy for reducing marine pollution is education. Most are unaware of the sources, and harmful effects of marine pollution, and therefore little is done to address the situation. In order to inform the population of all the facts, in depth research must be done to provide the full scale of the situation. Then this information must be made public.

Marine pollution As expressed in Daoji and Dags research,[83] one of the reasons why environmental concern is lacking among the Chinese is because the public awareness is low and therefore should be targeted. Likewise, regulation, based upon such in-depth research should be employed. In California, such regulations have already been put in place to protect Californian coastal waters from agricultural runoff. This includes the California Water Code, as well as several voluntary programs. Similarly, in India, several tactics have been employed that help reduce marine pollution, however, they do not significantly target the problem. In Chennai city, India, sewage has been dumped further into open waters. Due to the mass of waste being deposited, open-ocean is best for diluting, and dispersing pollutants, thus making them less harmful to marine ecosystems.

52

See also
Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants

Notes
[1] Hamblin, Jacob Darwin (2008) Poison in the Well: Radioactive Waste in the Oceans at the Dawn of the Nuclear Age. Rutgers University Press. ISBN 978-0813542201 [2] Emma Young (2003). "Copper decimates coral reef spawning" (http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ article. ns?id=dn4391). . Retrieved 26 August 2006. [3] Environmental Protection Agency. "Liquid Assets 2000: Americans Pay for Dirty Water" (http:/ / www. epa. gov/ water/ liquidassets/ dirtywater. html). . Retrieved 2007-01-23. [4] Washington State Department of Ecology. Control of Toxic Chemicals in Puget Sound, Phase 2: Development of Simple Numerical Models" (http:/ / www. ecy. wa. gov/ Programs/ wq/ pstoxics/ index. html), 2008 [5] Panetta, LE (Chair) (2003) America's living oceans: charting a course for sea change [Electronic Version, CD] Pew Oceans Commission. [6] Janice Podsada (19 June 2001). "Lost Sea Cargo: Beach Bounty or Junk?" (http:/ / news. nationalgeographic. com/ news/ 2001/ 06/ 0619_seacargo. html). National Geographic News. . Retrieved 2008-04-08. [7] Meinesz, A. (2003) Deep Sea Invasion: The Impact of Invasive Species (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ wgbh/ nova/ algae/ impact. html) PBS: NOVA. Retrieved November 26, 2009 [8] Aquatic invasive species. A Guide to Least-Wanted Aquatic Organisms of the Pacific Northwest. 2001. University of Washington. (http:/ / www. wsg. washington. edu/ mas/ pdfs/ leastwanted. pdf) [9] Pimentel, D.; R. Zuniga and D., Morrison (2005). "Update on the environmental and economic costs associated with alien-invasive species in the United States.". Ecological Economics 52: 273288. [10] Coral Mortality and African Dust: Barbados Dust Record: 1965-1996 (http:/ / coastal. er. usgs. gov/ african_dust/ barbados. html) US Geological Survey. Retrieved 10 December 2009. [11] Duce, R.A., Unni, C.K., Ray, B.J., Prospero, J.M., Merrill, J.T. 1980. Long-range atmospheric transport of soil dust from Asia to the tropical North Pacific:Temporal variability. Science 209:15221524. [12] Usinfo.state.gov. Study Says African Dust Affects Climate in U.S., Caribbean. (http:/ / www. gcrio. org/ OnLnDoc/ pdf/ african_dust. pdf) Retrieved on 10 June 2007. [13] Prospero, J.M., Nees, R.T. 1986. Impact of the North African drought and El Nio on mineral dust in the Barbados trade winds. Nature 320:735738. [14] U. S. Geological Survey. Coral Mortality and African Dust. (http:/ / coastal. er. usgs. gov/ african_dust/ ) Retrieved on 10 June 2007. [15] Observations: Oceanic Climate Change and Sea Level (http:/ / www. ipcc. ch/ pdf/ assessment-report/ ar4/ wg1/ ar4-wg1-chapter5. pdf) In: Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. (15MB). [16] Doney, S. C. (2006) " The Dangers of Ocean Acidification (http:/ / www. precaution. org/ lib/ 06/ ocean_acidification_from_c02_060301. pdf)" Scientific American, March 2006. [17] Cheung, W.W.L., et al. (2009) " Redistribution of Fish Catch by Climate Change. A Summary of a New Scientific Analysis (http:/ / www. seaaroundus. org/ ClimateChange/ images/ Pew OSS Final climate change and fisheries. pdf)" Pew Ocean Science Series. Oct 2009. [18] PACFA (http:/ / www. climatefish. org/ index_en. htm) (2009) Fisheries and Aquaculture in a Changing Climate (http:/ / www. fao. org/ climatechange/ 17789-1-0. pdf) [19] Ahnert, A., & Borowski, C. (2000). Environmental risk assessment of anthropogenic activity in the deep sea. Journal of Aquatic Ecosystem Stress & Recovery, 7(4), 299. Retrieved from Academic Search Complete database. http:/ / web. ebscohost. com/ ehost/ pdf?vid=5& hid=2& sid=4b3a30cd-c7ec-4838-ba3c-48ce12f26813%40sessionmgr12 [20] Halfar, Jochen, and Rodney M. Fujita. 2007. "Danger of Deep-Sea Mining." Science 316, no. 5827: 987. Academic Search Complete, EBSCOhost (accessed January 19, 2010) <http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/316/5827/987> [21] Glasby, G P. "Lessons Learned from Deep-Sea Mining." Science Magazine 28 July 2000: 551-53. Web. 20 Jan. 2010. <http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/289/5479/551#ref3>

Marine pollution
[22] Halfar, Jochen, and Rodney M. Fujita. 2007. "Danger of Deep-Sea Mining." Science 316, no. 5827: 987. Academic Search Complete, EBSCOhost (accessed January 19, 2010) <http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/316/5827/987> [23] Sharma, R. (2005). Deep-Sea Impact Experiments and their Future Requirements. Marine Georesources & Geotechnology, 23(4), 331-338. doi:10.1080/10641190500446698. <http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdf?vid=7&hid=13&sid=cd55f6a4-c7f2-45e4-a1da-60c85c9b866e%40sessionmgr10> [24] Nath, B., & Sharma, R. (2000). Environment and Deep-Sea Mining: A Perspective. Marine Georesources & Geotechnology, 18(3), 285-294. doi:10.1080/10641190051092993. http:/ / web. ebscohost. com/ ehost/ detail?vid=5& hid=2& sid=13877386-132b-4b8c-a81d-787869ad02cc%40sessionmgr12& bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#db=a9h& AN=4394513 [25] Coral reefs around the world (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ environment/ interactive/ 2009/ sep/ 02/ coral-world-interactive) Guardian.co.uk, 2 September 2009. [26] Orr, James C.; Fabry, Victoria J.; Aumont, Olivier; Bopp, Laurent; Doney, Scott C.; Feely, Richard A. et al. (2005). "Anthropogenic ocean acidification over the twenty-first century and its impact on calcifying organisms" (http:/ / www. ipsl. jussieu. fr/ ~jomce/ acidification/ paper/ Orr_OnlineNature04095. pdf) (PDF). Nature 437 (7059): 681686. doi:10.1038/nature04095. ISSN0028-0836. PMID16193043. . [27] Key, R.M.; Kozyr, A.; Sabine, C.L.; Lee, K.; Wanninkhof, R.; Bullister, J.; Feely, R.A.; Millero, F.; Mordy, C. and Peng, T.-H. (2004). "A global ocean carbon climatology: Results from GLODAP". Global Biogeochemical Cycles 18: GB4031. doi:10.1029/2004GB002247. ISSN0886-6236. [28] Raven, J. A. et al. (2005). Ocean acidification due to increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide. (http:/ / www. royalsoc. ac. uk/ displaypagedoc. asp?id=13314) Royal Society, London, UK. [29] UNEP, FAO, IOC (2009) Blue Carbon. The role of healthy oceans in binding carbon (http:/ / dev. grida. no/ RRAbluecarbon/ pdfs/ Blue_Carbon_Low_Res_2009-11-25. pdf) [30] Monaco Declaration (http:/ / ioc3. unesco. org/ oanet/ Symposium2008/ MonacoDeclaration. pdf) and Ocean Acidification (http:/ / ioc3. unesco. org/ oanet/ OAdocs/ SPM-lorezv2. pdf) A Summary for Policymakers from the Second Symposium on the Ocean in a High-CO2 World.] Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO, International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme, Marine Environment Laboratories (MEL) of the International Atomic Energy Agency, Scientific Committee on Oceanic Research. 2008. [31] Manado Ocean Declaration (http:/ / www. cep. unep. org/ news-and-events/ manado-ocean-declaration) World Ocean Conference Ministerial/High Level Meeting. Manado, Indonesia, 1114 May 2009. [32] Feely, Richard; Christopher L. Sabine, J. Martin Hernandez-Ayon, Debby Ianson, Burke Hales. (2008). "Evidence for Upwelling of Corrosive "Acidified" Seawater onto the Continental Shelf". Science 10. [33] Milkov, AV (2004). "Global estimates of hydrate-bound gas in marine sediments: how much is really out there?". Earth-Sci Rev 66 (3-4): 183197. doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2003.11.002. [34] The oceans occupy 361 million sq km [35] USGS World Energy Assessment Team, 2000. US Geological Survey world petroleum assessment 2000description and results. USGS Digital Data Series DDS-60. [36] Gerlach: Marine Pollution, Springer, Berlin (1975) [37] Selman, Mindy (2007) Eutrophication: An Overview of Status, Trends, Policies, and Strategies. World Resources Institute. [38] "The Gulf of Mexico Dead Zone and Red Tides" (http:/ / www. tulane. edu/ ~bfleury/ envirobio/ enviroweb/ DeadZone. htm). . Retrieved 2006-12-27. [39] Duce, R A and 29 others (2008) Impacts of Atmospheric Anthropogenic Nitrogen on the Open Ocean Science. Vol 320, pp 89389 [40] Addressing the nitrogen cascade (http:/ / www. eurekalert. org/ pub_releases/ 2008-05/ uov-at051208. php) Eureka Alert, 2008. [41] Alan Weisman (2007). The World Without Us. St. Martin's Thomas Dunne Books. ISBN0312347294. [42] "Plastic Debris: from Rivers to Sea" (http:/ / www. algalita. org/ pdf/ PLASTIC DEBRIS ENGLISH. pdf) (PDF). Algalita Marine Research Foundation. . Retrieved 2008-05-29. [43] "Research | AMRF/ORV Alguita Research Projects" (http:/ / www. algalita. org/ research. html) Algalita Marine Research Foundation. Macdonald Design. Accessed 19 May 2009. [44] UNEP (2005) Marine Litter: An Analytical Overview (http:/ / www. unep. org/ regionalseas/ marinelitter/ publications/ docs/ anl_oview. pdf) [45] Six pack rings hazard to wildlife (http:/ / www. helpwildlife. com/ sixpackring. html) [46] Louisiana Fisheries - Fact Sheets (http:/ / www. seagrantfish. lsu. edu/ resources/ factsheets/ litter_mess. htm) [47] "'Ghost fishing' killing seabirds" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ scotland/ highlands_and_islands/ 6248366. stm). BBC News. 28 June 2007. . Retrieved 2008-04-01. [48] Kenneth R. Weiss (2 August 2006). "Plague of Plastic Chokes the Seas" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080325135434/ http:/ / www. pulitzer. org/ year/ 2007/ explanatory-reporting/ works/ oceans04. html). Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. pulitzer. org/ year/ 2007/ explanatory-reporting/ works/ oceans04. html) on 2008-03-25. . Retrieved 2008-04-01. [49] Charles Moore (November 2003). "Across the Pacific Ocean, plastics, plastics, everywhere." (http:/ / www. naturalhistorymag. com/ 1103/ 1103_feature. html). Natural History. . Retrieved 2008-04-05. [50] Sheavly & Register, 2007, p. 3. [51] Alan Weisman (Summer 2007). "Polymers Are Forever" (http:/ / www. orionmagazine. org/ index. php/ articles/ article/ 270/ ). Orion magazine. . Retrieved 2008-07-01.

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[52] Thompson, Richard C.; Olsen, Y; Mitchell, RP; Davis, A; Rowland, SJ; John, AW; McGonigle, D; Russell, AE (7 May 2004). "Lost at Sea: Where Is All the Plastic?," (http:/ / www. sciencemag. org/ cgi/ content/ full/ 304/ 5672/ 838/ DC1). Science 304 (5672): pp.843. doi:10.1126/science.1094559. PMID15131299. . Retrieved 2008-07-19 [53] Moore, Charles; Moore, S. L.; Leecaster, M. K.; Weisberg, S. B. (4). "A Comparison of Plastic and Plankton in the North Pacific Central Gyre" (http:/ / www. alguita. com/ gyre. pdf) (PDF). Marine Pollution Bulletin 42 (12): pp.12971300. 2001-12-01. doi:10.1016/S0025-326X(01)00114-X. PMID11827116. [54] Moore, Charles (November 2003). "Across the Pacific Ocean, plastics, plastics, everywhere" (http:/ / www. naturalhistorymag. com/ 1103/ 1103_feature. html). Natural History Magazine. . [55] Moore, Charles (2002-10-02). "Great Pacific Garbage Patch" (http:/ / www. mindfully. org/ Plastic/ Ocean/ Pacific-Garbage-Patch27oct02. htm). Santa Barbara News-Press. . [56] "Plastics and Marine Debris" (http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=rVwuPSLx2Xc). Algalita Marine Research Foundation. 2006. . Retrieved 2008-07-01. [57] http:/ / the. honoluluadvertiser. com/ article/ 2005/ Jan/ 17/ ln/ ln23p. html [58] Chris Jordan (November 11, 2009). "Midway: Message from the Gyre" (http:/ / blogs. nybooks. com/ post/ 240609421/ chris-jordan). . Retrieved 2009-11-13. [59] "Q&A: Your Midway questions answered" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ talking_point/ 7318837. stm). BBC News. 28 March 2008. . Retrieved 12 May 2010. [60] Rios, L.M.; Moore, C. and Jones, P.R. (2007). "Persistent organic pollutants carried by Synthetic polymers in the ocean environment". Marine Pollution Bulletin 54 (8): 12301237. doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2007.03.022. PMID17532349. [61] Tanabe, S.; Watanabe, M., Minh, T.B., Kunisue, T., Nakanishi, S., Ono, H. and Tanaka, H. (2004). "PCDDs, PCDFs, and coplanar PCBs in albatross from the North Pacific and Southern Oceans: Levels, patterns, and toxicological implications". Environmental Science & Technology 38: 403413. doi:10.1021/es034966x. [62] "Indigenous Peoples of the Russian North, Siberia and Far East: Nivkh" (http:/ / www. npolar. no/ ansipra/ english/ Indexpages/ Ethnic_groups. html#19) by Arctic Network for the Support of the Indigenous Peoples of the Russian Arctic [63] Grigg, R.W. and R.S. Kiwala. 1970. Some ecological effects of discharged wastes on marine life. California Department of Fish and Game 56: 145-155. [64] Stull, J.K. 1989. Contaminants in sediments near a major marine outfall: history, effects and future. OCEANS 89 Proceedings 2: 481-484. [65] North, W.J., D.E. James and L.G. Jones. 1993. History of kelp beds (Macrocystis) in Orange and San Diego Counties, California. Hydrobiologia 260/261: 277-283. [66] Tegner, M.J., P.K. Dayton, P.B. Edwards, K.L. Riser, D.B. Chadwick, T.A. Dean and L. Deysher. 1995. Effects of a large sewage spill on a kelp forest community: catastrophe or disturbance? Marine Environmental Research 40: 181-224. [67] Carpenter, S.R., R.F. Caraco, D.F. Cornell, R.W. Howarth, A.N. Sharpley and V.N. Smith. 1998. Nonpoint pollution of surface waters with phosphorus and nitrogen. Ecological Applications 8: 559-568. [68] "What You Need to Know About Mercury in Fish and Shellfish" (http:/ / www. cfsan. fda. gov/ ~dms/ admehg3. html). 2004-03. . Retrieved 2007-05-19. [69] Stephen Gollasch (2006-03-03). "Ecology of Eriocheir sinensis" (http:/ / www. issg. org/ database/ species/ ecology. asp?si=38& fr=1& sts=). . [70] Hui, Clifford A. et al.; Rudnick, D; Williams, E (2005). "Mercury burdens in Chinese mitten crabs (Eriocheir sinensis) in three tributaries of southern San Francisco Bay, California, USA". Environmental Pollution (Elsevier) 133 (3): 481487. doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2004.06.019. PMID15519723. [71] Silvestre, F. et al. (2004). "Uptake of cadmium through isolated perfused gills of the Chinese mitten crab, Eriocheir sinensis". Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology - Part A: Molecular & Integrative Physiology (Elsevier) 137 (1): 189196. doi:10.1016/S1095-6433(03)00290-3. [72] Science News. "DDT treatment turns male fish into mothers." (http:/ / www. sciencenews. org/ view/ generic/ id/ 160/ title/ DDT_treatment_turns_male_fish_into_mothers) 2000-02-05. (By subscription only.) [73] Perez-Lopez et al. (2006) [74] (Italian) Parla un boss: Cos lo Stato pagava la 'ndrangheta per smaltire i rifiuti tossici (http:/ / www. archivio900. it/ it/ articoli/ art. aspx?r=relauto& id=5978), by Riccardo Bocca, LEspresso, August 5, 2005 [75] Chemical Weapon Time Bomb Ticks in the Baltic Sea (http:/ / www. dw-world. de/ dw/ article/ 0,,3102728,00. html) Deutsche Welle, 1 February 2008. [76] Activities 2006: Overview (http:/ / www. helcom. fi/ stc/ files/ Publications/ Proceedings/ bsep112. pdf) Baltic Sea Environment Proceedings No. 112. Helsinki Commission. [77] Noise pollution (http:/ / see-the-sea. org/ topics/ pollution/ noise/ noise_pollution. htm) Sea.org. Retrieved 24 October 2009. [78] Ross, (1993) On Ocean Underwater Ambient Noise. Institute of Acoustics Bulletin, St Albans, Herts, UK: Institute of Acoustics, 18. [79] Glossary (http:/ / www. dosits. org/ glossary/ pop/ lvr. htm) Discovery of Sounds in the Sea. Retrieved 23 December 2009. [80] Fristrup KM, Hatch LT and Clark CW (2003) Variation in humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae) song length in relation to low-frequency sound broadcasts (http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ abs/ 2003ASAJ. . 113. 3411F) Acoustical Society of America Journal, 113 (6) 3411-3424.

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[81] Effects of Sound on Marine Animals (http:/ / www. dosits. org/ tutorials/ animalt-masking. htm) Discovery of Sounds in the Sea. Retrieved 23 December 2009. [82] Natural Resources Defense Council Press Release (1999) Sounding the Depths: Supertankers, Sonar, and the Rise of Undersea Noise, Executive Summary. New York, N.Y.: www.nrdc.org. [83] Daoji & Dag (2004)

55

References
Ahn, YH; Hong, GH; Neelamani, S; Philip, L and Shanmugam, P (2006) Assessment of Levels of coastal marine pollution of Chennai city, southern India. Water Resource Management, 21(7), 1187-1206. Daoji, L and Dag, D (2004) Ocean pollution from land-based sources: East China sea. AMBIO A Journal of the Human Environment, 33(1/2), 107-113. Dowrd, BM; Press, D and Los Huertos, M (2008) Agricultural non-point sources: water pollution policy: The case of Californias central coast. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 128(3), 151-161. Laws, Edward A (2000) Aquatic Pollution (http://books.google.co.nz/books?id=11LI7XyEIsAC&pg=PA4& lpg=PA4&dq=As+the+trophic+level+increases,+the+biomass+decreases.&source=web& ots=eZO8XKFQor&sig=IgNErx13uVipkhaa34G4F9kUObY&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=9& ct=result#PPA30,M1) John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 9780471348757 Sheavly, SB and Register, KM (2007) Marine debris and plastics: Environmental concerns, sources, impacts and solutions. Journal of Polymers & the Environment, 15(4), 301-305. Slater, D (2007) Affluence and effluents. Sierra 92(6), 27 UNEP (2007) Land-based Pollution in the South China Sea (http://www.unepscs.org/SCS_Documents/ Download/19_-_Technical_Publications_and_Guidelines/ Technical_Publication_10_-_Land-Based_Pollution_in_the_South_China_Sea.html). UNEP/GEF/SCS Technical Publication No 10.

External links
Coastal Pollution Information from the Coastal Ocean Institute (http://www.whoi.edu/page.do?pid=12049), Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution Mercury pollution (http://web.archive.org/web/20001021140316/www.ecoscope.com/mercury.htm) How Oil Spill Absorbent Products Work (http://www.censol.co.uk/censol - oil absorbents - testing.html) Facts about Marine Mercury Pollution from Oceana.org (http://www.oceana.org/north-america/what-we-do/ stop-seafood-contamination) Science News / Marine Pollution Spawns 'wonky Babies' (http://www.sciencenews.org/view/generic/id/ 38922/title/Marine_pollution_spawns_wonky_babies) Plastics at SEA: North Atlantic Expedition (http://plastics.sea.edu) Plastic Trash Plagues the Ocean (http://ocean.si.edu/blog/plastic-trash-plagues-ocean) Trashing the Ocean (http://ocean.si.edu/ocean-news/trashing-ocean) Oil's Impact on Marine Invertebrates (http://ocean.si.edu/ blog/invisible-loss-impacts-oil-you-do-not-see) on the Smithsonian Ocean Portal

Noise pollution

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Noise pollution
Noise pollution (or environmental noise) is displeasing human, animal or machine-created sound that disrupts the activity or balance of human or animal life. The word noise comes from the Latin word nauseas, meaning seasickness. The source of most outdoor noise worldwide is mainly construction and transportation systems, including motor vehicle noise, aircraft noise and rail noise.[1] [2] Poor urban planning may give rise to noise pollution, since side-by-side industrial and residential buildings can result in noise pollution in the residential area.

Indoor and outdoor noise pollution sources include car alarms, emergency service sirens, mechanical equipment, fireworks, compressed air horns, groundskeeping equipment, barking dogs, appliances, lighting hum, audio entertainment systems, electric megaphones, and loud people.

A Boeing 747-400 passes close to houses shortly before landing at London Heathrow Airport

Effects
Human health
Noise health effects are both health and behavioral in nature. The unwanted sound is called noise. This unwanted sound can damage physiological and psychological health. Noise pollution can cause annoyance and aggression, hypertension, high stress levels, tinnitus, hearing loss, sleep disturbances, and other harmful effects.[3] [4] [5] [6] Furthermore, stress and hypertension are the leading causes to health problems, whereas tinnitus can lead to forgetfulness, severe depression and at times panic attacks.[4] [7] Chronic exposure to noise may cause noise-induced hearing loss. Older males exposed to significant occupational noise demonstrate significantly reduced hearing sensitivity than their non-exposed peers, though differences in hearing sensitivity decrease with time and the two groups are indistinguishable by age 79.[8] A comparison of Maaban tribesmen, who were insignificantly exposed to transportation or industrial noise, to a typical U.S. population showed that chronic exposure to moderately high levels of environmental noise contributes to hearing loss.[3] High noise levels can contribute to cardiovascular effects and exposure to moderately high levels during a single eight hour period causes a statistical rise in blood pressure of five to ten points and an increase in stress[3] and vasoconstriction leading to the increased blood pressure noted above as well as to increased incidence of coronary artery disease. Noise pollution is also a cause of annoyance. A 2005 study by Spanish researchers found that in urban areas households are willing to pay approximately four Euros per decibel per year for noise reduction.[9]

Noise pollution

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Environment
Noise can have a detrimental effect on animals by causing stress, increasing risk of death by changing the delicate balance in predator/prey detection and avoidance, and by interfering with their use of sounds in communication especially in relation to reproduction and in navigation. Acoustic overexposure can lead to temporary or permanent loss of hearing.[10] An impact of noise on animal life is the reduction of usable habitat that noisy areas may cause, which in the case of endangered species may be part of the path to extinction. Noise pollution has caused the death of certain species of whales that beached themselves after being exposed to the loud sound of military sonar.[11] Noise also makes species communicate louder, which is called Lombard vocal response.[12] Scientists and researchers have conducted experiments that show whales' song length is longer when submarine-detectors are on.[13] If creatures do not "speak" loud enough, their voice will be masked by anthropogenic sounds. These unheard voices might be warnings, finding of prey, or preparations of net-bubbling. When one species begins speaking louder, it will mask other species' voice, causing the whole ecosystem to eventually speak louder. European Robins living in urban environments are more likely to sing at night in places with high levels of noise pollution during the day, suggesting that they sing at night because it is quieter, and their message can propagate through the environment more clearly.[14] The same study showed that daytime noise was a stronger predictor of nocturnal singing than night-time Light pollution, to which the phenomenon is often attributed. Zebra finches become less faithful to their partners when exposed to traffic noise. This could alter a population's evolutionary trajectory by selecting traits, sapping resources normally devoted to other activities and thus lead to profound genetic and evolutionary consequences.[15]

Impact in the United Kingdom

Figures compiled by Rockwool, the mineral wool insulation manufacturer, based on responses from local authorities to a Freedom of Information Act (FOI) request reveal in the period April 2008 2009 UK councils received 315,838 complaints about noise pollution from private residences. This resulted in environmental health officers across the UK serving 8,069 noise abatement notices, or citations under the terms of the Anti-Social Behaviour (Scotland) Act. In the last 12 months, 524 confiscations of equipment have been authorised involving the removal of powerful speakers, stereos and televisions. Westminster City Council has received more complaints per head of population than any other district in the UK with 9,814 grievances about noise, which equates to 42.32 complaints per thousand residents. Eight of the top 10 councils ranked by complaints per 1,000 residents are located in London.[16]

Mitigation and control of noise

Technology to mitigate or remove noise can be applied as follows: There are a variety of strategies for mitigating roadway noise including: use of noise barriers, limitation of vehicle speeds, alteration of roadway surface texture, limitation of heavy vehicles, use of traffic controls that smooth vehicle flow to reduce braking and acceleration, and tire design. An important factor in applying these strategies is a computer model for roadway noise, that is capable of addressing local topography, meteorology, traffic operations and hypothetical mitigation. Costs of building-in mitigation can be modest, provided these solutions are sought in the planning stage of a roadway project.

The sound tube in Melbourne, Australia, designed to reduce roadway noise without distracting from the area's aesthetics.

Noise pollution Aircraft noise can be reduced to some extent by design of quieter jet engines, which was pursued vigorously in the 1970s and 1980s. This strategy has brought limited but noticeable reduction of urban sound levels. Reconsideration of operations, such as altering flight paths and time of day runway use, has demonstrated benefits for residential populations near airports. FAA sponsored residential retrofit (insulation) programs initiated in the 1970s has also enjoyed success in reducing interior residential noise in thousands of residences across the United States. Exposure of workers to Industrial noise has been addressed since the 1930s. Changes include redesign of industrial equipment, shock mounting assemblies and physical barriers in the workplace. Noise Free America, a national anti-noise pollution organization, regularly lobbies for the enforcement of noise ordinances at all levels of government.[17]

58

Legal status
Governments up until the 1970s viewed noise as a "nuisance" rather than an environmental problem. In the United States there are federal standards for highway and aircraft noise; states and local governments typically have very specific statutes on building codes, urban planning and roadway development. In Canada and the EU there are few national, provincial, or state laws that protect against noise. Noise laws and ordinances vary widely among municipalities and indeed do not even exist in some cities. An ordinance may contain a general prohibition against making noise that is a nuisance, or it may set out specific guidelines for the level of noise allowable at certain times of the day and for certain activities. Dr. Paul Herman wrote the first comprehensive noise codes in 1975 for Portland, Oregon with funding from the EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) and HUD (Housing and Urban Development). The Portland Noise Code became the basis for most other ordinances for major U.S. and Canadian metropolitan regions.[18] Most city ordinances prohibit sound above a threshold intensity from trespassing over property line at night, typically between 10 p.m. and 6 a.m., and during the day restricts it to a higher sound level; however, enforcement is uneven. Many municipalities do not follow up on complaints. Even where a municipality has an enforcement office, it may only be willing to issue warnings, since taking offenders to court is expensive. The notable exception to this rule is the City of Portland Oregon which has instituted an aggressive protection for its citizens with fines reaching as high at $5000 per infraction, with the ability to cite a responsible noise violator multiple times in a single day. Many conflicts over noise pollution are handled by negotiation between the emitter and the receiver. Escalation procedures vary by country, and may include action in conjunction with local authorities, in particular the police. Noise pollution often persists because only five to ten percent of people affected by noise will lodge a formal complaint. Many people are not aware of their legal right to quiet and do not know how to register a complaint.

See also
Awaaz Foundation Acoustic ecology Light pollution List of environmental health hazards Lombard effect Marine mammals and sonar Noise (acoustic) Noise Free America Soundscape The Hum Tranquility

Noise pollution

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References
[1] Senate Public Works Committee, Noise Pollution and Abatement Act of 1972, S. Rep. No. 1160, 92nd Cong. 2nd session [2] C. Michael Hogan and Gary L. Latshaw, The relationship between highway planning and urision specialty conference, May 21-23, 1973, Chicago, Illinois. by American Society of Civil Engineers. Urban Transportation Division (http:/ / www. worldcatlibraries. org/ wcpa/ top3mset/ 2930880) [3] S. Rosen and P. Olin, Hearing Loss and Coronary Heart Disease, Archives of Otolaryngology, 82:236 (1965) [4] J.M. Field, Effect of personal and situational variables upon noise annoyance in residential areas, Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 93: 2753-2763 (1993) [5] "Noise Pollution" (http:/ / www. euro. who. int/ Noise). World Health Organisation. . [6] "Road noise link to blood pressure" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ health/ 8247217. stm). BBC News. 2009-09-10. . Retrieved 2010-05-20. [7] Karl D. Kryter, The Effects of Noise on Man , Academic Press (1985) [8] Rosenhall U, Pedersen K, Svanborg A (1990). "Presbycusis and noise-induced hearing loss". Ear Hear 11 (4): 25763. doi:10.1097/00003446-199008000-00002. PMID2210099. [9] Jess Barreiro, Mercedes Snchez, Montserrat Viladrich-Grau (2005), "How much are people willing to pay for silence? A contingent valuation study", Applied Economics, 37 (11) [10] Effects of Anthropogenic Noise in the Marine Environment (http:/ / www. onr. navy. mil/ sci_tech/ 34/ 341/ docs/ proceed. pdf) [11] [[Bahamas Marine Mammal Stranding Event (http:/ / www. nmfs. noaa. gov/ pr/ pdfs/ acoustics/ bahamas_stranding. pdf)] of 1516 March 2000] [12] www.dosits.org/glossary/pop/lvr.htm [13] Variation in [[humpback whale (http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ abs/ 2003ASAJ. . 113. 3411F)] (Megaptera novaeangliae) song length in relation to low-frequency sound broadcasts] [14] Fuller RA, Warren PH, Gaston KJ (2007). "Daytime noise predicts nocturnal singing in urban robins." (http:/ / www. pubmedcentral. nih. gov/ articlerender. fcgi?tool=pmcentrez& artid=2390663). Biology Letters 3 (4): 36870. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2007.0134. PMID17456449. PMC2390663. [15] Milius, S. (2007). High Volume, Low Fidelity: Birds are less faithful as sounds blare, Science News vol. 172, p. 116. ( references (http:/ / www. sciencenews. org/ articles/ 20070825/ fob3ref. asp)) [16] "London is home to the noisiest neighbours" (http:/ / www. thisislondon. co. uk/ standard/ article-23714071-details/ London+ is+ home+ to+ the+ noisiest+ neighbours/ article. do). London Evening Standard. . [17] http:/ / www. noisefree. org [18] City of Portland, Oregon. Auditor's Office. Chapter 18.02 Title Noise Control (http:/ / www. portlandonline. com/ auditor/ index. cfm?c=28705). Retrieved on April 20, 2009.

External links
Noise pollution (http://www.dmoz.org/Society/Issues/Environment/Noise_Pollution//) at the Open Directory Project World Health Organization - Guidelines for Community Noise (http://www.who.int/docstore/peh/noise/ Comnoise-1.pdf) Clive Thompson on How Man-Made Noise May Be Altering Earths Ecology (http://www.wired.com/science/ planetearth/magazine/16-06/st_thompson) {sic} EEA draws the first map of Europe's noise exposure - All press releases EEA (http://www.eea.europa.eu/ pressroom/newsreleases/eea-draws-the-first-map-of-europe2019s-noise-exposure)

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Radioactive contamination
Radioactive contamination, also called radiological contamination, is radioactive substances on surfaces, or within solids, liquids or gases (including the human body), where their presence is unintended or undesirable, or the process giving rise to their presence in such places[1] . Also used less formally to refer to a quantity, namely the activity on a surface (or on a unit area of a surface). Contamination does not include residual radioactive material remaining at a site after the completion of decommissioning. The term radioactive contamination may have a connotation that is not intended. The term radioactive contamination refers only to the presence of radioactivity, and gives no indication of the magnitude of the hazard involved. The amount of radioactive material released in an accident is called the source term.

The radiation warning symbol (trefoil).

Periodic table with elements colored according to the half-life of their most stable isotope. Stable elements; Radioactive elements with very long-lived isotopes.

Sources of contamination

Radioactive contamination is typically the result of a spill or accident during the production or use of radionuclides (radioisotopes), an unstable nucleus which has excessive energy. Contamination may occur from radioactive gases, liquids or particles. For example, if a radionuclide used in nuclear medicine is accidentally spilled, the material could be spread by people as they walk around. Radioactive contamination may also be an inevitable result of certain processes, such as the release of radioactive xenon in nuclear fuel reprocessing. In cases that radioactive material cannot be contained, it may be diluted to safe concentrations. Nuclear fallout is the distribution of radioactive contamination by a nuclear explosion. For a

Their half-live of over four million years confers them very small, if not negligible radioactivities; Radioactive elements that may present low health hazards. Their most stable isotopes have half-lives between 800 and 34.000 years. Because of this, they usually have some commercial applications; Radioactive elements that are known to pose high safety risks. Their most stable isotopes have half-lifes between one day and 103 years. Their radioactivities confers them little potential for commercial uses; Highly radioactive elements. Their most stable isotopes have half-lifes between one day and several minutes. They pose severe health risks. Few of them receive uses outside basic research; Extremely radioactive elements. Very little is known about these elements due to their extreme instability and radioactivity.

Radioactive contamination discussion of environmental contamination by alpha emitters please see actinides in the environment. Containment is what differentiates radioactive material from radioactive contamination. Therefore, radioactive material in sealed and designated containers is not properly referred to as contamination, although the units of measurement might be the same.

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Radiation monitoring
The radiation monitoring involves the measurement of radiation dose or radionuclide contamination for reasons related to the assessment or control of exposure to radiation or radioactive substances, and the interpretation of the results. The methodological and technical details of the design and operation of environmental radiation monitoring programmes and systems for different radionuclides, environmental media and types of facility are given in IAEA Safety Standards Series No. RSG-1.8 [2] and in IAEA Safety Reports Series No. 64 [3] .

Measurement
Radioactive contamination may exist on surfaces or in volumes of material or air. In a nuclear power plant, detection and measurement of radioactivity and contamination is often the job of a Certified Health Physicist.

Surface contamination
Surface contamination is usually expressed in units of radioactivity per unit of area. For SI, this is becquerels per square meter (or Bq/m). Other units such as picoCuries per 100 cm or disintegrations per minute per square centimeter (1 dpm/cm = 166 2/3 Bq/m) may be used. Surface contamination may either be fixed or removable. In the case of fixed contamination, the radioactive material cannot by definition be spread, but it is still measurable.

Hazards
In practice there is no such thing as zero radioactivity. Not only is the entire world constantly bombarded by cosmic rays, but every living creature on earth contains significant quantities of carbon-14 and most (including humans) contain significant quantities of potassium-40. These tiny levels of radiation are not any more harmful than sunlight, but just as excessive quantities of sunlight can be dangerous, so too can excessive levels of radiation.

Low level contamination

The hazards to people and the environment from radioactive contamination depend on the nature of the radioactive contaminant, the level of contamination, and the extent of the spread of contamination. Low levels of radioactive contamination pose little risk, but can still be detected by radiation instrumentation. In the case of low-level contamination by isotopes with a short half-life, the best course of action may be to simply allow the material to naturally decay. Longer-lived isotopes should be cleaned up and properly disposed of, because even a very low level of radiation can be life-threatening when in long exposure to it.

High level contamination

High levels of contamination may pose major risks to people and the environment. People can be exposed to potentially lethal radiation levels, both externally and internally, from the spread of contamination following an accident (or a deliberate initiation) involving large quantities of radioactive material. The biological effects of external exposure to radioactive contamination are generally the same as those from an external radiation source not involving radioactive materials, such as x-ray machines, and are dependent on the absorbed dose.

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Biological effects
See also: Radiation poisoning The biological effects of internally deposited radionuclides depend greatly on the activity and the biodistribution and removal rates of the radionuclide, which in turn depends on its chemical form. The biological effects may also depend on the chemical toxicity of the deposited material, independent of its radioactivity. Some radionuclides may be generally distributed throughout the body and rapidly removed, as is the case with tritiated water. Some radionuclides may target specific organs and have much lower removal rates. For instance, the thyroid gland takes up a large percentage of any iodine that enters the body. If large quantities of radioactive iodine are inhaled or ingested, the thyroid may be impaired or destroyed, while other tissues are affected to a lesser extent. Radioactive iodine is a common fission product; it was a major component of the radiation released from the Chernobyl disaster, leading to nine fatal cases of pediatric thyroid cancer and hypothyroidism. On the other hand, radioactive iodine is used in the diagnosis and treatment of many diseases of the thyroid precisely because of the thyroid's selective uptake of iodine.

Means of contamination
Radioactive contamination can enter the body through ingestion, inhalation, absorption, or injection. For this reason, it is important to use personal protective equipment when working with radioactive materials. Radioactive contamination may also be ingested as the result of eating contaminated plants and animals or drinking contaminated water or milk from exposed animals. Following a major contamination incident, all potential pathways of internal exposure should be considered.

References
[1] International Atomic Energy Agency (2007). IAEA Safety Glossary: Terminology Used in Nuclear Safety and Radiation Protection (http:/ / www-pub. iaea. org/ MTCD/ publications/ PDF/ Pub1290_web. pdf). Vienna: IAEA. ISBN9201007078. . [2] International Atomic Energy Agency (2005). Environmental and Source Monitoring for Purposes of Radiation Protection, IAEA Safety Standards Series No. RSG-1.8 (http:/ / www-pub. iaea. org/ MTCD/ publications/ PDF/ Pub1216_web. pdf). Vienna: IAEA. . [3] International Atomic Energy Agency (2010). Programmes and Systems for Source and Environmental Radiation Monitoring. Safety Reports Series No. 64. (http:/ / www-pub. iaea. org/ mtcd/ publications/ PubDetails. asp?pubId=8242). Vienna: IAEA. pp.234. ISBN978-92-0-112409-8. .

See also
Background radiation Chernobyl disaster Criticality accident Exotic pollution Ionizing Radiation (includes physicists' units of radiation exposure) Nuclear and radiation accidents Nuclear debate (disambiguation) Nuclear power Radiation biology Radiation exposure (disambiguation) Radiation poisoning Radioactive waste Radiophobia Relative Biological Effectiveness Rongelap Atoll

Soil contamination

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Soil contamination
Soil contamination (soil pollution) is caused by the presence of xenobiotic (human-made) chemicals or other alteration in the natural soil environment. This type of contamination typically arises from the rupture of underground storage tanks, application of pesticides, percolation of contaminated surface water to subsurface strata, oil and fuel dumping, leaching of wastes from landfills or direct discharge of industrial wastes to the soil. The most common chemicals involved are petroleum hydrocarbons, solvents, pesticides, lead and other heavy metals. This occurrence of this phenomenon is correlated with the degree of industrialization and intensities of chemical usage.

Excavation showing soil contamination at a disused gasworks.

The concern over soil contamination stems primarily from health risks, from direct contact with the contaminated soil, vapors from the contaminants, and from secondary contamination of water supplies within and underlying the soil[1] . Mapping of contaminated soil sites and the resulting cleanup are time consuming and expensive tasks, requiring extensive amounts of geology, hydrology, chemistry and computer modeling skills. It is in North America and Western Europe that the extent of contaminated land is most well known, with many of countries in these areas having a legal framework to identify and deal with this environmental problem; this however may well be just the tip of the iceberg with developing countries very likely to be the next generation of new soil contamination cases. The immense and sustained growth of the People's Republic of China since the 1970s has exacted a price from the land in increased soil pollution. The State Environmental Protection Administration believes it to be a threat to the environment, to food safety and to sustainable agriculture. According to a scientific sampling,150 million mi (100,000 square kilometers) of Chinas cultivated land have been polluted, with contaminated water being used to irrigate a further 32.5 million mi (21,670 square kilometers) and another 2 million mi (1,300 square kilometers) covered or destroyed by solid waste. In total, the area accounts for one-tenth of Chinas cultivatable land, and is mostly in economically developed areas. An estimated 12 million tonnes of grain are contaminated by heavy metals every year, causing direct losses of 20 billion yuan (US$2.57 billion).[2] .

Causes
This type of contamination typically arises from the rupture of underground storage tanks, application of pesticides, percolation of contaminated surface water to subsurface strata, oil and fuel dumping, leaching of wastes from landfills or direct discharge of industrial wastes to the soil. The most common chemicals involved are petroleum hydrocarbons, solvents, pesticides, lead and other heavy metals. This occurrence of this phenomenon is correlated with the degree of industrialization and intensities of chemical usage. Treated sewage sludge, known in the industry as biosolids, has become controversial as a fertilizer to the land. As it is the byproduct of sewage treatment, it generally contains contaminants such as organisms, pesticides, and heavy metals than other soil.[3]

Soil contamination There is also controversy surrounding the contamination of fertilizers with heavy metals; a series of newspaper articles in the Seattle Times made the issue a "national focus" in the United States, and culminated in a book called Fateful Harvest.[4]

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Health effects
Contaminated or polluted soil directly affects human health through direct contact with soil or via inhalation of soil contaminants which have vaporized; potentially greater threats are posed by the infiltration of soil contamination into groundwater aquifers used for human consumption, sometimes in areas apparently far removed from any apparent source of above ground contamination. Health consequences from exposure to soil contamination vary greatly depending on pollutant type, pathway of attack and vulnerability of the exposed population. Chronic exposure to chromium, lead and other metals, petroleum, solvents, and many pesticide and herbicide formulations can be carcinogenic, can cause congenital disorders, or can cause other chronic health conditions. Industrial or man-made concentrations of naturally-occurring substances, such as nitrate and ammonia associated with livestock manure from agricultural operations, have also been identified as health hazards in soil and groundwater.[5] Chronic exposure to benzene at sufficient concentrations is known to be associated with higher incidence of leukemia. Mercury and cyclodienes are known to induce higher incidences of kidney damage, some irreversible. PCBs and cyclodienes are linked to liver toxicity. Organophosphates and carbamates can induce a chain of responses leading to neuromuscular blockage. Many chlorinated solvents induce liver changes, kidney changes and depression of the central nervous system. There is an entire spectrum of further health effects such as headache, nausea, fatigue, eye irritation and skin rash for the above cited and other chemicals. At sufficient dosages a large number of soil contaminants can cause death by exposure via direct contact, inhalation or ingestion of contaminants in groundwater contaminated through soil. [6]

Ecosystem effects
Not unexpectedly, soil contaminants can have significant deleterious consequences for ecosystems[7] . There are radical soil chemistry changes which can arise from the presence of many hazardous chemicals even at low concentration of the contaminant species. These changes can manifest in the alteration of metabolism of endemic microorganisms and arthropods resident in a given soil environment. The result can be virtual eradication of some of the primary food chain, which in turn have major consequences for predator or consumer species. Even if the chemical effect on lower life forms is small, the lower pyramid levels of the food chain may ingest alien chemicals, which normally become more concentrated for each consuming rung of the food chain. Many of these effects are now well known, such as the concentration of persistent DDT materials for avian consumers, leading to weakening of egg shells, increased chick mortality and potential extinction of species. Effects occur to agricultural lands which have certain types of soil contamination. Contaminants typically alter plant metabolism, most commonly to reduce crop yields. This has a secondary effect upon soil conservation, since the languishing crops cannot shield the Earth's soil mantle from erosion phenomena. Some of these chemical contaminants have long half-lives and in other cases derivative chemicals are formed from decay of primary soil contaminants.

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Cleanup options
Cleanup or remediation is analyzed by environmental scientists who utilize field measurement of soil chemicals and also apply computer models for analyzing transport[8] and fate of soil chemicals. There are several principal strategies for remediation: Excavate soil and take it to a disposal site away from ready pathways for human or sensitive ecosystem contact. This technique also applies to dredging of bay muds containing toxins. Aeration of soils at the contaminated site (with attendant risk of creating air pollution)

Microbes can be used in soil cleanup

Thermal remediation by introduction of heat to raise subsurface temperatures sufficiently high to volatize chemical contaminants out of the soil for vapour extraction. Technologies include ISTD, electrical resistance heating (ERH), and ET-DSPtm. Bioremediation, involving microbial digestion of certain organic chemicals. Techniques used in bioremediation include landfarming, biostimulation and bioaugmentating soil biota with commercially available microflora. Extraction of groundwater or soil vapor with an active electromechanical system, with subsequent stripping of the contaminants from the extract. Containment of the soil contaminants (such as by capping or paving over in place). Phytoremediation, or using plants (such as willow) to extract heavy metals

See also
Land degradation Land pollution List of waste management companies List of waste management topics List of solid waste treatment technologies Pesticide drift Pollution Contamination control Water contamination Water pollution Groundwater Solidification / Stabilization (S/S) with Cement

References
[1] Risk Assessment Guidance for Superfund, Human Health Evaluation Manual, Office of Emergency and Remedial Response, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington D.C. 20450 [2] Facing up to invisible pollution (http:/ / www. chinadialogue. net/ article/ show/ single/ en/ 724-Facing-up-to-invisible-pollution-) [3] Snyder C (2005). "The dirty work of promoting "recycling" of America's sewage sludge". Int J Occup Environ Health 11 (4): 41527. PMID16350476. Free full-text (http:/ / www. ijoeh. com/ index. php/ ijoeh/ article/ view/ 278) (registration required) [4] Davenport et al. (2005). Environmental impacts of potato nutrient management (http:/ / www. springerlink. com/ content/ r08705265l26j0n6/ ). American Journal of Potato Research. [5] http:/ / yosemite. epa. gov/ water/ owrcCatalog. nsf/ 065ca07e299b464685256ce50075c11a/ 383316fae0e9065285256cfd0048e1d2!OpenDocument [6] Article on soil contamination in China (http:/ / www. heltheffects. com. net/ article/ show/ single/ en/ 724-Facing-up-to-invisible-pollution-) [7] Michael Hogan, Leda Patmore, Gary Latshaw and Harry Seidman Computer modelng of pesticide transport in soil for five instrumented watersheds, prepared for the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Southeast Water laboratory, Athens, Ga. by ESL Inc., Sunnyvale, California (1973)

Soil contamination
[8] S.K. Gupta, C.T. Kincaid, P.R. Mayer, C.A. Newbill and C.R. Cole, A multidimensional finite element code for the analysis of coupled fluid, energy and solute transport, Battelle Pacific Northwest Laboratory PNL-2939, EPA contract 68-03-3116 (1982)

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External links
Portal for soil and water management in Europe (http://www.eugris.info) Independent information gateway originally funded by the European Commission for topics related to soil and water, including contaminated land, soil and water management. Sound blaster cleans contaminated soil (http://www.newscientisttech.com/article.ns?id=dn10008& feedId=online-news_rss20) - High powered ultrasound can clean up soil tainted with organic toxins like PCBs or DDT Article on soil contamination in China (http://www.chinadialogue.net/article/show/single/en/ 724-Facing-up-to-invisible-pollution-) Arsenic in groundwater (http://www.hydrology.nl/iahpublications/70-arsenic-in-groundwater.html) Book on arsenic in groundwater by IAH's Netherlands Chapter and the Netherlands Hydrological Society

Ship pollution
Ship pollution is the pollution of air and water by shipping. It is a problem that has been accelerating as trade has become increasingly globalized, posing an increasing threat to the worlds oceans and waterways as globalization continues. It is expected that, shipping traffic to and from the USA is projected to double by 2020."[1] Because of increased traffic in ocean ports, pollution from ships also directly affects coastal areas. The pollution produced affects biodiversity, climate, food, and human health.

Sources and causes

Ships pollute the waterways and oceans in many ways. For instance, spills from oil and chemical tankers, and the ejection of sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, carbon dioxide, and black carbon into the atmosphere from exhaust fumes. Discharge of cargo residues from bulk carriers can pollute ports, waterways and oceans. Ships create noise pollution A cargo ship pumps ballast water over the side that disturbs natural wildlife, and water from ballast tanks can spread harmful algae and other invasive species. In many instances vessels due to a variety of reasons intentionally discharge illegal wastes despite foreign and domestic regulation prohibiting such actions. This section describes how ships pollute the ocean; for the Protocol of 1978 Relating to the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution From Ships of 1973, sometimes abbreviated as Ship Pollution, refer to MARPOL 73/78.

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Ballast water
When a larger vessel, such as a container ship or an oil tanker unloads cargo, seawater is pumped into compartments in the hull. Similarly, when a larger vessel is being loaded it discharges seawater from these compartments. The sea water is meant to help stabilize and balance a ship. Ballast discharges from ships are responsible for tar balls in the open oceans and seas, and can cause problems navigating tanker routes. Nevertheless, the discharge of ballast water only accounts for a small percentage of oil pollution in the marine environment.[2] Ships are also responsible for transporting harmful organisms in their ballast water. Meinesz[3] believes that one of the worst cases of a single invasive species causing harm to an ecosystem can be attributed to a seemingly harmless jellyfish. Mnemiopsis leidyi, a species of comb jellyfish that inhabits estuaries from the United States to the Valds peninsula in Argentina along the Atlantic coast, has caused notable damage in the Black Sea. It was first introduced in 1982, and thought to have been transported to the Black Sea in a ships ballast water. The population of the jellyfish shot up exponentially and, by 1988, it was wreaking havoc upon the local fishing industry. The anchovy catch fell from 204,000 tons in 1984 to 200 tons in 1993; sprat from 24,600 tons in 1984 to 12,000 tons in 1993; horse mackerel from 4,000 tons in 1984 to zero in 1993.[3] Now that the jellyfish have exhausted the zooplankton, including fish larvae, their numbers have fallen dramatically, yet they continue to maintain a stranglehold on the ecosystem. Recently the jellyfish have been discovered in the Caspian Sea. Invasive species can take over once occupied areas, facilitate the spread of new diseases, introduce new genetic material, alter landscapes and jeopardize the ability of native species to obtain food. On land and in the sea, invasive species are responsible for about 137 billion dollars in lost revenue and management costs in the U.S. each year.[2] In addition to introducing non native species into new environments, ballast and bilge discharge from ships can spread human pathogens and other harmful diseases and toxins potentially causing health issues for humans and marine life alike.[4] Discharges into coastal waters along with other sources of marine pollution have the potential to be toxic to marine plants, animals, and microorganisms causing alterations such as changes in growth, disruption of hormone cycles, birth defects, suppression of the immune system, and disorders resulting in cancer, tumors, and genetic abnormalities or even death.[2] They may also have the opposite effect upon some marine life stimulating growth and providing a source of food. Sources of seafood can become contaminated and unhealthy for consumption. Not surprisingly, cholera outbreaks have been attributed to ship operations. Current research indicates that the bacterium responsible for causing cholera, Vibrio cholerae can spread through attachment to marine organisms in ship ballast water.[4] Shellfish and drinking water can then be contaminated when the ship discharges its ballast water.

Exhaust emissions
Exhaust emissions from ships are considered to be a significant source of air pollution, with 18-30% of all nitrogen oxide and 9% of sulphur oxide pollution.[5] The 15 biggest ships emit about as much sulphur oxide pollution as all cars combined.[5] "By 2010, up to 40% of air pollution over land could come from ships."[6] Sulfur in the air creates acid rain which damages crops and buildings. When inhaled the sulfur is known to cause respiratory problems and even increase the risk of a heart attack.[6] According to Irene Blooming, a spokeswoman for the European environmental coalition Seas at Risk, the fuel used in oil tankers and container ships is high in sulfur and cheaper to buy compared to the fuel used for domestic land use. "A ship lets out around 50 times more sulfur than a lorry per metric tonne of cargo carried."[6] Cities in the U.S. like Long Beach, Los Angeles, Houston, Galveston, and Pittsburgh see some of the heaviest shipping traffic in the nation and have left local officials desperately trying to clean up the air.[1] Increasing trade between the U.S. and China is helping to increase the number of vessels navigating the Pacific and exacerbating many of the environmental problems. To maintain the level of growth China is currently experiencing, large amounts of grain are being shipped to China by the boat load. The number of voyages are expected to continue increasing.[7] 3.5% to 4% of all climate change emissions are caused by shipping.[5]

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Oil spills
Most commonly associated with ship pollution are oil spills. While less frequent than the pollution that occurs from daily operations, oil spills have devastating effects. While being toxic to marine life, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), the components in crude oil, are very difficult to clean up, and last for years in the sediment and marine environment.[2] Marine species constantly exposed to PAHs can exhibit developmental problems, susceptibility to disease, and abnormal reproductive cycles. One of the more widely known spills was the Exxon Valdez incident in Alaska. The ship ran aground and dumped a massive amount of oil into the ocean in March 1989. Despite efforts of scientists, managers, and volunteers over 400,000 seabirds, about 1,000 sea otters, and immense numbers of fish were killed.[2]

Cruise ships
Along with global trade the tourism industry has also seen growth in recent years. The cruise ship industry has seen 8 percent annual growth and continues to increase demand.[2] With some cruise ships holding upwards of 5000 people, passengers and crew combined, these ships are likened to floating cities.[1] In one week, a typical cruise ship generates 210,000 gallons of black water (sewage), 1,000,000 gallons of gray water (shower, sink, dishwashing water), 37,000 gallons of oily bilge water, more than eight tons of solid waste, millions of gallons of ballast water containing potential invasive species, and toxic wastes from dry cleaning and photo processing laboratories.[2] This is also compounded with fuel emissions to have detrimental effects on the environment. From 1993 to 1998, cruise ships were involved in 104 confirmed cases of illegal discharge of oil, garbage, and hazardous wastes.[8] One of the worst reported cases was by Royal Caribbean Cruises Ltd. Over several years, while in U.S. waters, they had been routinely and deliberately dumping waste oil, photo processing, dry cleaning, and print shop chemicals into coastal waters. Their ships were even fitted with concealed piping that would bypass pollution treatment equipment.

Regulation
Some of the major international efforts in the form of treaties are the Marine Pollution Treaty, Honolulu, which deals with regulating marine pollution from ships, and the UN Convention on Law of the Sea, which deals with marine species and pollution.[9] While plenty of local and international regulations have been introduced throughout maritime history, much of the current regulations are considered inadequate. In general, the treaties tend to emphasize the technical features of safety and pollution control measures without going to the root causes of sub-standard shipping, the absence of incentives for compliance and the lack of enforceability of measures.[10] Cruise ships for example are exempt from regulation under the Clean Water Act of 1972 (CWA) point source permitting system that requires compliance with U.S. federal standards through technological requirements.[2] In the Caribbean, many ports lack proper waste disposal facilities, and many ships dump their waste at sea.[11]

See also

Ship pollution

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Act to Prevent Pollution from Ships American Bureau of Shipping (ABS) Classification society Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter International Association of Classification Societies (IACS)

Marine fuel management National Oil and Hazardous Substances Contingency Plan in the US North Pacific Gyre Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (in the US) Particle (ecology) Stormwater Timeline of environmental events

References
[1] Watson, T. (2004, August 30). Ship pollution clouds USA's skies. USA Today. Retrieved November 1, 2006, from http:/ / www. usatoday. com/ news/ nation/ 2004-08-30-ship-pollution_x. htm [2] Panetta, L. E. (Chair) (2003). America's living oceans: charting a course for sea change [Electronic Version, CD] Pew Oceans Commission. [3] Meinesz, A. (2003). Deep Sea Invasion. The Impact of Invasive Species. PBS: NOVA. Retrieved November 26, 2006, from http:/ / www. pbs. org/ wgbh/ nova/ algae/ impact. html [4] National Research Council, Committee on the Ocean's Role in Human Health, Ocean Studies Board, Commission on Geosciences, Environment, and Resources. (1999). From monsoons to microbes: understanding the ocean's role in human health. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press [5] Vidal, John (2009-04-09). "Health risks of shipping pollution have been 'underestimated'" (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ environment/ 2009/ apr/ 09/ shipping-pollution). Guardian. . Retrieved 2009-07-03. [6] Harrabin, R. (2003, June 25). EU faces ship clean-up call. BBC News. Retrieved November 1, 2006, from http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ europe/ 3019686. stm [7] Schmidt, C., & Olicker, J. (2004, April 20). World in the Balance: China Revs Up [Transcript]. PBS: NOVA. Retrieved November 26, 2006, from http:/ / www. pbs. org/ wgbh/ nova/ transcripts/ 3109_worldbal. html [8] Gerdes, L. I. (Eds.). (2004). Endangered oceans. San Diego, California: Greenhaven Press. [9] Steger, M. B. (2003). Globalization: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press Inc. New York [10] Khee-Jin Tan, A. (2006). Vessel-source marine pollution: the law and politics of international regulation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press [11] United Nations Environment Programme in collaboration with GEF, the University of Kalmar, and the Municipality of Kalmar, Sweden, & the Governments of Sweden, Finland and Norway. (2006). Challenges to international waters: regional assessments in a global perspective [Electronic Version]. Nairobi, Kenya: United Nations Environment Programme. Retrieved January 5, 2010, from http:/ / www. unep. org/ dewa/ giwa/ publications/ finalreport/

External links
Help Stop Cruise Ship Pollution (http://www.oceana.org/north-america/what-we-do/ stop-cruise-ship-pollution/) Report Illegal Pollution from Ships (http://reportpollution.com/) USCG Proceedings Magazine/Ship Pollution and Environmental Crimes (http://homeport.uscg.mil/cgi-bin/st/ portal/uscg_docs/MyCG/Editorial/20070509/ENVIRO CRIMES 2005. pdf?id=8cce849b124ee641cca4efab1e6fdc321bad0ac7)

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Thermal pollution
Thermal pollution is the degradation of water quality by any process that changes ambient water temperature. A common cause of thermal pollution is the use of water as a coolant by power plants and industrial manufacturers. When water used as a coolant is returned to the natural environment at a higher temperature, the change in temperature (a) decreases oxygen supply, and (b) affects ecosystem composition. Urban runoff--stormwater discharged to surface waters from roads and parking lots--can also be a source of elevated water temperatures. When a power plant first opens or shuts down for repair or other causes, fish and other organisms adapted to particular temperature range can be killed by the abrupt rise in water temperature known as 'thermal shock'.

Ecological effects warm water

Potrero Generating Station discharges heated [1] water into San Francisco Bay.

Elevated temperature typically decreases the level of dissolved oxygen (DO) in water. The decrease in levels of DO can harm aquatic animals such as fish, amphibians and copepods. Thermal pollution may also increase the metabolic rate of aquatic animals, as enzyme activity, resulting in these organisms consuming more food in a shorter time than if their environment were not changed. An increased metabolic rate may result in fewer resources; the more adapted organisms moving in may have an advantage over organisms that are not used to the warmer temperature. As a result one has the problem of compromising food chains of the old and new environments. Biodiversity can be decreased as a result. It is known that temperature changes of even one to two degrees Celsius can cause significant changes in organism metabolism and other adverse cellular biology effects. Principal adverse changes can include rendering cell walls less permeable to necessary osmosis, coagulation of cell proteins, and alteration of enzyme metabolism. These cellular level effects can adversely affect mortality and reproduction. Primary producers are affected by warm water because higher water temperature increases plant growth rates, resulting in a shorter lifespan and species overpopulation. This can cause an algae bloom which reduces oxygen levels. A large increase in temperature can lead to the denaturing of life-supporting enzymes by breaking down hydrogenand disulphide bonds within the quaternary structure of the enzymes. Decreased enzyme activity in aquatic organisms can cause problems such as the inability to break down lipids, which leads to malnutrition. In limited cases, warm water has little deleterious effect and may even lead to improved function of the receiving aquatic ecosystem. This phenomenon is seen especially in seasonal waters and is known as thermal enrichment.... An extreme case is derived from the aggregational habits of the manatee, which often uses power plant discharge sites during winter. Projections suggest that manatee populations would decline upon the removal of these discharges.

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Ecological effects cold water

Releases of unnaturally cold water from reservoirs can dramatically change the fish and macroinvertebrate fauna of rivers, and reduce river productivity. In Australia, where many rivers have warmer temperature regimes, native fish species have been eliminated, and macroinvertebrate fauna have been drastically altered.

Control of thermal pollution

Industrial wastewater In the United States, thermal pollution from industrial sources is generated mostly by power plants, petroleum refineries, pulp and paper mills, chemical plants, steel mills and smelters.[2] [3] Heated water from these sources may be controlled with: cooling ponds, man-made bodies of water designed for cooling by evaporation, convection, and radiation cooling towers, which transfer waste heat to the atmosphere through evaporation and/or heat transfer cogeneration, a process where waste heat is recycled for domestic and/or industrial heating purposes.[4]

Cooling tower at Gustav Knepper Power Station, Dortmund, Germany

Some facilities use once-through cooling (OTC) systems which do not reduce temperature as effectively as the above systems. For example, the Potrero Generating Station in San Francisco, which uses OTC, discharges water to San Francisco Bay approximately 10C (20F) above the ambient bay temperature.[5] Urban runoff During warm weather, urban runoff can have significant thermal impacts on small streams, as stormwater passes over hot parking lots, roads and sidewalks. Stormwater management facilities that absorb runoff or direct it into groundwater, such as bioretention systems and infiltration basins, can reduce these thermal effects. Retention basins tend to be less effective at reducing temperature, as the water may be heated by the sun before being discharged to a receiving stream.[6] ...

See also
Water cooling Water pollution Water quality

References
[1] Selna, Robert (2009). "Power plant has no plans to stop killing fish." (http:/ / www. sfgate. com/ cgi-bin/ article. cgi?f=/ c/ a/ 2009/ 01/ 01/ BAAS151F1U. DTL& tsp=1) San Francisco Chronicle, January 2, 2009. [2] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Washington, D.C. "Cooling Water Intake Structures - Basic Information." (http:/ / www. epa. gov/ waterscience/ 316b/ basic. htm) June 2, 2008. [3] EPA. "Technical Development Document for the Final Section 316(b) Phase III Rule." (http:/ / www. epa. gov/ waterscience/ 316b/ phase3/ ph3docs/ tdd-final-part1-200606. pdf) June 2006. Chapter 2. [4] EPA (1997) Profile of the Fossil Fuel Electric Power Generation Industry (http:/ / www. epa. gov/ compliance/ resources/ publications/ assistance/ sectors/ notebooks/ fossil. html). (Report). Document No. EPA/310-R-97-007. p. 24 [5] California Environmental Protection Agency. San Francisco Bay Regional Water Quality Control Board. "Waste Discharge Requirements for Mirant Potrero, LLC, Potrero Power Plant." (http:/ / www. swrcb. ca. gov/ sanfranciscobay/ board_info/ agendas/ 2006/ may/ mirantfinalorder. pdf) Order No. R2-2006-0032; NPDES Permit No. CA0005657. May 10, 2006. [6] EPA. "Preliminary Data Summary of Urban Storm Water Best Management Practices." (http:/ / epa. gov/ guide/ stormwater/ ) August 1999. Document No. EPA-821-R-99-012. p. 5-58.

Thermal pollution Michael Hogan, Leda C. Patmore and Harry Seidman, Statistical Prediction of Dynamic Thermal Equilibrium Temperatures using Standard Meteorological Data Bases, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Office of Research and Development EPA-660/2-73-003, August, 1973 E.L. Thackston and F.L. Parker, Effect of Geographical Location on Cooling Pond Requirements Vanderbilt University, for Water Quality Office, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Project no. 16130 FDQ, March 1971 Edinger, J.E.; Geyer, J.C (1965). Heat Exchange in the Environment. Edison Electric Institute, New York City, N.Y.. Edward A. Laws, Aquatic Pollution: An Introductory Text, John Wiley and Sons (2000) ISBN 0-471-34875-9

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Visual pollution
Visual pollution is the term given to unattractive and man-made visual elements of a vista, a landscape, or any other thing that a person does not feel comfortable to look at. Visual pollution is an aesthetic issue, referring to the impacts of pollution that impair one's ability to enjoy a vista or view. The term is used broadly to cover visibility, limits on the ability to view distant objects, as well as the more subjective issue of visual clutter. In other words, pollution is the contamination of the environment as a result of human activities. The term pollution refers primarily to the fouling of air, water, and land by wastes (see air pollution; water pollution; solid waste). In recent years it has come to signify a wider range of disruptions to environmental quality. Thus litter, billboards, and auto junkyards are said to constitute visual pollution; noise excessive enough to cause psychological or physical damage is considered noise pollution; and waste heat that alters local climate or affects fish populations in rivers is designated thermal pollution. Its other reference is to "marketing advertisements".

See also
Clutter Eyesore Light pollution Noise pollution

References External links

The study for visual pollution in Albuquerque (http://www.cabq.gov/aes/s5vp.html) Visual pollution by out-of-home advertising (http://www.economist.com/business/displaystory. cfm?story_id=9963268) BioMed Central|Full Text| (http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148/7/200)

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Water pollution
Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies (e.g. lakes, rivers, oceans and groundwater). Water pollution affects plants and organisms living in these bodies of water; and, in almost all cases the effect is damaging not only to individual species and populations, but also to the natural biological communities. Water pollution occurs when pollutants are discharged directly or indirectly into water bodies without adequate treatment to remove harmful compounds.
Raw sewage and industrial waste flows across international bordersNew River passes from Mexicali to Calexico, California.

Introduction
Water pollution is a major problem in the global context. It has been suggested that it is the leading worldwide cause of deaths and diseases,[1] [2] and that it accounts for the deaths of more than 14,000 people daily.[2] An estimated 700 million Indians have no access to a proper toilet, and 1,000 Indian children die of diarrheal sickness every day.[3] Some 90% of China's cities suffer from some degree of water pollution,[4] and nearly 500 million people lack access to safe drinking water.[5] In addition to the acute problems of water pollution in developing countries, industrialized countries continue to struggle with Millions depend on the polluted Ganges river. pollution problems as well. In the most recent national report on water quality in the United States, 45 percent of assessed stream miles, 47 percent of assessed lake acres, and 32 percent of assessed bay and estuarine square miles were classified as polluted.[6] Water is typically referred to as polluted when it is impaired by anthropogenic contaminants and either does not support a human use, like serving as drinking water, and/or undergoes a marked shift in its ability to support its constituent biotic communities, such as fish. Natural phenomena such as volcanoes, algae blooms, storms, and earthquakes also cause major changes in water quality and the ecological status of water.

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Water pollution categories

Surface water and groundwater have often been studied and managed as separate resources, although they are interrelated.[7] Sources of surface water pollution are generally grouped into two categories based on their origin.

Point source pollution

Point source pollution refers to contaminants that enter a waterway through a discrete conveyance, such as a pipe or ditch. Examples of sources in this category include discharges from a sewage treatment plant, a factory, or a city storm drain. The U.S. Clean Water Act (CWA) defines point source for regulatory enforcement purposes.[8] The CWA definition of point source was amended in 1987 to include municipal storm sewer systems, as well as industrial stormwater, such as from construction sites.[9]

Nonpoint source pollution

Point source pollution - Shipyard - Rio de Janeiro.

Nonpoint source (NPS) pollution refers to diffuse contamination that does not originate from a single discrete source. NPS pollution is often the cumulative effect of small amounts of contaminants gathered from a large area. The leaching out of nitrogen compounds from agricultural land which has been fertilized is a typical example. Nutrient runoff in stormwater from "sheet flow" over an agricultural field or a forest are also cited as examples of NPS pollution. Contaminated storm water washed off of parking lots, roads and highways, called urban runoff, is sometimes included under the category of NPS pollution. However, this runoff is typically channeled into storm drain systems and discharged through pipes to local surface waters, and is a point source. However where such water is not channeled and drains directly to ground it is a non-point source.

Groundwater pollution
Interactions between groundwater and surface water are complex. Consequently, groundwater pollution, sometimes referred to as groundwater contamination, is not as easily classified as surface water pollution.[7] By its very nature, groundwater aquifers are susceptible to contamination from sources that may not directly affect surface water bodies, and the distinction of point vs. non-point source may be irrelevant. A spill or ongoing releases of chemical or radionuclide contaminants into soil (located away from a surface water body) may not create point source or non-point source pollution, but can contaminate the aquifer below, defined as a toxin plume. The movement of the plume, a plume front, can be part of a Hydrological transport model or Groundwater model. Analysis of groundwater contamination may focus on the soil characteristics and site geology, hydrogeology, hydrology, and the nature of the contaminants.

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Causes of water pollution

The specific contaminants leading to pollution in water include a wide spectrum of chemicals, pathogens, and physical or sensory changes such as elevated temperature and discoloration. While many of the chemicals and substances that are regulated may be naturally occurring (calcium, sodium, iron, manganese, etc.) the concentration is often the key in determining what is a natural component of water, and what is a contaminant. Oxygen-depleting substances may be natural materials, such as plant matter (e.g. leaves and grass) as well as man-made chemicals. Other natural and anthropogenic substances may cause turbidity (cloudiness) which blocks light and disrupts plant growth, and clogs the gills of some fish species.[10] Many of the chemical substances are toxic. Pathogens can produce waterborne diseases in either human or animal hosts.[11] Alteration of water's physical chemistry includes acidity (change in pH), electrical conductivity, temperature, and eutrophication. Eutrophication is an increase in the concentration of chemical nutrients in an ecosystem to an extent that increases in the primary productivity of the ecosystem. Depending on the degree of eutrophication, subsequent negative environmental effects such as anoxia (oxygen depletion) and severe reductions in water quality may occur, affecting fish and other animal populations.

Pathogens
Coliform bacteria are a commonly used bacterial indicator of water pollution, although not an actual cause of disease. Other microorganisms sometimes found in surface waters which have caused human health problems include: Burkholderia pseudomallei Cryptosporidium parvum Giardia lamblia Salmonella Novovirus and other viruses
A manhole cover unable to contain a sanitary sewer overflow.

Parasitic worms (helminths).[12] [13]

High levels of pathogens may result from inadequately treated sewage discharges.[14] This can be caused by a sewage plant designed with less than secondary treatment (more typical in less-developed countries). In developed countries, older cities with aging infrastructure may have leaky sewage collection systems (pipes, pumps, valves), which can cause sanitary sewer overflows. Some cities also have combined sewers, which may discharge untreated sewage during rain storms.[15] Pathogen discharges may also be caused by poorly managed livestock operations.

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Chemical and other contaminants

Contaminants may include organic and inorganic substances. Organic water pollutants include: Detergents Disinfection by-products found in chemically disinfected drinking water, such as chloroform Food processing waste, which can include oxygen-demanding substances, fats and grease Insecticides and herbicides, a huge range of organohalides and other chemical compounds

Petroleum hydrocarbons, including fuels (gasoline, diesel fuel, jet fuels, and fuel oil) and lubricants (motor oil), and fuel combustion byproducts, from stormwater runoff[16] Tree and bush debris from logging operations

Muddy river polluted by sediment. Photo courtesy of United States Geological Survey.

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs), such as industrial solvents, from improper storage. Chlorinated solvents, which are dense non-aqueous phase liquids (DNAPLs), may fall to the bottom of reservoirs, since they don't mix well with water and are denser. Various chemical compounds found in personal hygiene and cosmetic products Inorganic water pollutants include: Acidity caused by industrial discharges (especially sulfur dioxide from power plants) Ammonia from food processing waste Chemical waste as industrial by-products Fertilizers containing nutrients--nitrates and phosphates--which are found in stormwater runoff from agriculture, as well as commercial and residential use[16] Heavy metals from motor vehicles (via urban stormwater runoff)[16] [17] and acid mine drainage Silt (sediment) in runoff from construction sites, logging, slash and burn practices or land clearing sites Macroscopic pollutionlarge visible items polluting the watermay be termed "floatables" in an urban stormwater context, or marine debris when found on the open seas, and can include such items as: Trash (e.g. paper, plastic, or food waste) discarded by people on the ground, and that are washed by rainfall into storm drains and eventually discharged into surface waters Nurdles, small ubiquitous waterborne plastic pellets Shipwrecks, large derelict ships

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Thermal pollution
Thermal pollution is the rise or fall in the temperature of a natural body of water caused by human influence. A common cause of thermal pollution is the use of water as a coolant by power plants and industrial manufacturers. Elevated water temperatures decreases oxygen levels (which can kill fish) and affects ecosystem composition, such as invasion by new thermophilic species. Urban runoff may also elevate temperature in surface waters. Thermal pollution can also be caused by the release of very cold water from the base of reservoirs into warmer rivers.

Transport and chemical reactions of water pollutants

water into San Francisco Bay. Most water pollutants are eventually carried by rivers into the oceans. In some areas of the world the influence can be traced hundred miles from the mouth by studies using hydrology transport models. Advanced computer models such as SWMM or the DSSAM Model have been used in many locations worldwide to examine the fate of pollutants in aquatic systems. Indicator filter feeding species such as copepods have also been used to study pollutant fates in the New York Bight, for example. The highest toxin loads are not directly at the mouth of the Hudson River, but 100 kilometers south, since several days are required for incorporation into planktonic tissue. The Hudson discharge flows south along the coast due to coriolis force. Further south then are areas of oxygen depletion, caused by chemicals using up oxygen and by algae blooms, caused by excess nutrients from algal cell death and decomposition. Fish and shellfish kills have been reported, because toxins climb the food chain after small fish consume copepods, then large fish eat smaller fish, etc. Each successive step up the food chain causes a stepwise concentration of pollutants such as heavy metals (e.g. mercury) and persistent organic pollutants such as DDT. This is known as biomagnification, which is occasionally used interchangeably with bioaccumulation. Potrero Generating Station discharges heated [18]

Large gyres (vortexes) in the oceans trap floating plastic debris. The North Pacific Gyre for example has collected the so-called "Great Pacific Garbage Patch" that is now estimated at 100 times the size of Texas. Many of these long-lasting pieces wind up in the stomachs of marine birds and animals. This results in obstruction of digestive pathways which leads to reduced appetite or even starvation. Many chemicals undergo reactive decay or chemically change especially over long periods of time in groundwater reservoirs. A noteworthy class of such chemicals is the chlorinated hydrocarbons such as trichloroethylene (used in industrial metal degreasing and electronics manufacturing) and tetrachloroethylene used in the dry cleaning industry (note latest advances in liquid carbon dioxide in dry cleaning that avoids all use of chemicals). Both of these chemicals, which are carcinogens themselves, undergo partial decomposition reactions, leading to new hazardous chemicals (including dichloroethylene and vinyl chloride).

A polluted river draining an abandoned copper mine on Anglesey

Groundwater pollution is much more difficult to abate than surface pollution because groundwater can move great distances through unseen aquifers. Non-porous aquifers such as clays partially purify water of bacteria by simple filtration (adsorption and absorption), dilution, and, in some cases, chemical reactions and biological activity:

Water pollution however, in some cases, the pollutants merely transform to soil contaminants. Groundwater that moves through cracks and caverns is not filtered and can be transported as easily as surface water. In fact, this can be aggravated by the human tendency to use natural sinkholes as dumps in areas of Karst topography. There are a variety of secondary effects stemming not from the original pollutant, but a derivative condition. An example is silt-bearing surface runoff, which can inhibit the penetration of sunlight through the water column, hampering photosynthesis in aquatic plants.

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Measurement of water pollution

Water pollution may be analyzed through several broad categories of methods: physical, chemical and biological. Most involve collection of samples, followed by specialized analytical tests. Some methods may be conducted in situ, without sampling, such as temperature. Government agencies and research organizations have published standardized, validated analytical test methods to facilitate the comparability of results from disparate testing events.[19]

Sampling
Sampling of water for physical or chemical testing can be done by several methods, depending on the accuracy needed and the characteristics of the contaminant. Many contamination events are sharply restricted in time, most commonly in association with rain events. For this reason "grab" samples are often inadequate for fully quantifying contaminant levels. Scientists gathering this type of data often employ auto-sampler devices that pump increments of water at either time or discharge intervals. Sampling for biological testing involves collection of plants and/or animals from the surface water body. Depending on the type of assessment, the organisms may be identified for biosurveys (population counts) and returned to the water body, or they may be dissected for bioassays to determine toxicity.
Environmental Scientists preparing water autosamplers.

Physical testing
Common physical tests of water include temperature, solids concentration like total suspended solids (TSS) and turbidity.

Chemical testing
Water samples may be examined using the principles of analytical chemistry. Many published test methods are available for both organic and inorganic compounds. Frequently used methods include pH, biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), nutrients (nitrate and phosphorus compounds), metals (including copper, zinc, cadmium, lead and mercury), oil and grease, total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH), and pesticides.

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Biological testing
Biological testing involves the use of plant, animal, and/or microbial indicators to monitor the health of an aquatic ecosystem. For microbial testing of drinking water, see Bacteriological water analysis.

Control of water pollution

Domestic sewage
Domestic sewage is 99.9% pure water, the other 0.1% are pollutants. While found in low concentrations, these pollutants pose risk on a large scale.[20] In urban areas, domestic sewage is typically treated by centralized sewage treatment plants. In the U.S., most of these plants are operated by local government agencies, frequently referred to as publicly owned treatment works (POTW). Municipal treatment plants are designed to control conventional pollutants: BOD and suspended solids. Well-designed and operated systems (i.e., secondary treatment or better) can remove 90 percent or more of these pollutants. Some plants have additional sub-systems to treat nutrients and pathogens. Most municipal plants are not designed to treat toxic pollutants found in industrial wastewater.[21]

Deer Island Waste Water Treatment Plant serving Boston, Massachusetts and vicinity.

Cities with sanitary sewer overflows or combined sewer overflows employ one or more engineering approaches to reduce discharges of untreated sewage, including: utilizing a green infrastructure approach to improve stormwater management capacity throughout the system, and reduce the hydraulic overloading of the treatment plant[22] repair and replacement of leaking and malfunctioning equipment[15] increasing overall hydraulic capacity of the sewage collection system (often a very expensive option). A household or business not served by a municipal treatment plant may have an individual septic tank, which treats the wastewater on site and discharges into the soil. Alternatively, domestic wastewater may be sent to a nearby privately owned treatment system (e.g. in a rural community).

Industrial wastewater
Some industrial facilities generate ordinary domestic sewage that can be treated by municipal facilities. Industries that generate wastewater with high concentrations of conventional pollutants (e.g. oil and grease), toxic pollutants (e.g. heavy metals, volatile organic compounds) or other nonconventional pollutants such as ammonia, need specialized treatment systems. Some of these facilities can install a pre-treatment system to remove the toxic components, and then send the partially treated wastewater to the municipal system. Industries generating large volumes of wastewater typically operate their own complete on-site treatment systems.

Dissolved air flotation system for treating industrial wastewater.

Some industries have been successful at redesigning their manufacturing processes to reduce or eliminate pollutants, through a process called pollution prevention. Heated water generated by power plants or manufacturing plants may be controlled with:

Water pollution cooling ponds, man-made bodies of water designed for cooling by evaporation, convection, and radiation cooling towers, which transfer waste heat to the atmosphere through evaporation and/or heat transfer cogeneration, a process where waste heat is recycled for domestic and/or industrial heating purposes.[23]

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Agricultural wastewater
Nonpoint source controls Sediment (loose soil) washed off fields is the largest source of agricultural pollution in the United States.[10] Farmers may utilize erosion controls to reduce runoff flows and retain soil on their fields. Common techniques include contour plowing, crop mulching, crop rotation, planting perennial crops and installing riparian buffers.[24] [25] :pp. 4-954-96 Nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) are typically applied to farmland as commercial fertilizer; animal manure; or spraying of municipal or industrial wastewater (effluent) or sludge. Nutrients may also enter runoff from crop residues, irrigation water, wildlife, and atmospheric deposition.[25] :p. 2-9 Farmers can develop and implement nutrient management plans to reduce excess application of nutrients.[24] [25] :pp. 4-374-38 To minimize pesticide impacts, farmers may use Integrated Pest Management (IPM) techniques (which can include biological pest control) to maintain control over pests, reduce reliance on chemical pesticides, and protect water quality.[26]
Riparian buffer lining a creek in Iowa

Confined Animal Feeding Operation in the United States

Point source wastewater treatment Farms with large livestock and poultry operations, such as factory farms, are called concentrated animal feeding operations or confined animal feeding operations in the U.S. and are being subject to increasing government regulation.[27] [28] Animal slurries are usually treated by containment in lagoons before disposal by spray or trickle application to grassland. Constructed wetlands are sometimes used to facilitate treatment of animal wastes, as are anaerobic lagoons. Some animal slurries are treated by mixing with straw and composted at high temperature to produce a bacteriologically sterile and friable manure for soil improvement.

Construction site stormwater

Sediment from construction sites is managed by installation of: erosion controls, such as mulching and hydroseeding, and sediment controls, such as sediment basins and silt fences.[29] Discharge of toxic chemicals such as motor fuels and concrete washout is prevented by use of: spill prevention and control plans, and specially designed containers (e.g. for concrete washout) and structures such as overflow controls and diversion berms.[30]

Silt fence installed on a construction site.

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Urban runoff (stormwater)

Effective control of urban runoff involves reducing the velocity and flow of stormwater, as well as reducing pollutant discharges. Local governments use a variety of stormwater management techniques to reduce the effects of urban runoff. These techniques, called best management practices (BMPs) in the U.S., may focus on water quantity control, while others focus on improving water quality, and some perform both functions.[31] Pollution prevention practices include low impact development techniques, installation of green roofs and improved chemical handling Retention basin for controlling urban runoff (e.g. management of motor fuels & oil, fertilizers and pesticides).[32] Runoff mitigation systems include infiltration basins, bioretention systems, constructed wetlands, retention basins and similar devices.[33] [34] Thermal pollution from runoff can be controlled by stormwater management facilities that absorb the runoff or direct it into groundwater, such as bioretention systems and infiltration basins. Retention basins tend to be less effective at reducing temperature, as the water may be heated by the sun before being discharged to a receiving stream.[31] :p. 5-58

See also
Aquatic toxicology Cultural eutrophication International standards for drinking water Marine debris Marine pollution Oil spills Paper pollution Peak water Trophic state index Watershed central Category: Water and the environment Interprovincial Cooperatives v. The Queen (Supreme Court of Canada)

References
[1] Pink, Daniel H. (April 19, 2006). "Investing in Tomorrow's Liquid Gold" (http:/ / finance. yahoo. com/ columnist/ article/ trenddesk/ 3748). Yahoo. . [2] West, Larry (March 26, 2006). "World Water Day: A Billion People Worldwide Lack Safe Drinking Water" (http:/ / environment. about. com/ od/ environmentalevents/ a/ waterdayqa. htm). About. . [3] "A special report on India: Creaking, groaning: Infrastructure is Indias biggest handicap" (http:/ / www. economist. com/ specialreports/ displaystory. cfm?story_id=12749787). The Economist. 11 December 2008. . [4] " China says water pollution so severe that cities could lack safe supplies (http:/ / www. chinadaily. com. cn/ english/ doc/ 2005-06/ 07/ content_449451. htm)". Chinadaily.com.cn. 2005-06-07. [5] " As China Roars, Pollution Reaches Deadly Extremes (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2007/ 08/ 26/ world/ asia/ 26china. html)". The New York Times. August 26, 2007. [6] United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Washington, DC. "The National Water Quality Inventory: Report to Congress for the 2002 Reporting Cycle A Profile." (http:/ / www. epa. gov/ 305b/ 2002report/ factsheet2002305b. pdf) October 2007. Fact Sheet No. EPA 841-F-07-003. [7] United States Geological Survey (USGS). Denver, CO. "Ground Water and Surface Water: A Single Resource." (http:/ / pubs. water. usgs. gov/ circ1139/ ) USGS Circular 1139. 1998. [8] Clean Water Act, section 502(14), 33 U.S.C. 1362 (http:/ / www. law. cornell. edu/ uscode/ 33/ 1362. html) (14).

Water pollution
[9] CWA section 402(p), 33 U.S.C. 1342(p) (http:/ / www. law. cornell. edu/ uscode/ 33/ 1342(p). html) [10] EPA. "Protecting Water Quality from Agricultural Runoff." (http:/ / www. epa. gov/ owow/ nps/ Ag_Runoff_Fact_Sheet. pdf) Fact Sheet No. EPA-841-F-05-001. March 2005. [11] C. Michael Hogan (2010). "Water pollution." (http:/ / www. eoearth. org/ article/ Water_pollution). Encyclopedia of Earth. Topic ed. Mark McGinley; ed. in chief C. Cleveland. National Council on Science and the Environment, Washington, DC. [12] USGS. Reston, VA. "A Primer on Water Quality." (http:/ / pubs. usgs. gov/ fs/ fs-027-01/ ) FS-027-01. March 2001. [13] Schueler, Thomas R. "Microbes and Urban Watersheds: Concentrations, Sources, & Pathways." (http:/ / www. cwp. org/ Resource_Library/ Center_Docs/ PWP/ ELC_PWP17. pdf) Reprinted in The Practice of Watershed Protection. (http:/ / www. cwp. org/ Store/ guidance. htm) 2000. Center for Watershed Protection. Ellicott City, MD. [14] EPA. Illness Related to Sewage in Water. (http:/ / www. epa. gov/ npdes/ sso/ control/ diseases. htm) Accessed 2009-02-20. [15] EPA. " Report to Congress: Impacts and Control of CSOs and SSOs." (http:/ / cfpub. epa. gov/ npdes/ cso/ cpolicy_report2004. cfm) August 2004. Document No. EPA-833-R-04-001. [16] G. Allen Burton, Jr., Robert Pitt (2001). Stormwater Effects Handbook: A Toolbox for Watershed Managers, Scientists, and Engineers (http:/ / unix. eng. ua. edu/ ~rpitt/ Publications/ BooksandReports/ Stormwater Effects Handbook by Burton and Pitt book/ MainEDFS_Book. html). New York: CRC/Lewis Publishers. ISBN0-87371-924-7. . Chapter 2. [17] Schueler, Thomas R. "Cars Are Leading Source of Metal Loads in California." (http:/ / www. cwp. org/ Resource_Library/ Center_Docs/ PWP/ ELC_PWP6. pdf) Reprinted in The Practice of Watershed Protection. (http:/ / www. cwp. org/ Store/ guidance. htm) 2000. Center for Watershed Protection. Ellicott City, MD. [18] Selna, Robert (2009). "Power plant has no plans to stop killing fish." (http:/ / www. sfgate. com/ cgi-bin/ article. cgi?f=/ c/ a/ 2009/ 01/ 01/ BAAS151F1U. DTL& tsp=1) San Francisco Chronicle, January 2, 2009. [19] For example, see Clescerl, Leonore S.(Editor), Greenberg, Arnold E.(Editor), Eaton, Andrew D. (Editor). Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater (20th ed.) American Public Health Association, Washington, DC. ISBN 0-87553-235-7. This publication is also available on CD-ROM and online (http:/ / www. standardmethods. org/ ) by subscription. [20] "Environmental works: types of sewage.Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. N.p., 2009. Web. 9 October 2009. <http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-72342> [21] EPA (2004). "Primer for Municipal Wastewater Treatment Systems." (http:/ / www. epa. gov/ npdes/ pubs/ primer. pdf) Document No. EPA 832-R-04-001. [22] EPA. "Green Infrastructure Case Studies: Philadelphia." (http:/ / cfpub. epa. gov/ npdes/ greeninfrastructure/ gicasestudies_specific. cfm?case_id=62) December 9, 2008. [23] EPA (1997) Profile of the Fossil Fuel Electric Power Generation Industry (http:/ / www. epa. gov/ compliance/ resources/ publications/ assistance/ sectors/ notebooks/ fossil. html). (Report). Document No. EPA/310-R-97-007. p. 24 [24] U.S. Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS). Washington, DC. "National Conservation Practice Standards." (http:/ / www. nrcs. usda. gov/ technical/ standards/ nhcp. html) National Handbook of Conservation Practices. Accessed 2009-03-28. [25] EPA. "National Management Measures to Control Nonpoint Source Pollution from Agriculture." (http:/ / www. epa. gov/ owow/ nps/ agmm/ ) July 2003. Document No. EPA-841-B-03-004. [26] EPA. "Integrated Pest Management Principles." (http:/ / www. epa. gov/ opp00001/ factsheets/ ipm. htm) March 13, 2008. [27] EPA. "Animal Feeding Operations." (http:/ / cfpub. epa. gov/ npdes/ home. cfm?program_id=7) December 15, 2008. [28] Iowa Department of Natural Resources. Des Moines, IA. "Animal Feeding Operations in Iowa." (http:/ / www. iowadnr. gov/ afo/ ) Accessed 2009-03-05. [29] Tennessee Department of Environment and Conservation. Nashville, TN. "Tennessee Erosion and Sediment Control Handbook." (http:/ / www. state. tn. us/ environment/ wpc/ sed_ero_controlhandbook/ ) 2002. [30] EPA (2006). "Construction Site Stormwater Runoff Control." (http:/ / cfpub. epa. gov/ npdes/ stormwater/ menuofbmps/ index. cfm?action=min_measure& min_measure_id=4) National Menu of Stormwater Best Management Practices. [31] EPA (1999). "Preliminary Data Summary of Urban Storm Water Best Management Practices." (http:/ / epa. gov/ guide/ stormwater/ ) Chapter 5. Document No. EPA-821-R-99-012. [32] EPA. "Fact Sheet: Low Impact Development and Other Green Design Strategies." (http:/ / cfpub. epa. gov/ npdes/ stormwater/ menuofbmps/ index. cfm?action=factsheet_results& view=specific& bmp=124) October 9, 2008. [33] California Stormwater Quality Association. Menlo Park, CA. "Stormwater Best Management Practice (BMP) Handbooks." (http:/ / www. cabmphandbooks. com) 2003. [34] New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection. Trenton, NJ. "New Jersey Stormwater Best Management Practices Manual." (http:/ / www. njstormwater. org/ bmp_manual2. htm) April 2004.

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Water pollution

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External links
Overview Information "Issues: Water" (http://www.nrdc.org/water/pollution/default.asp) - Guides, news and reports from Natural Resources Defense Council (US nonprofit organization) "Troubled Waters" (http://www.pbs.org/strangedays/episodes/troubledwaters/) - Video from "Strange Days on Planet Earth" by National Geographic & PBS Digital Water Education Library (http://www.csmate.colostate.edu/dwel/) - Teaching resources for elementary & secondary education, from Colorado State University Analytical Tools and Other Specialized Resources Water pollution advice for businesses on NetRegs.gov.uk (http://www.netregs.gov.uk/netregs/63294.aspx) Bibliography on Water Resources and International Law (http://www.ppl.nl/index. php?option=com_wrapper&view=wrapper&Itemid=82) - Peace Palace Library (Netherlands) EUGRIS (http://www.eugris.info) - Portal for Soil and Water Management in Europe Causal Analysis/Diagnosis Decision Information System (CADDIS) (http://cfpub.epa.gov/caddis/) - US EPA guide for identifying pollution problems (stressor identification)

Waste
Waste (also known as rubbish, trash, refuse, garbage, or junk) is unwanted or unusable materials. Litter is waste which has been disposed of improperly, particularly waste which has been carelessly disposed of in plain sight, as opposed to waste which has been dumped to avoid paying for waste disposal fees. In living organisms, waste is the unwanted substances or toxins that are expelled from them. More commonly, waste refers to the materials that are disposed of in a system of waste management. Waste is directly linked to human development, both technologically and socially. The compositions of different wastes have varied over time and location, with industrial development and innovation being directly linked to waste materials. Examples of this include plastics and nuclear technology. Some components of waste have economical value and can be recycled once correctly recovered. Waste is sometimes a subjective concept, because items that some A dumpster full of waste awaiting disposal people discard may have value to others. It is widely recognized that waste materials are a valuable resource, whilst there is debate as to how this value is best realized. There are many waste types defined by modern systems of waste management, notably including: municipal solid waste (MSW) construction waste and demolition waste (C&D) institutional waste, commercial waste, and industrial waste (IC&I) medical waste (also known as clinical waste)

Waste hazardous waste, radioactive waste, and electronic waste biodegradable waste

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Definitions
Being considered of no further use in relation to the original purpose of a mechanism.

Transporting waste in Ouagadougou

United Nations Environment Program (UNEP)

According to the Basel Convention: "Substances or objects which are disposed of or are intended to be disposed of or are required to be disposed of by the provisions of national law" (Basel Convention).[1] Produced by the United Nations Statistics Division (UNSD): "Wastes are materials that are not prime products (that is products produced for the market) for which the generator has no further use in terms of his/her own purposes of production, transformation or consumption, and of which he/she wants to dispose. Wastes may be generated during the extraction of raw materials, the processing of raw materials into intermediate and final products, the consumption of final products, and other human activities. Residuals recycled or reused at the place of generation are excluded." <ref name="Vital Waste Graphics" /

Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD)

"Waste refers to materials that are not prime products (that is, products produced for the market) for which the generator has no further use in terms of his/her own purposes of production, transformation or consumption, and of which he/she wants to dispose." [2] .

European Union (EU)

Under the Waste Framework Directive (European Directive 75/442/EC as amended), the European Union defines waste as an object the holder discards, intends to discard or is required to discard. Once a substance or object has become waste, it will remain waste until it has been fully recovered and no longer poses a potential threat to the environment or to human health.[3] The UK's Environmental Protection Act 1990 indicated waste includes any substance which constitutes a scrap material, an effluent or other unwanted surplus arising from the application of any process or any substance or article which requires to be disposed of which has been broken, worn out, contaminated or otherwise spoiled;

Schematic illustration of the EU Legal definition of waste.

this is supplemented with anything which is discarded otherwise dealt with as if it were waste shall be presumed to be waste unless the contrary is proved. This definition was amended by the Waste Management Licensing

Waste Regulations 1994 defining waste as: any substance or object which the producer or the person in possession of it, discards or intends or is required to discard but with exception of anything excluded from the scope of the Waste Directive.[4] The European Union has started a discussion that will end in an End-of-Waste directive which will clarify the distinction between waste, which shall be treated for disposal, and raw materials that can be reused for the same or other purposes.[5]

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Scholars
Proposed definitions by Pongrcz and Pohjola (2004) 1. 2. 3. 4. Non-wanted things created, not intended, or not avoided, with no Purpose. Things that were given a finite Purpose thus destined to become useless after fulfilling it. Things with well-defined Purpose, but their Performance ceased being acceptable Things with well-defined Purpose, and acceptable Performance, but their users failed to use them for the intended Purpose. [6]

Taiichi Ohno from Toyota Production System describes waste as "Any human activity that absorbs resources but creates no value".

Reporting
There are many issues that surround reporting waste. It is most commonly measured by size or weight, and there is a stark difference between the two. For example, organic waste is much heavier when it is wet, and plastic or glass bottles can have different weights but be the same size.[7] On a global scale it is difficult to report waste because countries have different definitions of waste and what falls into waste categories, as well as different ways of reporting. Based on incomplete reports from its parties, the Basel Convention estimated 338 million tonnes of waste was generated in 2001.[8] For the same year, OCED estimated 4 billion tonnes from its member countries.[9] Despite these inconsistencies, waste reporting is still useful on a small and large scale to determine key causes and locations, and to find ways of preventing, minimizing, recovering, treating, and disposing waste.

Costs
Environmental costs
Waste can attract rodents and insects which cause gastrointestinal parasites, yellow fever, worms, the plague and other conditions for humans. Exposure to hazardous wastes, particularly when they are burned, can cause various other diseases including cancers. Waste can contaminate surface water, groundwater, soil, and air which causes more problems for humans, other species, and ecosystems.[10] Waste treatment and disposal produces significant green house gas (GHG) emissions, notably methane, which are contributing significantly to global climate change.[8]

Social costs
Waste management is a significant environmental justice issue. Many of the environmental burdens cited above are more often borne by marginalized groups, such as racial minorities, women, and residents of developing nations. NIMBY (not-in-my-back-yard) is a popular term used to describes the opposition of residents to a proposal for a new development close to them.[11] However, the need for expansion and siting of waste treatment and disposal facilities is increasing worldwide. There is now a growing market in the transboundary movement of waste, and although most waste that flows between countries goes between developed nations, a significant amount of waste is moved from developed to developing nations.[12]

Waste

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Economic costs
The economic costs of managing waste are high, and are often paid for by municipal governments.[13] Money can often be saved with more efficiently designed collection routes, modifying vehicles, and with public education. Environmental policies such as pay as you throw can reduce the cost of management and reduce waste quantities. Waste recovery (that is, recycling, reuse) can curve economic costs because it avoids extracting raw materials and often cuts transportation costs.[14] The location of waste treatment and disposal facilities often has an impact on property values due to noise, dust, pollution, unsightliness, and negative stigma. The informal waste sector consists mostly of waste pickers who scavenge for metals, glass, plastic, textiles, and other materials and then trade them for a profit. This sector can significantly alter or reduce waste in a particular system, but other negative economic effects come with the disease, poverty, exploitation, and abuse of its workers.[15]

Education and awareness

Education and awareness in the area of waste and waste management is increasingly important from a global perspective of resource management. The Talloires Declaration is a declaration for sustainability concerned about the unprecedented scale and speed of environmental pollution and degradation, and the depletion of natural resources. Local, regional, and global air pollution; accumulation and distribution of toxic wastes; destruction and depletion of forests, soil, and water; depletion of the ozone layer and emission of "green house" gases threaten the survival of humans and thousands of other living species, the integrity of the earth and its biodiversity, the security of nations, and the heritage of future generations. Several universities have implemented the Talloires Declaration by establishing environmental management and waste management programs, e.g. the waste management universityproject. University and vocational education are promoted by various organizations, e.g. WAMITAB and Chartered Institution of Wastes Management.

See also
Environmental dumping Fly-tipping Life cycle assessment Litter Waste by country Waste collection Waste collection vehicle Waste converter Waste management

References
[1] Baker, Elaine et al. Vital Waste Graphics. United Nations Environment Program and Grid-Arendal, 2004. < http:/ / www. grida. no/ publications/ vg/ waste/ page/ 2853. aspx >. [2] Glossary of Statistical Terms. 2003. OECD. 12 Oct 2009. < http:/ / stats. oecd. org/ glossary/ detail. asp?ID=2896 >. 6 [3] The Definition of Waste (http:/ / www. aggregain. org. uk/ waste_management_regulations/ background/ definition_of. html) [4] Waste explained (http:/ / www. ciwm. co. uk/ pma/ 1384), CIWM [5] JRC Institute for Prospective Technological Studies, February 2009 [6] Pongrcz E & Pohjola VJ. Re-defining waste, the concept of ownership and the roles of waste management. Resources Conservation & Recycling. 40.2 (2004): 141-153. [7] "Solid Waste Management." 2005. United Nations Environment Programme. Chapter III: Waste Quantities and Characteristics, 31-38. <http://www.unep.or.jp/Ietc/Publications/spc/Solid_Waste_Management/index.asp>. [8] International Waste Activities. 2003. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 12 Oct 2009. < http:/ / www. epa. gov/ osw/ hazard/ international/ index. htm >

Waste
[9] "Improving Recycling Markets." OECD Environment Program. Paris: OECD, 2006. <http://www.oecd.org/document/14/0,3343,en_2649_34395_37757966_1_1_1_1,00.html> [10] Diaz, L. et al. Solid Waste Management, Volume 2. UNEP/Earthprint, 2006. [11] Wolsink, M. "Entanglement of interests and motives: Assumptions behind the NIMBY-theory on Facility Siting." Urban Studies 31.6 (1994): 851-866. [12] Ray, A. "Waste management in developing Asia: Can trade and cooperation help?" The Journal of Environment & Development 17.1 (2008): 3-25. [13] Muck and brass: The waste business smells of money. The Economist. 2009 02 28. pp. 10-12. [14] Carlsson Reich, M. "Economic assessment of municipal waste management systems case studies using a combination of life cycle assessment (LCA) and life cycle costing (LCC)". Journal of Cleaner Production 13 (2005): 253-263. [15] Wilson, D.C.; Velis, C.; Cheeseman, C. "Role of informal sector recycling in waste management in developing countries." Habitat International 30 (2006): 797-808.

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External links
BBC - Waste (http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A4643787) Waste-US US-EPA Waste Website (http://www.epa.gov/osw) Ministry of Environment Republic of Korea - Waste (http://eng.me.go.kr/docs/sub2/policy_view. html?topmenu=C&cat=230&class=12) Cyprus Waste Dumping (http://dailytrash.fotopic.net/) United Nations Environment Program (http://www.unep.org) EU Waste Management (http://ec.europa.eu/research/environment/print.cfm?file=/comm/research/ environment/newsanddoc/article_3186_en.htm) US Environmental Protection Agency (http://www.epa.gov) World Health Organization (http://www.who.int) OECD (http://www.oecd.org) WASTE advisors on urban environment and development (http://www.waste.nl) bjn:Ratik