CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.

1 Background to the study The management of people at work is an integral part of the management process. To understand the critical importance of people in the organization is to recognize that the human element and the organization are synonymous. A well-managed organization usually sees an average worker as the root source of quality and productivity gains. Such organizations do not look to capital investment, but to employees, as the fundamental source of improvement. An organisation is effective to the degree to which it achieves its goals. An effective organization will make sure that there is a spirit of cooperation and sense of commitment and performance within the sphere of its influence. In order to make employees satisfied and committed to their jobs in academic and research libraries, there is need for strong and effective motivation at the various levels, departments, and sections of the library. The central objective of university libraries is to provide information to support to the teaching, learning and research activities of the parent institution. To achieve this objective, the library needs to adopt healthy management practices. A major challenge for work and organizational psychology and management is to understand and predict how people behave in organizational settings. To this end, many researchers have examined the impact of individual and situational factors on organizations and people in work settings (e.g., DAmato & Zijlstra, 2008; Miron, Erez, & Naveh, 2004). One individual characteristic studied intensively in this context are cognitive styles, which are in line with the results of a recent Delphi study among international experts in the style field defined as individual differences in processing that are integrally linked to a persons cognitive style. They are a persons preferred way of processing; they are partly fixed, relatively stable and possibly innate preferences (Peterson, Rayner, & Armstrong, 2009). Although cognitive styles are considered to be crucial determinants of organizational behavior that manifest themselves in individual workplace actions and organizational systems and processes (Sadler-Smith & Badger, 1998), level of interest in the field has waxed and waned over the years because of (1) the unclear conceptualization of the concept in relation to personality, cognition, and other concepts from the field of individual differences psychology, (2) the large number of style dimensions, and (3) the variable quality of some early empirical style research (Rayner & Peterson, 2009; Zhang & Sternberg, 2009).
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Research into styles began in the early part of the previous century (e.g., Allport, 1937; Jung, 1923; Lewin, 1935), but research activity in the field peaked in the period between the 1940s and 1970s (Riding & Cheema, 2001). Growing interests in cognitive style during that period led to the development of a wide diversity of theories and instruments, causing a loss of appeal among cognitive scientists in the 1970s. Paradoxically, around the time that interest in the style field declined among cognitive librarians, the number of applied style publications grew rapidly, demonstrating interest among practitioners to understand the influence of individual differences in cognition (Kozhevnikov, 2007). Consequently, over the past 40 years interest in styles has been strongest among applied researchers, not only in the fields of libraries and management, but also in other fields such as medicine, education (e.g., Curry, 2000). Specific interests in style in the field of libraries and organizational behavior continued to grow during the 1980s (Hayes & Allinson, 1994), as cognitive styles were increasingly seen as a critical intervening variable in work performance. Streufert and Nogami (1989) argued that cognitive style may be one of the variables that determine whether people are able to respond appropriately across a variety of situations. These authors suggested that cognitive styles can play an important role in clarifying why some people continually perform well even when transferred between jobs or tasks, while others (with equal intelligence, experience, and training) perform well in one situation but fail when placed in another setting. Hayes and Allinson (1994) argued that cognitive styles may be used in organizations to inform and improve the quality of decision making in relation to personnel selection and placement, task and learning performance, internal communication, career guidance and counseling, fit with the organization climate, task design, team composition, conflict management, team building, management style, and training and development. Styles continue to provide a much needed interface between research on cognition and personality (Riding & Rayner, 1998; Sternberg & Grigorenko, 1997) and show a great deal of promise for the future in helping us understand some of the variation in job performance that cannot be accounted for by individual differences in abilities. Building further on this latter argument, Sadler-Smith (1998) refers to a ceiling effect for ability above which cognitive style might become a crucial determinant of performance, arguing that in certain situations more specifically where ambiguity and uncertainty prevail differences in ability may not yield increased effectiveness. In these situations, differences in inherent and consistent ways of organizing and processing
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information (i.e., style) may have a larger impact on behavior than ability, as they refer to a persons typical rather than maximum (i.e., ability) performance. Scholars agree that cognitive styles can be an important factor to take into account in organizational settings and processes, for instance in the areas of selection, vocational and occupational preferences, team composition and performance, training and development, and organizational learning (e.g Armstrong & Cools, 2009; Sadler-Smith, 1998). To get a better view on the assumed relevance of a cognitive style perspective for business and management settings, this provide a focused two-part overview of research on the applications of style in the workplace, the first part looking at the organizational level and the second one at individual behavior. First, cognitive styles as an umbrella term, including thinking styles, intellectual styles, and personality styles. Learning styles, and related concepts such as approaches to learning and learning patterns, are excluded. Second, this reviews largely spans a 40-year period, because this period is the time over which the number of applied publications grew (Kozhevnikov, 2007). Third, the review mainly considers peer-reviewed journal articles, as they represent validated knowledge and have been argued to have the highest impact on a field of study (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Bachrach, & Podsakoff, 2005). A broad perspective is taken towards the applied cognitive style frameworks (in parallel with Armstrong & Cools, 2009; Cools, Armstrong, & Sadler-Smith, 2010), including both more established measures that are heavily used within the field of libraries, management and newly validated instruments in this area. This seeks to investigate the beneficial and detrimental effects of motivation on Library personnels job performance. In making sense of motivation, the forces must converge in order to form a closed-loop process. It must be two way either top-down or bottom-up. There are themes unique to the three motivational techniques: individual performance and productivity as vehicle for organizational performance and productivity; the role of the workplace environment and those organizations are ever-changing and dynamic by nature. The premise is that depending on the levels of motivation of the people it will cause outcomes and will yield to either productive or counterproductive practices especially in the workplace. Podsakoff (2008) defines motivation as the combined effect from three choice behaviorschoice to expend effort, choice of level of effort to expend, and choice to persist in the expenditure of that level of effort. It reflects the direction. As such, work experience, physical work conditions, lack of control over work content and processes, unrealistic demands and lack
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of understanding by the management are the underlying conditions. These resulted in alteration of working conditions and processes and strong control from the management, all of which contributes to the performance of the employees. There is the necessity then to explore motivation and how it impacts on job performance. Job performance is one of the most misunderstood concepts in management. Motivation, according to (1990), is a precursor of effective job performance. The issue is decided to be investigated upon because of the many issues surrounding the correlation between motivation and job performance is an inconclusive ideology and that there are no established direct causality. Within the workplace, motivation will serve as the driving force in building and establishing relationships, persistence in accomplishment. There is a drive then to ascertain the various effects of motivation on the ability of an individual to perform well on the job. Job performance is not predicated by cognitive ability alone but creativity, leadership ability, integrity and cooperation as well. As such, job performance could be further by the Big Five: extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional stability and openness to experience. All of which require enthusiasm and the drive to pursue. Job-performance is one of the top issues for management and organization researchers (Locke & Latham, 2000:249). This is an attitude which shows the level of being happy or unhappy with the workplace, work and organization. That is, satisfied workers have positive perceptions and attitudes towards their organizations (Rocca & Konstanski, 2001; Dessler, 2005). Research shows that happy employees are productive while unhappy ones are not. Therefore, success of the organization depends on the performance of their workforce (Lise & Judge, 2004). Organizations want their employees to be satisfied to become productive, efficient and committed (Shah & Jalees, 2004). Job performance can also be viewed as the degree of an employees affective orientation toward the work role occupied in the organization (Tsigilis, Zachopoulou, & Grammatikopoulos, 2006). Therefore, job performance is a very important attribute that is frequently measured by all types of organizations (Wikipedia, 2009). Although cognitive styles are considered to be crucial determinants of organizational behavior that manifest themselves in individual workplace actions and organizational systems and processes (Sadler-Smith & Badger, 1998), level of interest in the field has waxed and waned over the years because of (1) the unclear conceptualization of the concept in relation to personality, cognition, and other concepts from the field of individual differences psychology,
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(2) the large number of style dimensions, and (3) the variable quality of some early empirical style research (Rayner & Peterson, 2009; Zhang & Sternberg, 2009). Research into styles began in the early part of the previous century (e.g., Allport, 1937; Jung, 1923; Lewin, 1935), but research activity in the field peaked in the period between the 1940s and 1970s (Riding & Cheema, 2001). Growing interests in cognitive style during that period led to the development of a wide diversity of theories and instruments, causing a loss of appeal among cognitive scientists in the 1970s. Paradoxically, around the time that interest in the style field declined among cognitive scientists, the number of applied style publications grew rapidly, demonstrating interest among practitioners to understand the influence of individual differences in cognition (Kozhevnikov, 2007). Consequently, over the past 40 years interest in styles has been strongest among applied researchers, not only in the fields of education and management, but also in other fields such as medicine (e.g., Curry, 2000). Researchers have unearthed a set of factors or variables, which stand responsible for the overall performance of employees in any organization, for example, pay, work, supervision, promotion, work environment, and co-workers (see for example, Williams & Sandler 2005; Stacey, 1998; Ellickson & Logsdon, 2001; DeVane & Sandy, 2003; Lise & Judge, 2004). Other investigators have used different terminologies to express factors for job-performance, such as, personal and organizational factors (Saiyadain, 1998), personal and job characteristics (Sokoya, 2000), mentally challenging work, equitable rewards, supportive working conditions, supportive colleagues, good personality and supportive workers (Naval & Srivastava, 2002), and demographic relationships between performance and faculty members (Shah & Jalees, 2004; Tsigilis et al., 2006). Thus, a leading stream of research in Job-performance is about the demographic impacts on the employees attitude because these personal and contextual variables have been found significant in affecting the performance level of any workforce (Sokoya, 2000). There are several demographic variations among the workforce which influence the degrees of performance from pay, work, subversion etc. For example, gender, age, education, designation, numbers of years in organization and marital status of the employees have widely been found critical in determining the performance (Stacey, 1998; Rocca & Konstanski, 2001; Shah & Jalees, 2004; Chughtai & Zafar, 2006; Eker, Anbar, & Dirbiyik, 2007; Asadi, Fadak, Khoshnodifar, Hashemi, & Hosseininia, 2008).
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Employers, now, demand for more skilled, trained and qualified workforce since the organizational output and productivity is highly dependent on the employees performances (Currall et al. 2005). Such employees, in return, also look for the attractive packages. And to retain performers has remained a dilemma for the human resource management practitioners (Sumita, 2004). Moreover variation exists in terms of pay packages, working conditions, incentives, recognition and fringe benefits for the employees (Lavy, 2007). These differences vary and depend upon the industry one is serving, the company policies, location, ones qualifications and outputs. Private Universities libraries, firms, multinationals and local companies face various challenges while operating in such unstructured setup in Nigeria. It ultimately impacts the employees performance with the current job and increases frustration among the employees. Thus the focus is towards maintaining overall job performance among the employees to achieve the higher levels of organizational commitment so that employees productivity is increased. Human resource literature identifies various variables which may affect employees performances. Brudney and Coundry (1993) in their study pay for performance describe various variables that could affect performance. These are job and agency characteristics, attitudes towards merit pay, organizational trust and commitment, importance of monetary rewards, linkage between pay and performance and fairness of pay system. Nanda and Brown (2007) have tried to identify the factors important in analyzing the performance of employee at the time of hiring and they found that employees productivity depends on many factors including level of job performance and motivation. Balfour and Wechsler (2006) pointed out that overall organizational commitment is an appropriate and significant aspect to focus for organizational productivity and performance. Another approach for managing employees performances is designing incentive programs more tactically in a way where organizational commitment is also addressed. Such incentives could be short term focused on driving employee behavior toward achievement of a specific productivity (Feldman & Landsman, 2007). Thus various efforts focusing on the correlates of pay performance have centered on various individual and organizational variables (Schwab & Wallace, n.d.). Organizational commitment has been one of the widely researched areas in the field of management in relation to different job related variables but in Nigeria very few studies have
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explored this concept. Various researches identify multiple factors affecting organizational commitment among employees but the present study focuses its relationship with work motivation and overall job performance of the private sector employees. The present study intends to facilitate management practitioners and employers of Nigerian in determining the level of organizational commitment among their employees in comparison with the work motivation and the overall job performance. According to Meyer (1999), most employees experience a lack of job performance resulting in a low level of employee commitment that, in turn, impacts on performance and the achievement of organisational goals. The symptoms of these problems result in low productivity, high absenteeism, labour unrest, industrial action and high labour turnover. The current situation in the public sector in the nation is not dissimilar. Public sector employees are faced with a multitude of factors that impact on effective and efficient service delivery. Herman attributes the exodus of employees in the academic sector to factors such as better salary prospects being offered overseas resulting in employee shortages and placing additional demands on remaining employees. Not only are poor salaries blamed for the dilemma within the public sector, but other factors such as the work environment and poor management are shown to contribute towards and exacerbate job performance (Cullinan, 2005).Ting (1997) states that empirical evidence consistently indicates that job characteristics such as pay performance, opportunities for promotion, task clarity and relationships with co-workers and supervisors have significant effects on job performance of government employees. In consonance with the foregoing, a study conducted by Ellickson and Logsdon (2002) reflected that job performance of public sector employees was significantly influenced by perceptions of employee performance in terms of pay, promotional opportunities, relationships with supervisors, employees performance management systems and fringe benefits. Similarly, Barrows and Watson (2008) posit that low pay, limited flexibility and limited opportunities for promotion are characteristics of the public sector which prevent the most qualified workers remaining in government agencies and climbing the corporate ladder. The researchers emphasize that the resultant effect can lead to a loss in productivity and a lack of continuity in the libraries sector. Another study conducted by Pohlmann (1999) found that public sector employees indicated disperformance with supervision, communication and pay. However, a survey conducted by Schneider and Vaught (1993) indicated that lower skilled public sector employees
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place more emphasis on factors such as achievement, growth, the work itself and recognition while public sector professionals indicated extrinsic factors such as management policies and rules, job security, pay, supervision and working conditions to be important. 1.2 Statement of the problem The need for more universities in Nigeria to meet the educational needs of prospective students from Secondary School education has necessitated the coming on board of Private Universities in Nigeria. The library is one of the major departments in the university system. The personnel of these libraries have critical role to play in information management in order to meet challenges associated with library duties. However, the job performance of these library personnel has been noted to be below standard when compared with public universities in the country. The relevant management variables of training, motivation, and behavioral attitude are critical factors that are the missing link in the discharge of the duties of librarians and library officers of these private universities in South West of Nigeria. The employees in the employment of these universities are not well remunerated and get promotion on time as compare to their counterpart in the public university libraries.

1.3 Objectives of the study The objectives of this study are to: 1.find out if there is any significant correlations among biographical factors, staff training, cognitive styles, work motivation and universities in South West, Nigeria; 2. find out if professional training, biographical factors, staff training, cognitive styles, work motivation are precursors of job performance of library personnel in private universities in South West, Nigeria. job performance of library personnel in private

1.4 Research Questions: The following research questions are raised to guide the conduct of this study: 1. What is the level of relationships among biographical factors and job performance of the library personnel in Private Universities in South West Nigeria? 2. What is the degree of relationship between work motivation and job performance of the library personnel in Private Universities in South West Nigeria? 3. What is the degree of relationship between cognitive styles and job performance of the library personnel in Private Universities in South West Nigeria? 4. Do biographical factors, work motivation and cognitive styles are precursors of job performance of the library personnel in Private Universities in South West Nigeria? 1.5 Scope of the Study The study focuses on biographical factors, staff training, cognitive styles and work motivation as precursors of job performance of the library personnel in private universities in South Western part of Nigeria. The States that make up the South Western Nigeria includes Lagos, Ogun, Ekiti, Osun, Oyo and Ondo state. Therefore the private universities in these states are Ajayi Crowther University, Bells University, Covenant University, Lead City University, Joseph Ayo Babalola University, Caleb University, Crawford University, Crescent University, Fountain University, Bowen University, , Redeemers University, African University, Afe Babalola University. The study has therefore investigated variables of biographical factors, staff training, cognitive styles and work motivation as precursors of job performance of librarians and library officers in these universities. Each of the variables as it affects job performance of library personnel has been measured in relation to the working environment and conditions of services of the library personnel in all the university libraries. 1.6 Significance of the study 1. The study will enable the University Administrators and Library Managers to improve the job performance of their employees by considering their cognitive styles and biographical factors. Babcock University, Pan

2. 3. 4.

It will also assist the Library Managers to put in place work motivational strategies that will improve job performance of the workers. It will also add to the body of knowledge in Library and Information Science particularly Library Management. It will highlight the training needs and relevance of staff training in enhancing the job performance of the Library Personnel to Library Managers.

1.7 Limitations of the Study The sample consists of librarians/ library officers in private universities in South West Nigeria. Generalisability of the results of the study is problematic as the study is conducted in only private universities in South West Nigeria. Another contributing factor impacting on generalisability is the fact that only the occupational classes of library personnel are targeted in the study. Therefore the results of the study cannot be inferred to other similar professional classes in other institutional libraries and hence, the external validity of the study may be compromised. For the respondents, the selected variables contributing to biographical factors, staff training, cognitive styles, work motivation might not be the only contributing factors that are important. Other variables such as role ambiguity, job level, contingent rewards and other work-related factors have not been investigated. Hence, the internal validity of the study will adversely be affected. Thus, any conclusions emanating from the research are somewhat tenuous. 1.8 Operational definition of terms Library personnel: Comprise of librarians and library officers. Librarians are holders of at least first degree in library and information science, while the library officers are holders of diploma in library studies. Cognitive style: Is an individual perception or reasoning about the job or as an umbrella term, including thinking styles, intellectual styles, and personality styles. Learning styles, and related concepts such as approaches to learning and learning patterns, are excluded. Work Motivation: It is a drive behind action on the job. Private University: This is University that is privately established and administered by the proprietors.

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Job performance: is a positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of ones job or job experience. Job performance is a result of employee's perception of how well their job provides those things that are viewed as important. Biographical Factor: This refers to occupational class, race, gender, tenure, educational level, marital status, job status and income. Staff training: is a short course, seminar, workshop that enable the library personnel to acquire knowledge and skills that will enhance job performance.

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CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.0 Introduction A literature review is a body of text that aims to review the critical points of current knowledge on a particular topic. Most often associated with science-oriented literature, such as a thesis, the literature review usually precedes a research proposal, methodology and results section. Its ultimate goal is to bring the reader up to date with current literature on a topic and forms the basis for another goal, such as the justification for future research in the area. A Literature Review has been done to know about the various aspects of job design in order to identify those motivation factors that affect job performance. According to Rush, 1971 the main purpose of job design (or re-design) is to increase both employee motivation and productivity. Job design can have a significant effect on motivation. ). Increased productivity can manifest itself in various forms. For example, the focus can be that of improving quality and quantity of goods and services, reduce operation costs, and/or reduce turnover and training costs. On the other hand, increasing employees' motivation can be achieved through increased job performance. To this end, the Two-Hygiene Theory by Herzberg (1971, as cited in Rush) describes two sets of factors, satisfying and dissatisfying, that affect an employee's self-esteem and opportunity for self-actualization in the workplace. There is an established body of knowledge supporting the idea that certain jobs and goal setting can enhance performance. This research focuses on motivating performance through job design. It is experienced that well designed jobs can have a positive impact on both employee performance and the quality of performance. In the present paper, it is proposed that a well-defined job would enhance motivation, performance and performance of the employees. Thus, for both academicians and practitioners, job design takes on special importance in today's human resource management. It is essential to design jobs so that stress can be reduced, motivation can be enhanced, and performance of employees and their performance can be improved so that organizations can effectively compete in the global marketplace. Initially, the field of organizational behavior paid attention only to job enrichment (JE) approaches to job design. Now, job design has taken a broader perspective, with various dimensions such as job enrichment (JE), job engineering (JEng), quality of work life (QWL), sociotechnical designs, the social information processing approach (SIPA) and the job
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characteristics approach to job performance. The proposed model recognizes certain job characteristics that contribute to certain psychological states, and that the strength of the employee's need for growth has an important moderating effect. 2.1 Job performance Locke and Lathan (2006) give a comprehensive definition of job performance as pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of ones job or job experience. Job performance is a result of employee's perception of how well their job provides those things that are viewed as important. According to (Mitchell and Lasan, 2007), it is generally recognized in the organizational behaviour field that job performance is the most important and frequently studied attitude. While Luthan (1998) posited that there are three important dimensions to job performance: Job performance is an emotional response to a job situation. As such it cannot be seen, it can only be inferred. Job performance is often determined by how well outcome meet or exceed expectations. For instance, if organization participants feel that they are working much harder than others in the department but are receiving fewer rewards they will probably have a negative attitudes towards the work, the boss and or coworkers. On the other hand, if they feel they are being treated very well and are being paid equitably, they are likely to have positive attitudes towards the job. Job performance represents several related attitudes which are most important characteristics of a job about which people have effective response. These to Luthans are: the work itself, pay, promotion opportunities, supervision and coworkers. Job performance of the librarian naturally depends on the economically, social and cultural conditions in a given country (Ebru, 2005). A librarian who cannot get a sufficient wage will be faced with the problem of maintaining his or her family's life. This problem puts the librarian far from being satisfied. Especially the social facilities (transportation services, and consumer cooperatives cash boxes) are sufficient because of the economic conditions. Low wages and lack of status and social security affect motivation. Job performance cannot be talk of where there is absence of motivation.

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Job performance of the librarian who has an important place in the information society will affect the quality of the service he renders. In this respect, the question of how the material and moral element affect the job performance of the librarians gains importance (Ebru, 2005). Job performance is so important in that its absence often leads to lethargy and reduced organizational commitment (Levinson, 1997, Moser, 2007). Lack of job performance is a predictor of quitting a job (Alexander, Litchtenstein and Hellmann, 2007; Jamal, 2007). Sometimes workers may quit from public to the private sector and vice versa. On the other hand, the movement is from one profession to another that is considered a greener pasture. This later is common in countries grappling with dwindling economy and its concomitant such as poor conditions of service and late payment of salaries (Nwagwu, 1997). In such countries, people tend to migrate to better and consistently paying jobs (Fafunwa, 1971). Explaining its nature some researcher (e.g. Armentor, Forsyth, 2005, Flanegan, Johnson and Berret, 2006; Kadushin, and Kulys, 2005) tend to agree that job performance is essentially controlled by factors described in Adeyemo's (2000) perspectives as external to the worker. From this viewpoint performance on a job might be motivated by the nature of the job, its pervasive social climate and extent to which workers peculiar needs are met. Working conditions that are similar to local and international standard (Osagbemi, 2000), and extent to which they resemble work conditions of other professions in the locality. Other inclusions are the availability of power and status, pay performance, promotion opportunities, and task clarity (Bolarin, 1993; Gemenxhenandez, Max, Kosier, Paradiso and Robinson, 1997). Other researchers (e.g. MacDonald, 2006; O'Toole, 1980) argue in favour of the control of job performance by factors intrinsic to the workers. Their arguments are based on the idea that workers deliberately decide to find performance in their jobs and perceive them as worthwhile. Studies of job performance and librarianship seem to consistently show there is a relationship between professional status and the job performance. High levels of job performance are observed in those professions that are of good standing in society. Age is one of the factors affecting job performance. Different studies conducted show that older workers are more satisfied (Davis, 1988:100). Kose (2005) found a meaningful relationship between the age and job performance; Hamshari (2003), age and professional experience (Delia 1999; Hamshari 1986), educational level (Well-Maker, 2005; Hamshari, 1986); level of wages (Vaugan and Dunn in Adeyemo, 1997); sex (D'elia 1999; Lynch and Verdin, 2003).
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St. Lifer (1994) reports the results of a survey of librarians' perceptions of their jobs. These include compensation and benefits, advancement opportunities, and technological challenges. The result showed that salaries and benefits are related to job performance. Horenstein (2003) reported on a study that examined the job performance of academic librarians as it related to faculty status. The finding indicated that librarians with academic rank were more satisfied than non-faculty groups. Predictors of performance include the evaluation of their relevance to the work environment of libraries. Paramer and East (1993) discuss previous job performance research among Ohio academic library support staff using Paul E. Specter's job performance survey. The 434 respondents indicated general performance among females with less experience who worked in public services. Tregone (1993) tried to determine the levels of cooperation of media specialists and public librarians. A significant correlation was shown between the level of performance and the type of library, although librarians in public libraries showed greater performance. Similarly, the result of some other studies have shown meaningful relations between job performance and wages, management policy, working conditions, possibilities of promotion, gaining respect, the size of the organization and self development and achievement of the use of talents (Ergenc, 1982a; Sencer, 1982; Kose, 2005; Yincir, 1990). Philips (1994) studied the career attitudes of 109 master level librarians and the relationship between age, career performance and career identity. His results indicate that over time librarians become more happy with their profession and more committed to their line of work. 2.2 The nature of job performance A review of the literature of organizational behavior reveals numerous definitions of job performance. Edwin Locke (2006) provides one of the best. He defines it as an emotional reaction that results from the perception that ones job fulfills or allows the fulfillment of ones important job values, providing and to the degree that those values are congruent with ones needs Locke points out that job performance is not the same as morale. Job performance involves a retrospective assessment of ones job; morale is concerned more with a positive desire to continue to work at ones job and is most often used to describe the attitude of a working group rather than that of a single individual. Needs and Values
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It is also important for job performance to distinguish between needs and values. Needs can be defined as those basic psychological and physiological requirements which humans fulfill by seeking such necessities as food and sleep. In Craig Panders (2004) words, needs are basic forces that initiate and guide behavior for the sake of the preservation and health of the individual. Values, on the other hand, are those things that a person believes are conducive to his welfare. In the work setting, need goals are translated into such tangible basic requirements as pay, promotion, and recognition. Values in the work setting include subjective elements such as the individuals perceptions of job content, job significance, and equitable treatment in the distribution of rewards. The point is that the key determinant of job performance, assuming ones needs are fulfilled, is the extent to which values, as defined by the individual, are being met. Limitations of Research on Job performance Certain problems concerning the relationship of job performance to performance, however, should be acknowledged. The first of these relates to shortcomings in the research on job performance conducted to date. Among the array of job related attitudinal constructs, job performance has attracted the most attention by far of organizational behaviorists. Because literally thousands of research projects have dealt with the topic over the past twenty-five years, a comprehensive review and assessment of the literature is beyond the scope of this article. As one authority has declared, however, the large number of studies has not resulted in full agreement on what job performance is, how it is actually influenced in work organizations, and what its consequences are for understanding and managing these organizations. The differences of approach in the studies, along with problems of reliability and validity of measurement, have made comparison of data and results difficult (Pinder, 1999). 2.3 Vocational choices and career preferences In addition to empirical studies on work environment preferences, scholars have examined the link between cognitive styles and occupation type or career orientation (e.g., Jrlstrm, 2000; Nordvik, 2006; Sullivan & Hansen, 2004). These studies have sought insights into how individual differences influenced career decision making and vocational development, assuming that people with different cognitive styles differ in their vocational choices and selfselect for particular jobs as they choose particular occupations on the basis of their preferences for certain task and job characteristics. These similarities in preferred ways of dealing with
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information (i.e., cognitive style) within occupational groups have also been called cognitive climates in organizations (Kirton & de Ciantis, 1994; Kirton & McCarthy, 2008), supposing that the majority of people with a particular cognitive style constitute the groups cognitive climate. Hayes and Allinson (2008) also suggested that, due to self-selection, people within many groups in organizations will share a similar cognitive style that is related to the information-processing requirements of their work. Accountants, for instance, appear to be skewed towards adaption on the KAI (Gul, 2006) and were more MBTI sensing, thinking, and judging (ISTJs and ESTJs) (Parkinson & Taggar, 2007). Gridley (2007), comparing artists and engineers on the Thinking Style Inventory (TSI; Sternberg, 1997), found that artists preferred inventing and developing new ideas (legislative style) rather than implementing pre-existing ideas (executive style), and also preferred change (liberal style) more than the status quo (conservative style). In contrast, engineers preferred to organize their thinking more hierarchically, and did not resist implementing the plans of others and accepting inputs from sources outside themselves. Allinson and Hayes (2006) found that personnel managers were more intuitive (measured with the CSI) than production, marketing, and financial managers. Other studies have looked specifically at nurses, scientists, bankers, teachers, managers, IT professionals, and at diverse types of students (e.g., Bennett, Pietri, & Moak, 1998; Collins, White, & OBrien, 1992; Doucette, Kelleher, Murphy, & Young, 1998; Murphy, Casey, Day, & Young, 1997) as a way to identify the cognitive profile of a broad variety of occupations (also see below for a more specific focus on entrepreneurs). Using the Group Embedded Figures Test (GEFT; Witkin, Oltman, Raskin, & Karp 2001), Witkin, Moore, Goodenough, and Cox (2007) observed that field independents (i.e., analytical thinkers) appeared to be drawn to professions such as chemistry, engineering, architecture, and surgical nursing; field dependents (i.e., intuitive thinkers) tended to be drawn to occupations such as social work, teaching, sales, personnel management, probation support, and psychiatric nursing. Similarly, relationships have been found between Hollands (2005) vocational types and cognitive styles: field independent types (using the GEFT) preferred vocational activity that required competence in analytical articulated cognitive structure; field dependent types tended to be drawn to occupations with high levels of social content and an emphasis on interpersonal relations (Alvi, Khan, Hussain, & Baig, 2008).

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Mean KAI scores of people also reflected the type and nature of tasks they were doing in their job (for an overview of relevant studies, see: Foxall & Hackett, 1994; Kirton, 2003; Tullett, 1997). People who worked within a structured environment and who were expected to work within prescribed rules (e.g., managers within local authority, established bankers), showed a bias towards adaption. People whose job gave them more freedom of action and who functioned within less structure, showed a bias towards innovation, such as strategic planners, bank vicepresidents, and people with responsibility for introducing new products within research and development departments. These studies also found that groups whose focus of operation is oriented outside the organization (e.g., sales and marketing) or across boundaries within organizations (e.g., personnel, strategic planning, project management) had a more innovative cognitive style than those with a focus of operation which is more within function (e.g., production, maintenance, administration). Cools, Van den Broeck, and Bouckenooghe (2009) identified a knowing-oriented cognitive climate (using the Cognitive Style Indicator (CoSI); Cools & Van den Broeck, 2007) in finance, information technology, and research and development functions; a planning-oriented cognitive climate in administrative and technical and production functions; and a creating-oriented cognitive climate in sales and marketing functions and in general management. In a study with final years 9 students on their future career orientation, Cools, Vanderheyden, and Horlait (2009) also observed clear links between students cognitive profile (assessed by the CoSI) and their preferred career anchors (i.e., the career values people strive for in their job; Schein, 1990). They found that the knowing style predicted a preference for the career anchor pure challenge, confirming the preference for people with a knowing style for intellectually challenging tasks and jobs (Cools & Van den Broeck, 2008). For the planning style, they found evidence for a drive towards security and stability, control over the whole work process, and a balance between work and private life. People with a creating style searched for challenges, autonomy, and selfrealization, which is consistent with their preference for tasks and jobs that require creativity, action, flexibility, and own input (Cools & Van den Broeck, 2008). 2.4 Job performance in practice There is need in this research to identify the key issues of job performance research and practice, particularly in relation to higher-level jobs. To provide the context for the account that
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follows, we first take a backward glance at job design. We then briefly describe the approaches to job design with emphasis on the job characteristics approach to job design in detail, followed by a literature review of the job characteristics approach. More attention is being paid to job design for three major reasons: Job design can influence performance in certain jobs, especially those where employee motivation can make a substantial difference. Lower cost through reduced turnover and absenteeism are also related to good job design.

Job design can affect job performance. Because people are more satisfied with certain job configurations than with others, it is important to be able to identify what makes a good job.

Job design can affect both physical and mental health. Example problems such as backache or leg pain can sometimes be traced directly to job design, as can stress and related high blood pressure and heart disease. Herzberg (2006) made a critical distinction between these factors in that a person does

not move in a continuum from being dissatisfied to becoming satisfied or vice versa. Rush (2001) tries to explain Herzberg's point by stating that, "the opposite of performance is not disperformance, but no performance; and that the opposite of disperformance is not performance but no disperformance". In a practical sense, this means that dissatisfying factors help support and maintain the structure of the job, while the satisfying factors help the employee reach selfactualization and can increase motivation to continue to do the job. According to the Two Factor Theory of Frederick Herzberg (2009) people are influenced by two factors. Performance and psychological growth are a result factor of motivation factors. Managers have the opportunity to influence the motivation of employees through design of their jobs. Well-designed jobs help accomplish two important goals: getting the necessary work done in a timely and competent manner, and motivating and challenging employees. Both the business and the employee benefit from successful job design. Poorly designed jobs leave to chance whether the expected tasks will get done in a timely and competent manner. Poorly designed jobs, moreover, are likely to be discouraging, boring and frustrating to employees. Even if employees would otherwise be enthused, competent and productive, poorly designed jobs almost certainly lead to employee disappointment.
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Job design serves to improve performance and motivation. Job-design analysis starts by looking at a job with a broad perspective and swiftly moves toward identifying the specific activities required to do the job. This is done for the purpose of identifying and correcting any deficiencies that affect performance and motivation. Hence this literature review satisfy all the variables i.e. relationships (between Biographical factors and employee performance/job design and motivation). Job design and its approaches are usually considered to have begun with scientific management in the year 1900. Pioneering scientific managers such as Taylor (1947), Gilbreth (1911), and Gilbreth and Gilbreth (1917) systematically examined jobs with various techniques. They suggested that task design might be the most prominent element in scientific management. With respect to the design of individual jobs, the first major theory was that of Herzberg and his colleagues (Herzberg et al. 1959). Their two-factor theory distinguished between two types of factors, namely motivators, which are intrinsic to the work itself (e.g. achievement, recognition, and responsibility), and hygiene factors, which are extrinsic to the work (e.g. work conditions, pay, and supervision). The proposition was that the hygiene factors are absolutely necessary to maintain the human resources of an organization. According to Hertzberg's theory, only a challenging job has the opportunity for achievement, recognition, advancement and growth that will motivate personnel. Hackman and Oldham's (2006) job characteristics model (JCM) superseded the two- factor theory. This identifies five core job characteristics, namely: 1. Skill variety 2. Task identity 3. Task significance 4. Autonomy 5. Feedback The core job characteristics are followed by three critical psychological states, namely: 1. Experienced meaningfulness 2. Experienced responsibility 3. Knowledge of results In turn, the critical psychological states are accountable for increased work performance, internal work motivation, performance and reduced absence and employee turnover. The model assumes that autonomy and feedback are more important than the work characteristics, and that
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individuals with higher growth need strength (i.e. desire for challenges and personal development) will respond more positively to enriched jobs than others. To this end, an extension to job design has been proposed that would help organizations and employees to survive in the turbulent marketplace. There was substantial interest from researchers and practitioners in job design during the 1900s. Hackman et al. (2005) conducted a study and claimed that people on enriched jobs are definitely more motivated and satisfied by their jobs. Another study conducted by Griffin (1989) on 1,000 tellers from 38 banks of a large holding company found from the job design intervention that employees perceive meaningful changes and tend to recognize those changes over time. In addition to this, a meta-analysis of the job characteristics model (Fried and Ferris, 2007) found general support for the model and for its effects on motivation and performance and performance outcome. Adler, (2001) found that systems in which employees reported higher perceptions of skill variety, task significance, autonomy, and feedback reported higher levels of performance and internal work motivation. Champoux (2001) theorized the relationships that growth need strength moderates between the core job characteristics and the critical psychological states and affective responses. Moreover, Dodd and Ganster (2006) examined the interactive relationship between feedback autonomy and variety by manipulating the characteristics in lab. In their study, Arce (2002) found that the reward from outside activities is affected by the performance on inside activity. The study provides a rationale for the existence of synergies between different activities. Loher et al. 2005) found the relation between job characteristics and job performance and also found that the relation was stronger for employees high in growth need strength (GNS). Renn and Vandenberg (2005) studied the strongest support for the job characteristic model that allowed the core job dimensions to have direct and indirect effects on personal and work outcomes. Another study conducted by Morrison et al. (2005) found that job designs that provide for high levels of employee control also provide increased opportunities for the development and exercise of skill. Also, mediational influence of perceived skill utilization on job control job performance has been observed. Love and Edwards (2005) concluded that perceived work demands, job control and social support through job design leads to high productivity. Sokoya (2000) found in his study that the level of job performance is determined by a combination of jobs, work and
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personal characteristics. Rotating managers to different jobs adds the benefit of task variety, resulting in increased performance of employees. Bassey (2002) observed in his study that skills, task identity, task significance, autonomy, feedback, job security and compensation are important factors for the motivation of employees. Thus, the research done in this field has created virtuous circles for more research and practice. Different variables of job design, employee motivation and job performance are discussed below: Job content: the activities required of the job or the task to be done on the job Job Requirements: the personal characteristics (education, experience, licenses, etc) necessary to do the task Job Context: the environment within which the job is performed .Working job rotation: Job design technique in which employees are moved between two or more jobs in a planned manner. The objective is to expose the employees to different experiences and wider variety of skills to enhance job performance and to cross-train them. Job enlargement: Job Enlargement is the horizontal expansion of a job. It involves the addition of tasks at the same level of skill and responsibility. It is done to keep workers from getting bored. It is different than job enrichment (see sidebar). Job enrichment: Job Enrichment is the addition to a job of tasks that increase the amount of employee control or responsibility. It is a vertical expansion of the job as opposed to the horizontal expansion of a job, which is called job enlargement. Rating scales: A rating scale is a set of categories designed to elicit information about a quantitative or a qualitative attribute. In the social sciences, common examples are the Likert scale and 1-10 rating scales in which a person selects the number which is considered to reflect the perceived quality of a product. Management by objectives (MBO): MBO aims to increase organizational performance by aligning goals and subordinate objectives throughout the organization. Ideally, employees get strong input to identifying their objectives, time lines for completion, etc. MBO includes ongoing tracking and feedback in the process to reach objectives. Peer or team evaluations: Things to consider in making this evaluation include:

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Competence: Was the team member capable of completing his/her part of the project? In other words, did he/she learn anything in the course? uality of Work: Did the team member strive to and do a good job in his/her assigned tasks? Participation: What was the level and extent of participation by the team member in all phases of the project? Promptness: Did the team member meet the task completion deadlines set by your group? Attendance: How often did the team member miss a group meeting Job Design Approaches The approaches to job design have been postulated in such a manner that they indirectly affect an employee's level of motivation. The approaches to job design have worked in different perspectives for various organizational developments. These approaches are: job engineering (J.Eng.); job enrichment (JE); quality of work life (QWL); social information processing approach (SIPA) and job characteristics. Each approach has its own costs and benefits, and no single approach is best; trade-offs will be required in most practical situations. Too often, jobs are developed haphazardly; they become arbitrary groupings of activities that our machines cannot do. Little consider ation is given to the mental and physical capabilities, limitations, and needs of the workers who must perform them. Because of the academic discipline bases of the various job-design approaches, each approach tends to be owned by a different staff specialty or profession within an organization.

2.5 Job Enrichment (JE) The technique entails enriching the job, which refers to the inclusion of greater variety of work content, requiring a higher level of knowledge and skill, giving workers autonomy and responsibility in terms of planning, directing, and controlling their own performance, and providing the opportunity for personal growth and meaningful work experience. Job engineering (JEng) The scientific management approach evolved into what is now generally called job engineering. It is closely associated with cybernation and sophisticated computer applications, computer assisted design (CAD), and human-machine interactions. In fact, it has been the dominant aspect of job design analysis. Quality of work life (QWL) and socio-technical design
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The overriding purpose of quality of work life is to change the climate at work so that the human-technological-organizational interface leads to a better quality of work life. Social information processing approach (SIPA) The social information processing approach to job performance suggests that individual needs, task perceptions, and reactions are socially constructed realities. The process includes choice, revocability, explicitness, social norms and expectations, and external priming, which combine with social information (from others and the organizational environment) and influence the jobholders' perceptions, attitudes and behaviors. The job characteristics approach to job design To meet the limitations of Herzberg's approach to job enrichment (which he prefers to call orthodox job enrichment (OJE), Hackman and Oldham (1976) developed the most widely recognized model of job characteristics. Basically, this model recognized certain job characteristics that contribute to certain psychological states and that the strength of employees' need for growth has an important moderating effect. The core job characteristics are summarized below: Skill variety: This refers to the extent to which the job requires the employee to draw from a number of different skills and abilities as well as upon a range of knowledge. Task variety: This refers to whether the job has an identifiable beginning and end or how complete a module of work the employee performs. Task significance: This involves the importance of the task. It involves both internal significance (i.e. how important the task is to the organization) Diagnosing and measuring job scope There are several ways in which the Hackman-Oldham model can be used to diagnose the degree of job scope that job possesses. More systematically, Hackman and Oldham developed a questionnaire, The Job Diagnostic Survey (JDS) (Hackman and Oldham, 2005) to analyze jobs. The questions on this survey yield a quantitative score that can be used to calculate an overall measure of job enrichment, or what is increasingly called job scope. For this, the motivational potential score (MPS) is calculated. The formula for this is: Equation 1 Besides this, the JDS also measures some supplementary job dimensions (feedback from others, dealing with others), experienced psychological states (meaningfulness of work, responsibility for work, knowledge of results), affective responses to the job (general performance, internal work motivation, growth
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performance),

context

performances

(pay

performance,

security

performance,

social

performance, supervisory performance), individual growth need strength (GNS), and MPS. The MPS scores can range from 1 to 343. The average score is about 125. Towards a proposed model of job design an elaborated model of job design has been proposed considering the designing of job at individual and group level. The proposal has been made on the following grounds. Antecedents and expanded job characteristics Various factors influence and constrain the choice of job design. Such factors can be internal to the organization, such as style of management, technology, organizational design, workplace spirituality or high performance improvement. Factors can also be external, such as environmental uncertainty, available technology and labor market. Thus, considering the external and internal factors, it is important in many ways to manipulate job characteristics. This can be done, for example, by removing demarcation barriers by running management development programs (MDPs), promoting cultural changes or conducting behavior modification programs. For this, technology and job design need to come together to deliver excellent services. Thus, in a well-defined circumstance, it is reasonable to assume that individuals might mould their job characteristics to fit their individual abilities and personalities. Moreover, environmental uncertainties such as downsizing and layoffs make it vital in many ways to manipulate the available human resources by considering them as the social capital of the organization. For this, managers must initiate and develop relationships among individuals, organizations and communities. Managers must initiate and develop social capital with three aspects: 1. The structural dimension, which concerns the overall pattern of relationships found in organizations; 2. The relational dimension, which concerns the nature of the connections between individuals in an organization; and 3. The cognitive dimension, which concerns the extent to which employees within a social network share a common perspective or understanding (Nahapiet and Ghosal, 1998). The creation of social capital assists in solving problems of coordination, reduces transaction costs, and facilitates the flow of information between and among employees. It also facilitates collective procession of work-related activities, growth in teamwork, collective representations, and collective emotional experience, that is, tuning one's own emotional state to that of another person or work group, reflecting joint activities, common goals, norms, and
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values. Consistent with this notion, social capital directs high internal motivation leading to high performance and making employees more successful in achieving goals in comparison to organizations that have less capital. As we already know that technology has become the lifeblood of every organization, it is vital to make the optimum use of available technology. Technologies like e- commerce and e-business have become buzzwords in every organization and have affected life in the workplace. With the introduction of e-commerce, transactions and dealings are being undertaken on the internet, enhancing the job profile of employees. Similarly, e-business has a full breadth of activities, including the development of strategies for running internet-based companies, improving communication between employees and customers, and coordinating design and production electronically. The resulting increased level of motivation leads to high performance in employees. Thus, with such forms of technological advances, employees can meet two types of cognitive demands that often emerge in manufacturing settings: 1. Attention demands; and 2. Problem-solving demands. Attention demands occur as a result of increased vigilance requirements (Van Colt, 2005), and problem-solving demands occur because of the need for fault prevention and active diagnosis of errors (Dean and Snell, 2001). Moreover, traditional job characteristics such as job autonomy, task variety and feedback are likely to be key factors. Feedback is one of the salient features within modern settings, especially given the prevalence of electronic performance monitoring (EPM). This provides accurate, fair and timely feedback that can help employees cope with work demands. Others have suggested serious downsides, such as reduced privacy and increased workload (Carayon, 1993), but employees can perceive EPM positively if there is high trust and a supportive culture. Another element of job performance concerns the emotional demands of work. There can clearly be positive benefits of emotional displays for organizations. Positive emotional displays control the exchanges with customers or clients, and hence lead to customer retention. For this, autonomy would enable the individual to enable to control their exposure to emotional demands. A further development necessary in job design is growth in teamwork or considering group-level work characteristics in a more systematic manner. Thus, this means focusing on aspects that are the function of groups, such as the design of cohesion among members, team
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composition, and interdependency and shared knowledge structures. This will result in collective representations, which are the components of a system of knowledge, opinion and behavioral norms originating from social experience. This will also lead to collective emotional experience that is, tuning one's own emotional state to that of another person or work group, reflecting joint activities, common goals, values and norms. Our discussion now moves towards the internal factors of the organization that play a vital role in motivating the performance of employees. These factors are: Human resource management; Ergonomics; Organizational culture; Leadership style; Human performance improvement (HPI); and Workplace spirituality. As we already know that HR or personnel management is an essential part of every manager's responsibility, thus managers must consider employees as the most valued asset of an organization. To promote novel thoughts and ideas, a proper blend of HR strategy and job design is required. There should be appropriate manpower planning. Employees must be selected according to the knowledge, skills, and abilities that are apt for to the job to be performed. Apart from this, employees must be given proper training so as to enhance their levels of knowledge, which will motivate them to perform better as they will be in a better position to meet global challenges. Alterations must also be made to organizational policies to consider employee benefits so that employees benefit from contributing to achieve organizational goals. Employees must be evaluated annually on the basis of their performance, and employees who perform well must be delegated with increased responsibility and recognition, leading to an increased level of motivation. Finally, interactional levels must be increased, with the creation of informal groups so as to meet social demands and motivate employees in the collective representation of organizations. With increased innovation, downsizing and lay-offs are taking place, and to make the optimum use of labor, flexibility must be induced in the job profile of employees. Flexible schedules, compressed work schedules, job sharing, and telecommuting must be allowed within organizations so to make optimum use of time and labour, resulting in increased productivity and
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overall performance. Apart from bringing flexibility to working hours, employees must be encouraged to produce novel and thoughtful ideas so as to solve various organizational problems and make their jobs more interesting, involving, and personally challenging, and hence leading to an increase in intrinsic motivation. This motivation in turns transforms potential into creative ideas, which fosters fair and constructive judgment of ideas and sharing of information. As well as fostering creativity within organizations, variable performance-linked pay (VPLP) must be introduced within organizations, including piece-rate plans, wage incentives, sharing, bonuses and gain-sharing. With the introduction of such programs in organizations, performances are improved and the motivational level of employees is also increased. Also, such programs recognize contributions, and low performers find ways to increase their pay, and are hence motivated to perform better. Another aspect that has been discussed is ergonomics, which plays a vital role in designing jobs and influencing the motivational levels of employees. To sustain the workforce, it has become important to ensure a hazard-free and safe environment, and it has been embraced by managers that a safe working environment can result in greater efficiency and productivity. Jobs must be designed in such a manner that musculoskeletal disorders do not happen. Tools and equipment must be designed with the worker in mind and for the job being performed. Mini-breaks or coffee breaks must be given to employees so that body parts are not over-exerted. Production quotas, excessive supervision, machine-paced work and other pressures must be avoided so as to reduce musculoskeletal injuries. For this, work rotation must be encouraged so as to reduce exposure to ergonomic hazards: performing a variety of tasks can result in high performance. Apart, from this, the most significant aspect of designing jobs ergonomically is that there should be complete involvement of workers and unions regarding how work should be organized and structured. On the whole, we can say that when jobs are designed ergonomically, there is overall interaction of technology, work, and human beings. That is, the involvement of anatomy, physiology and psychology is complete, as the designing of jobs done on these basic human sciences results in the most productive use of human capabilities, and the maintenance of human health and well-being. The contribution of anatomy lies in improving the physical fit between employees and jobs: that is, excessive forces are avoided. The human physiology sets standards for an acceptable physical work rate, workload, and nutrition requirements. Finally, psychology is concerned with aiding the cognitive fit between employees and the jobs they perform, which
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results in appropriate decision-making and action. With this fit there is sustenance of an organization's workforce, lower absenteeism, increased productivity, reduced operating costs and enhanced performance. Knowledge management (KM) is another novel discipline that has emerged as one of the major dimensions in improving the performance of employees. In the present scenario of turbulent competition, with the management of human resources, it has become vital in many aspects to manage the available knowledge for meeting the organizational goals and demands. Knowledge in the perspective of job design is human-based: that is, it is brainpower, experience, skills and competence. KM involves the creation of knowledge and leveraging knowledge in the decision-making process. KM involves human and social interaction, where the available knowledge is mentally processed, interpreted, and applied at the workplace. For this, an employee has to be motivated to unleash their knowledge, abilities and skills for the achievement of organizational goals. Apart from this, for the purpose of managing knowledge and motivating employees for high performance, employees need to be psychologically empowered down the hierarchy so as to perform their job on their own. Free and informal interactions must be encouraged between managers and employees to share the available knowledge. With this sharing of knowledge, employees are highly motivated to perform better in rational decision-making. Today, the emergence of HRM-TQM has created joint consultative committees (JCCs) where management and employees form a task committee to share the available information to generate ideas and innovative business plans (Anand, 2001). Thus, the system should be created in a fashion that enables the dissemination, sharing and creation of knowledge, encouraging the participative management of employees, leading to increased levels of motivation in employees. Another aspect that has been discussed in reference to job design is HPI (Swanson, 1999). This is the systemic and systematic approach to identify barriers that prevent people from achieving top performance, solving performance problems, and improving opportunities in the workplace. This process involves five fundamental steps: 1. Performance analysis: This aims at the understanding and validation of perceived performance problems. A detailed assessment of performance is carried out and appropriate interventions are made so as to increase the performance of employees. 2. Root-cause analysis: This underlines the causes of performance problems such as lack of complete information; lack of environmental support; lack of incentives or rewards, skills, knowledge, and attitudes, motivation and expectations; and individual capacity. Identification of
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any root cause leads to the construction of an appropriate strategy, thereby enhancing the performance of the employees as well as that of the organization. 3. Intervention selection and design: At this level, the nature of the problem and its root cause are assessed, and the selection of an intervention or a combination of interventions is required. At this stage, instructional interventions are designed to promote knowledge and skill acquisition, small group activities and workshops are organized, and training is imparted through various media (distance learning, computer-based and video-based). In addition, on-the-job training (OJT) is facilitated for knowledge and skill mastery in the environment, hence motivating employees towards better performances to meet performance gaps. Moreover, noninstructional interventions are also designed which include personnel selection, incentive systems, cultural change initiatives, knowledge management, and intellectual capital management. With these interventions, employees are under complete assessments which motivate employees to improve their performance for the achievement of organizational goals. 4. Implementation: This adequate resources, change management strategy and business processes and procedures to increase organizational effectiveness. 5. Evaluation: This involves interpretation of organizational outcomes. This involves evaluation of the various interventions made for improving performance in the workplace, to decide whether to terminate or continue an intervention and to study the impact of decision-making and business planning and how far the business plans have or have not been supportive of organizational learning. Hence, with these interventions, we can keep pace with the changes occurring in the organizational landscape. Finally, we come to the most important aspect of our design and that is leadership style and organizational culture. Leaders play a vital role in motivating the performance of employees. Leaders are the only source of trust in employees that managers are trustworthy, benevolent and prefer fairness in work processes. Leaders motivate people to follow a participative design of work in which they are responsible for controlling and coordinating their work, hence making them responsible for their performance. But this is feasible only when there is openness and trust between leaders and employees (Tanner, 2008). In the context of leadership style, another stream of research has emerged that has focused on transformational leadership and transactional leadership styles. Although both forms
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of leadership are apt for any organization, transformational leadership style is more suitable as the leader of a particular group pays more attention to the concerns and needs of individual employees, and creates awareness among employees to look at old problems in new ways. They motivate and inspire employees towards the achievement of organizational goals by providing vision and a sense of mission among employees and also induce intellectual stimulation, which opens vistas for employees in terms of career development and new ways to make enhance their performance. Finally there is organizational culture, which involves the socialization process, psychological empowerment, and workplace spirituality. Motivating employees towards high performance is very much influenced by the prevalence of the culture in the organization. Socialization must be induced within organizations: this can be achieved through social interaction between employees and employers, where the information gathered is easily shared and disseminated. Also, employees have the chance of emotional release, creating a culture of trust and openness. Last comes workplace spirituality (Ashmos and Duchon, 2000), which recognizes that employees have both a mind and a spirit and seek to find meaning and purpose in their work, and a desire to connect with other human beings and be part of a community, hence making their jobs more meaningful and motivating employees to perform at a high level with a view to personal and social development. Thus, the proposed model of job design, created with a view towards motivating employees to higher performance, will definitely help in achieving organizational goals with full zest and will definitely lead to proactive outcomes or performance. Outcomes The use of available resources and available technology along with various training programs will definitely lead to increased productivity and increased levels of motivation at individual level, group level, and social level. Also, considering the labor market on the basis of variable-pay programs and flexible schedules will definitely lead to heightened motivation and productivity, which in return leads to the creation of social capital, assisting in meeting the structural, relational, and cognitive demands of the organization. Designing jobs under consideration of internal organizational factors, it can be seen that following appropriate management strategies will help in the creation of opportunities for career development, skill acquisition and creativity for employees. Performance evaluations will help employees to know their levels of motivation and make efforts to improve them. Moreover,
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designing jobs ergonomically will help in the creation of safe working conditions, avoiding musculoskeletal injuries and awkward postures. In other words, the involvement of anatomy, physiology, and psychology in designing jobs ergonomically will lead to high performance and reduced levels of stress in employees. Knowledge management will also lead to proactive outcomes or performance. Once knowledge dissemination, utilization and acquisition are required in a linear fashion, learning organizations can be created where novel ideas and thoughts are developed, interpreted, and implemented and knowledge is transformed throughout the system with the objective of achieving organizational goals efficiently and creating autonomy in performing jobs, hence motivating employees towards high performance. Finally, following a transformational leadership style in motivating employees will definitely lead to collective representations and collective emotional experiences, hence leading to the creation of a collectivistic culture within organizations as well as the creation of a high performing environment. In other words, appropriate job design will lead to proactive performance and finally to learning and developing nations. Future implications of the model Traditional outcomes such as job performance, motivation and performance will certainly remain central to the agenda. But, some wider developments are yet to be incorporated besides these general agendas. Job autonomy would be associated with greater organizational commitment, which in turn was linked to safer working. Thus, safety has been one of the most ignored aspects of job designs which in future can become one of the salient features of job design, hence, leading to a better quality of work life (QWL). In today's world, to survive in the turbulent marketplace, creativity, innovation, skill and knowledge acquisition have become major aspects in improving the performance of employees and creating virtuous circles for organizations to reach the pinnacle, as they lead to improved decision-making and goal setting. Finally, in terms of practical recommendations, empowerment is an effective strategy for promoting expertise. It creates an effective and safe environment within which individuals can acquire skills. Importantly, empowerment provides an opportunity for employees to apply new skills, which is likely to reinforce the values of personal development. It can be regarded as an effective means of improving skills and can be regarded as an effective strategy for managing knowledge in two respects:
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1. The provision of information systems and support from technical experts represents a systematic practice for disseminating knowledge through an organization; and 2. Enhanced decision-making responsibility has the potential to tap into employees' existing knowledge and skills, drawing on their personal experiences and ideas to improve the effectiveness of work systems. In other words, empowerment can be viewed as a means of eliciting or unlocking the knowledge possessed by an organization. When it comes to job design in the Indian context, employers can give a quick response to their job by enabling employees to use their tact and local language to solve problems. Besides this, knowledge creation and employee learning and development among employees will be promoted with the perspective consistent with the German action theory, of which the basic tenet is that work is action-oriented. It has also been proposed in the model that designed roles promote mastery, which in turn helps people learn to cope with the stresses of the job, also leading to higher intensive motivation, which in turn leads to increased growth needs strength, providing environmental certainty and centralized decision-making. Thus, implication of the model is that the job characteristics model can be practically applied with the desirable performance and performance results. Some well-known companies such as 3M, AT&T, Xerox and Motorola are also among those who have actually implemented job design changes in accordance with the job characteristics model. 2.6 Cognitive Styles and Behavior in Organizations Task-Oriented Behaviors The relationship between cognitive styles and decision making has aroused significant interest amongst researchers, as cognitive styles may help explain why people with similar skills and abilities come to different decisions. Research within this domain can be divided in the following categories: decision-making behavior, decision-making biases, and strategic decision making. Studies on decision-making behavior clearly show that the courses of action in decision making are expressive of decision makers cognitive styles (e.g., Antonietti & Gioletta, 2005; Betsch & Kunz, 2008; Hunt, Krzystofiak, Meindl, & Yousry, 1989). Research with the MBTI, for instance, found clear differences in managers decision-making approaches according to their cognitive styles (Gardner & Martinko, 2006; Myers et al., 2003). Sensing managers favored concrete and actual data in their decision processes, while intuitive types preferred relying on
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heuristics and hunches. Thinking types liked to use objective information and preferred a logical and impersonal decision-making approach. In contrast, feeling managers were more affective and personal, relying also on subjective information. Managers with a preference for judgment favored a structured and planned approach, while perceiving managers relied more on spontaneity, flexibility, and creativity. Leonard, Scholl, and Kowalski (1999), using diverse cognitive style measures, found that people with an analytical style make decisions on the basis of abstract thinking, logic, and careful analysis. Kirton (2003) concluded that adaptors (using the KAI) tend to take the problems as a given and focus on generating ways to develop better solutions for immediate high efficiency. Innovators focus on redefining problems and producing multiple, non-obvious ideas. Quantitative and qualitative research with the CoSI confirms that people with different cognitive styles use different problem-solving strategies and demonstrate various decision-making behaviors (Cools & Van den Broeck, 2007, 2008). Individuals with a knowing style preferred a logical, rational, and impersonal decision-making approach, while planners favored an objective, structured, conventional, and efficient problem-solving approach, and creating people had a preference for a creative, unconventional, flexible way of decision making. Knowing and creating types were focused on the content of decision making (taking facts-based or creative decisions respectively), whereas planning people mostly referred to the decision-making process as such. Apart from these studies on the preferred decision-making approaches of people with diverse cognitive profiles, some scholars looked at further applications in particular decisionmaking situations. Huysmans (1970), for instance, employed an experimental task consisting of a business game in which the participants assumed the role of company president being offered recommendations by managers. Heuristic participants (i.e. who used common sense, intuition and feelings) rejected, either completely or in part, recommendations when the accounting manager supported his recommendations with an analysis of the technical problems. Analytical participants on the other hand responded more positively to proposals when an explicitunderstanding approach was used. Hunt et al. (1989) also found congruence between cognitive style and preferred decision-making strategy, implying that analytical people used more analytical advisors in their decision strategy, while intuitive people chose for intuitive advisors. Furthermore, Gul (2003) observed a statistically significant, albeit weak, relationship between
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field dependence (assessed by the GEFT) and decision confidence. Field dependent accountants made more confident decisions than field independent accountants when exposed to ambiguous accounting information. In a study of resource allocation decisions, Chenhall and Morris (2001) found that MBTI intuitive managers tended to incorporate broader opportunity costs into their economic decisions, whereas sensing managers tended to perceive expenditure as incurred and justified for other projects and hence irrelevant to the current project. Sensing types did not identity opportunity costs, which is a potential shortcoming that could lead to misspecification in the treatment of a firms existing assets. Martinsen (2005) used Kaufmanns (1979) assimilatorexplorer styles inventory to study the influence of cognitive style and experience on creative problem solving. In both studies he found that explorers performed better when prior experience was low (i.e., there was high task novelty), and assimilators performed better when prior experience was high (i.e., low task novelty). Rational models of decision making often ignored the influence of individual differences, assuming that people process information and arrive at judgments in a similar, rational way (Rajagopalan, Rasheed, & Datta, 1993). The following studies on cognitive biases, escalation of commitment, and framing effects clearly show that decision making does not always follow this rational process. People tend to engage in diverse irrational decision-making practices, which have been shown to vary according to cognitive style differences. For instance, Hayley and Stumpfs (1989) study with senior and middle managers revealed that different MBTI types habitually use distinct heuristics to gather data and evaluate alternatives in strategic decision making. While many Sensing-Feeling (SF) types manifested availability biases (focusing mainly on value-latent or emotional information), a majority of Intuiting-Feeling (NF) types exhibited vividness biases (focusing mainly on idiosyncratic and memorable information). In a later study, Stumpf and Dunbar (2001) found that individuals with particular cognitive styles (using the MBTI) take patterns of actions that reflect specific biases. Intuiting-Thinking (NT) types were prone to a positivity bias (i.e., emphasis on opportunities and low attention to threat), SensingFeelers were prone to a social desirability bias (i.e., conformance to socially acceptable business practices), and Intuiting-Feelers were prone to a reasoning-by-analogy bias (i.e., novel actions for target organization based on comparison to situation in some other organization). The tendency for a person to increase commitment to a previously chosen course of action when the outcome of ones previous decision is negative is referred to as escalation of commitment, a
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phenomenon which has significant implications for organizational decision making (Fox & Straw, 1979). While Singer (1990) did not find a significant association between escalation of commitment and cognitive style (using the KAI), Wong, Kwong, and Ng (2008) reported trivial, albeit statistically significant, correlations between the rationality component of the RationalExperiential Inventory (REI; Epstein, Pacini, Denes-Raj, & Heier, 2006) and escalation of commitment. As far as framing effects are concerned, McElroy and Seta (2003) found that holists were especially likely to be influenced by the way in which a decision was framed (conforming to the predictions of prospect theory, which expect risk aversion for gains and risk seeking for losses), whilst analytics were not likely to be influenced (conforming to the predictions of expected utility theory, which expect that the way in which the decision is framed does not change the expected utility of the risk-seeking or risk-averse options). Similarly, McIntosh (2005) found that individuals scoring highly on the REI experientiality scale were more likely more swayed by the way in which problems were framed (conforming to predictions of prospect theory). Shiloh, Salton, and Sharabi (2002) observed a three-way interaction of intuitiverationalframing (REI), indicating that high rational/high intuitive and low rational/low intuitive style combinations were most prone to framing effects. Strategic Decision Making A number of studies have used the MBTI to explore the effects of cognitive style on strategic decision-making processes and outcomes, assuming top managers strategic choices reflect their style preferences (e.g., Galln, 1997, 2006; Hough & ogilvie, 2005). Berr, Church, and Waclawski (2000) observed that people with a preference for intuition tended to be consistently perceived (by others) to be more effective in behavior related to innovation and strategic thinking than managers with a preference for sensing. In addition, they found that perceiving managers were rated better on innovation because they were more willing to take risks or to try something new than their judging counterparts. Hough and ogilvie (2005), using the MBTI, found that Intuiting-Thinking (NT) executives used intuition to make cognitive leaps based on objective information and crafted more decisions of higher quality. Sensing-Feeling (SF) executives took time to seek socially acceptable decisions, made the lowest number of decisions, and made decisions of lowest perceived effectiveness. In addition, extraverted executives were seen by others as more effective than introverts, when in fact extraverts were no
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more decisive than introverts. In a study of 70 senior managers in the spa industry, Galln (2006) found that Sensing-Thinking (ST) and Sensing-Feeling (SF) types more often described the defender strategy as the most viable option (i.e., offering a stable set of products and competing mainly based on price, quality, service, and delivery), while Intuiting-Thinking (NT) executives preferred a prospector firm strategy (i.e., having a broad product definition, striving to be first in the market, and focusing on change and innovation). Hodgkinson and Clarke (2007) outlined an alternative two-dimensional framework to investigate the impact of individual differences in cognitives style on organizational strategizing. Their framework contains four broad types depending on an individuals preference for analysis (low/high) or intuition (low/high). People occupying the low/low, low/high, high/low, high/high preferences with regard to analysis and intuition respectively are labeled non-discerning, big picture conscious, detail conscious, and cognitively versatile. These basic informationprocessing tendencies are believed by these authors to be fundamental to the ways in which strategy workers approach their work. Different studies also explicitly focused on risk perception of people with diverse cognitive profiles in the context of strategic decision making, which all show that cognitive style differences are an important factor in explaining the likelihood of taking strategic action and the perceived risk seen in this action. Henderson and Nutt (1980), for instance, studied the relationship between MBTI styles, decision-making behavior, and assessment of risk amongst experienced decision makers from hospitals and firms. Sensing-Thinking types perceived highest levels of risk and were reluctant to adopt projects; Sensing-Feelers were risk tolerant and more likely to adopt projects. Blaylock (2005), using an experimental design to study the interaction between style (measured with the MBTI) and situation (structured and unstructured) in their effect on risk-related behaviour, found that feeling types based their judgments on information that may not be obvious to other styles. A change in the parameters of the environment also had a greater effect on feeling types decisions than on those of thinking types. Participants with a sensing cognitive style consciously structured their decisions by developing a plan to look for cues in the data, stressing hard data and rules that govern decision processes. Intuitives stressed hypothetical possibilities and were concerned with contextual factor, taking a more gestalt approach to the decision. In a later study, Nutt (1990) explored the relationships between MBTI style and executives decisions to adopt particular projects and their perception of projects risk:
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SF executives were inclined to adopt high uncertainty projects, whereas ST executives wanted to reject them (the same trends were apparent for perceived risk); NF executives dramatically reduced their view of a projects adoptability when faced with uncertain projects and dramatically increased their view of its perceived risk. Risk aversion was also found to be related to MBTI styles in a study by Filbeck, Hatfield, and Horvath (2005). Individuals with a preference for thinking tended to be more risk tolerant than those with a preference for feeling. Sensing types are willing to tolerate more upside or downside potential than those with a preference for intuition. People-Oriented Behaviors Given the strong focus on the people aspect of organizational behavior and management (Kouzes & Posner, 2002) and the increased use of teams in organizations to answer the ever more competitive challenges in the global marketplace, a good understanding of how cognitive styles influence interpersonal relationships is highly valuable. A number of studies have examined cognitive styles in relation to various aspects of people-oriented behavior and teamwork, including: interpersonal behavior, dyadic relationships, team dynamics and processes, team role preferences, and team performance. Interpersonal Behavior Starting from the premise that cognitive style differences may fundamentally affect the nature of interpersonal relationships, researchers looked at cognitive styles in the context of interpersonal behavior. Research with the CSI found that people with a more analytical style tended to be more task oriented, relatively less friendly, more impersonal, and more selfcontrolling in their emotional behavior. Intuitive people were more interpersonally oriented, expressive, relatively friendly, warm towards others, and serving more psychosocial functions during interpersonal relationships (see: Armstrong, 2000; Armstrong & Priola, 2001; Priola, Smith, & Armstrong, 2004). In their qualitative study on the link between cognitive styles (CoSI) and managerial behavior, Cools and Van den Broeck (2008) found that people with a knowing style preferred a straightforward way to deal with others. Planners were more inclined to give feedback in a diplomatic way. People with a creating style tended to be more emotionally involved, using a personal approach in handling conflicts and feedback situations. Dyadic Relationships

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Several researchers examined the influence of style congruence on dyadic relationships (e.g., student-supervisor, mentor-protg) (e.g., Allinson, Armstrong, & Hayes, 2001; Armstrong, Allinson, & Hayes, 1997, 2002, 2004; Witkin & Goodenough, 2007). Cognitive similarity is expected to yield smoother interactions and positive mutual feelings among people due to shared interests, common personality characteristics, and similar ways of communicating (Witkin & Goodenough, 2007), whereas cognitive dissimilarity may result in conflict because style differences lead to different interests, values, and problem-solving approaches. Some studies indeed found that cognitive style congruence led to performance with the relationship, high performance, mutual understanding and liking, effective interpersonal relations, and good communication (see: Allinson et al., 2001; Armstrong, 2000), although other studies observed opposite results. Armstrong et al. (2002), for instance, found only partial support for the congruence hypothesis, and Armstrong et al. (1997) did not find support in their study for the beneficial impact of style congruence (using the CSI) on the quality of the relationship between students and supervisors in an educational context. Cheng, Luckett, and Schulz (2003) found higher performance on a complex decision task for dissimilar dyads than for dyads with a similar cognitive style (using the MBTI). These latter studies suggest that dissimilarity between people may under particular circumstances lead to more positive outcomes than similarity. Other researchers focused specifically on the relationships between cognitive style and leader-subordinate relations. Atwater and Yammarino (2001) found that MBTI feeling type leaders were rated more highly on transformational and transactional leadership by both superiors and subordinates than thinking types. Allinson et al. (2001) found intuitive leaders (assessed by the CSI) to be less domineering and more nurturing in leader-member exchange (LMX) relationships than analytic leaders. Intuitive leaders were also better liked and more respected by analytic members than analytic leaders were by intuitive members. In contrast, Suazo, Turnley, and Mai-Dalton (2008) found that congruence of style is associated with higher quality leader-subordinate relationships, with concomitant effects on interactions and communications reducing the likelihood of subordinates believing psychological contracts have been violated. Teamwork

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In the context of teamwork, three types of studies have been conducted on cognitive styles. These include the influence of cognitive-based team composition on the team processes and dynamics, its impact on the teams performance, and the relation between cognitive styles and team role preferences. With regard to the link between cognitive styles and team behavior, Armstrong and Priola (2001) found that intuitive team members (using the CSI) in self-managed work teams contributed more socio-emotional-oriented (i.e., interactions concerned with group solidarity and attraction between members) and more task-oriented acts (i.e., interactions focused on task attainment) than analytical team members did. As the latter aspect was contrary to their hypothesis, they attributed this to the nature of the task facing the teams, which was relatively unstructured and organic. Priola et al. (2004) tested this assumption further, using a more structured and mechanistic task. They found that intuitive individuals (using the CSI) could neither relate to the task, nor find a solution; analytics implemented the logical process necessary to solve the problem, while intuitive focused on maintaining group cohesiveness and the integrity. Looking at the link between cognitive styles and team outcomes, Basadur and Head (2001) concluded that heterogeneity in cognitive styles had a positive effect on team performance in a creative problem-solving task and homogeneity of cognitive styles in a team led to less time needed to complete the task. In a study using project teams composed of different MBTI types, White (1984) also concluded that the more heterogeneous teams (i.e., containing four different types) were more successful than the less heterogeneous teams (i.e., containing two different types) in their systems development activities. Volkema and Gorman (1998) found no main effect of cognitive-based team composition (i.e., four-person homogeneous or heterogeneous teams with regard to cognitive styles) on decision performance. However, they did find that teams that were composed of diverse MBTI styles contributed significantly more and diverse types of objectives within the problem-formulation phase than homogeneous teams, which had a positive impact on team performance. In contrast, Hammerschmidt (2006) found that eight-person teams with a large cognitive gap (i.e., cognitive style differences of more than 20 KAI points between the four-person planning sub-team and the four-person implementing sub-team in his perspective) had lower success rates than more homogeneous teams. Karn, SyedAbdullah, Cowling, and Holcombes (2007) study of team cohesion and performance in software engineering teams found highest performing teams to be predominantly
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2.7 Job Performance and Cognitive styles of Library personnel For many years, organizational behaviorists have debated and analyzed the elements affecting job performance. A review of their results leads to the conclusion that there is a connection between work-related attitudes and performance-i.e., attitudes toward ones job affect ones performance. Of these attitudes, one of the most significant is job performance. As crucial as it is for an organization to have visionary administrators, it is important that department heads assign tasks so that staff at all levels feels a high degree of performance with the job they are asked to perform. This includes the feeling that they are having a positive effect on the library and have some level of control over their jobs. MBTI intuitive-thinking types (typical for engineers), and stylistically heterogeneous teams experienced more conflict and performed significantly worse than homogenous teams. Two studies explored the relationship between Belbins (1981) Team Role Preferences Inventory (BTRPI) and Kirtons KAI (1976). Fisher, Macrosson, and Wong (1998) hypothesized a correlation matrix with each of the Kirton subscales (sufficiency versus proliferation of originality; efficiency; rule/group conformity) and the overall KAI score. Only 13 out of 24 subscale relationships were supported. In a later study, Aritzeta, Senior, and Swailes (2005) demonstrated stronger convergent validity between the KAI and the BTRPI. KAI subscale correlations were much more coherent than those reported by Fisher and colleagues (1998) and this was probably due to a misinterpretation of innovative and adaptive subscale scores on the part of these previous authors. Aritzeta et al. (2005) concluded that implementers, completerfinishers, team workers, and specialists will display an adaptive style; monitor evaluators and coordinators will act as bridges (moderating tensions occurring between high adaptors and innovators); and plants, shapers, and resource investigators will display an innovative cognitive style. According to Berr et al. (2000), there is currently considerable interest in the potential impact of individual dispositions and preferences on organizational behavior and effectiveness. In terms of the relation between cognitive styles and people-oriented organizational behavior, it is clear that cognitive styles influence how people relate to others. However, the implications for dyadic relations or teamwork processes and performance, given the unequivocal findings of the
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research reported, are far less clear. Parallel with the increased popularity of teams in organizations, research interest in team characteristics contributing to their effectiveness has grown strongly (Mathieu, Maynard, Rapp, & Gilson, 2008). The aim of this kind of research was to gain insight into the determining factors of team effectiveness and ultimately to formulate recommendations for the design of high-performing teams. Despite a longstanding research history, no consensus has been achieved yet about whether team diversity has beneficial or hampering effects on team performance (Jackson, Joshi, & Erhardt, 2003; van Knippenberg & Schippers, 2007). This inconsistency is also notable in the cognitive style research in this area, as there are no clear results about the effects of congruence or heterogeneity on dyadic relationships or teamwork in diverse contexts. Further research is needed to enhance our understanding of cognitive styles in interpersonal relationships, investigating socio-emotional effects as well taskrelated performance (Allinson et al., 2001; Armstrong, 2000). Armstrong et al. (2004, p. 43) wrote: Although cognitive style may indeed significantly affect the success of interpersonal 24 dyadic relationships, the idea that these effects can be reduced to a straightforward matching hypothesis may be too simplistic when considered across different contexts. In this sense, the nature of the task the team has to perform or the nature of the relation (e.g., leader-member or mentor-protg) seems to be very important to take into account in this type of research. 2.8 Cognitive Fit or Misfit Following the wide attention for person-environment fit in other research domains, Chan (2006) introduced the concept of cognitive misfit within the cognitive style field, which he defined as the degree of mismatch between an individuals cognitive style and the predominant style demands of the work context. A match between ones cognitive style and the job demands is expected to yield positive outcomes (e.g., job performance, organizational commitment, career success), while a mismatch is expected to lead to negative outcomes (e.g., increased turnover, less motivation, higher levels of work-related stress, interpersonal conflicts). Goodenough (2005) argued that people will be more satisfied and effective if they can work in conditions that are compatible with their cognitive style. Kirton and McCarthy (1988) stated that people who find themselves in a cognitive climate that is not suited to their own cognitive style are likely to be unhappy and will try to leave. Contrary to the large emphasis on the importance of cognitive fit

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in theoretical works, few studies have investigated empirically whether or not cognitive (mis)fit actually leads to these expected outcomes. Within the style field, six studies were found in the area of cognitive (mis)fit. Chilton, Hardgrave, and Armstrong (2005) found that performance decreased and stress levels increased as the gap between software developers cognitive styles (using the KAI) and the perceived environment demands became wider. Mitchell and Cahill (2005) observed that plebes who voluntarily withdrew from a preparatory training program of the US Naval Academy before completion scored significantly higher on innovation (measured with the KAI) than the ones who stayed, which they attribute to the presumably lower compatibility of this style with the military environment. In a recent study with entrepreneurs, Brigham, De Castro, and Shepherd (2007) found that cognitive misfit (using the CSI) led to lower levels of performance with the work environment and 10 higher levels of intention to exit and actual turnover. In a study with engineering functions, Chan (2006) concluded that cognitive misfit (assessed by the KAI) provided significant contribution to predict actual turnover, but it was uncorrelated with employee performance. Chang, Choi, and Kim (2008), studying turnover amongst R&D professionals, did not find support for their hypothesis that R&D professionals with an innovative cognitive style (using the KAI) would show less turnover than adaptive (i.e., analytical) types. Cools et al. (2009a) found limited support for the hypotheses that people in cognitive fit (measured with the CoSI) are more satisfied with their job on the one hand, and that they show less intention to leave and less job search behavior than people in cognitive misfit on the other hand. However, they did find that people with a creating style show more job search behavior and intention to leave than people with a planning style, irrespective of the cognitive climate they are working in. How people actually execute their organizational commitments depends on many factors. In addition to situational factors, such as the organizational culture and structure, individual characteristics play an important role in determining individual behavior and performance (Buttner, Gryskiewicz, & Hidore, 1999). Armstrong and Priola (2001) described cognitive styles as a potential crucial factor for effective decision making and for successful interpersonal relationships, and as such they can have an important influence on how people develop their organizational role (Church & Waclawski, 1998). This section focuses first on empirical results

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with regard to decision making as an aspect of task-oriented behavioral aspects, then on interpersonal relationships and teamwork as relevant people-oriented behaviors. 2.8.1 Cognitive Styles and Organizational Behavior This section focuses specifically on relevant empirical findings in relation to person-environment fit, and entrepreneurship and innovation. Person-Environment Fit Research on person-environment (PE) fit, examining the interaction and level of congruence between particular characteristics of the employee and characteristics of the work context or organization, has always been very popular (Ehrhart & Ziegert, 2005; Westerman & Cyr, 2004). Also in the field of cognitive styles, a great deal of attention has been paid to understand the work environment preferences (1) and career choices (2) of people with diverse cognitive styles as well as the consequences of what is called cognitive fit or misfit (3), as will be clear in the subsequent overview. Work Environment Preferences Work environments differ in terms of the infomation-processing requirements that are placed on individuals (Hayes & Allinson, 1998). As cognitive styles are individual preferences in information processing, researchers investigated whether or not they influence peoples work environment preferences (e.g., Clapp & de Ciantis, 1989; Whooten, Barner, & Silver, 1994). According to Kirton (2003), there are clear differences between adaptors and innovators (using the Kirton Adaption-Innovation Inventory (KAI); Kirton, 1976) regarding their need for structure in a work environment. Adaptors prefer to work in well-defined and stable situations, while innovators are more comfortable working in unstructured and changing situations. People with a preference for judgment (using the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI); Myers, McCaulley, Quenk, & Hammer, 2003) have been found to favor order, stability, and structured work environments, while people with a preference for perceiving want flexibility and more unstructured, dynamic work situations (Gardner & Martinko, 2006; Hirsh & Kummerow, 2000). Allinson and Hayes (2006) observed that analytical thinkers (as assessed by the Cognitive Style Index (CSI); Allinson & Hayes, 2006) preferred structured, ordered, and rather impersonal work environments. On the contrary, intuitive thinkers favored freedom from rules and regulations and personalized work relationships. Summarizing this research, it is clear that analytical thinkers
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have been found to prefer working in well-defined, stable, structured, ordered, and relatively impersonal situations, in which they can function within existing rules and procedures and prevailing structures. People with an intuitive style favor unstructured, changing, highly involving, innovative, flexible, dynamic, relatively personalized environments, in which they can work autonomously. Vocational Choices and Career Preferences In addition to empirical studies on work environment preferences, scholars have examined the link between cognitive styles and occupation type or career orientation (e.g., Jrlstrm, 2000; Nordvik, 2006; Sullivan & Hansen, 2004). These studies have sought insights into how individual differences influenced career decision making and vocational development, assuming that people with different cognitive styles differ in their vocational choices and selfselect for particular jobs as they choose particular occupations on the basis of their preferences for certain task and job characteristics. These similarities in preferred ways of dealing with information (i.e., cognitive style) within occupational groups have also been called cognitive climates in organizations (Kirton & de Ciantis, 1994; Kirton & McCarthy, 1988), supposing that the majority of people with a particular cognitive style constitute the groups cognitive climate. Hayes and Allinson (1998) also suggested that, due to self-selection, people within many groups in organizations will share a similar cognitive style that is related to the information-processing requirements of their work. Accountants, for instance, appear to be skewed towards adaption on the KAI (Gul, 1986) and were more MBTI sensing, thinking, and judging (ISTJs and ESTJs) (Parkinson & Taggar, 2007). Gridley (2007), comparing artists and engineers on the Thinking Style Inventory (TSI; Sternberg, 1997), found that artists preferred inventing and developing new ideas (legislative style) rather than implementing pre-existing ideas (executive style), and also preferred change (liberal style) more than the status quo (conservative style). In contrast, engineers preferred to organize their thinking more hierarchically, and did not resist implementing the plans of others and accepting inputs from sources outside themselves. Allinson and Hayes (2006) found that personnel managers were more intuitive (measured with the CSI) than production, marketing, and financial managers. Other studies have looked specifically at nurses, scientists, bankers, teachers, managers, IT professionals, and at diverse types of students (e.g., Bennett, Pietri, & Moak, 1998; Collins, White, & OBrien, 1992; Doucette, Kelleher, Murphy, & Young, 1998;
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Murphy, Casey, Day, & Young, 1997) as a way to identify the cognitive profile of a broad variety of occupations (also see below for a more specific focus on entrepreneurs). Using the Group Embedded Figures Test (GEFT; Witkin, Oltman, Raskin, & Karp, 1971), Witkin, Moore, Goodenough, and Cox (2007) observed that field independents (i.e., analytical thinkers) appeared to be drawn to professions such as chemistry, engineering, architecture, and surgical nursing; field dependents (i.e., intuitive thinkers) tended to be drawn to occupations such as social work, teaching, sales, personnel management, probation support, and psychiatric nursing. Similarly, relationships have been found between Hollands (2005) vocational types and cognitive styles: field independent types (using the GEFT) preferred vocational activity that required competence in analytical articulated cognitive structure; field dependent types tended to be drawn to occupations with high levels of social content and an emphasis on interpersonal relations (Alvi, Khan, Hussain, & Baig, 1988). Mean KAI scores of people also reflected the type and nature of tasks they were doing in their job (for an overview of relevant studies, see: Foxall & Hackett, 1994; Kirton, 2003; Tullett, 1997). People who worked within a structured environment and who were expected to work within prescribed rules (e.g., managers within local authority, established bankers), showed a bias towards adaption. People whose job gave them more freedom of action and who functioned within less structure, showed a bias towards innovation, such as strategic planners, bank vicepresidents, and people with responsibility for introducing new products within research and development departments. These studies also found that groups whose focus of operation is oriented outside the organization (e.g., sales and marketing) or across boundaries within organizations (e.g., personnel, strategic planning, project management) had a more innovative cognitive style than those with a focus of operation which is more within function (e.g., production, maintenance, administration). Cools, Van den Broeck, and Bouckenooghe (2009) identified a knowing-oriented cognitive climate (using the Cognitive Style Indicator (CoSI); Cools & Van den Broeck, 2007) in finance, information technology, and research and development functions; a planning-oriented cognitive climate in administrative and technical and production functions; and a creating-oriented cognitive climate in sales and marketing functions and in general management. In a study with final years students on their future career orientation, Cools, Vanderheyden, and Horlait (2009) also observed clear links between students cognitive profile (assessed by the CoSI) and their
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preferred career anchors (i.e., the career values people strive for in their job; Schein, 1990). They found that the knowing style predicted a preference for the career anchor pure challenge, confirming the preference for people with a knowing style for intellectually challenging tasks and jobs (Cools & Van den Broeck, 2008a). For the planning style, they found evidence for a drive towards security and stability, control over the whole work process, and a balance between work and private life. People with a creating style searched for challenges, autonomy, and selfrealization, which is consistent with their preference for tasks and jobs that require creativity, action, flexibility, and own input (Cools & Van den Broeck, 2008). Cognitive Fit or Misfit Following the wide attention for PE fit in other research domains, Chan (2006) introduced the concept of cognitive misfit within the cognitive style field, which he defined as the degree of mismatch between an individuals cognitive style and the predominant style demands of the work context. A match between ones cognitive style and the job demands is expected to yield positive outcomes (e.g., job performance, organizational commitment, career success), while a mismatch is expected to lead to negative outcomes (e.g., increased turnover, less motivation, higher levels of work-related stress, interpersonal conflicts). Goodenough (2005) argued that people will be more satisfied and effective if they can work in conditions that are compatible with their cognitive style. Kirton and McCarthy (1988) stated that people who find themselves in a cognitive climate that is not suited to their own cognitive style are likely to be unhappy and will try to leave. Contrary to the large emphasis on the importance of cognitive fit in theoretical works, few studies have investigated empirically whether or not cognitive (mis)fit actually leads to these expected outcomes. Within the style field, six studies were found in the area of cognitive (mis)fit. Chilton, Hardgrave, and Armstrong (2005) found that performance decreased and stress levels increased as the gap between software developers cognitive styles (using the KAI) and the perceived environment demands became wider. Mitchell and Cahill (2005) observed that plebes who voluntarily withdrew from a preparatory training program of the US Naval Academy before completion scored significantly higher on innovation (measured with the KAI) than the ones who stayed, which they attribute to the presumably lower compatibility of this style with the military environment. In a recent study with entrepreneurs, Brigham, De Castro, and Shepherd (2007) found that cognitive misfit (using the CSI) led to lower levels of performance with the work environment an
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higher levels of intention to exit and actual turnover. In a study with engineering functions, Chan (2006) concluded that cognitive misfit (assessed by the KAI) provided significant contribution to predict actual turnover, but it was uncorrelated with employee performance. Chang, Choi, and Kim (2008), studying turnover amongst R&D professionals, did not find support for their hypothesis that R&D professionals with an innovative cognitive style (using the KAI) would show less turnover than adaptive (i.e., analytical) types. Cools et al. (2009a) found limited support for the hypotheses that people in cognitive fit (measured with the CoSI) are more satisfied with their job on the one hand, and that they show less intention to leave and less job search behavior than people in cognitive misfit on the other hand. However, they did find that people with a creating style show more job search behavior and intention to leave than people with a planning style, irrespective of the cognitive climate they are working in. The relationship between cognitive styles and decision making has aroused significant interest amongst researchers, as cognitive styles may help explain why people with similar skills and abilities come to different decisions. Research within this domain can be divided in the following categories: decision-making behavior, decision-making biases, and strategic decision making. Decision-Making Behavior Studies on decision-making behavior clearly show that the courses of action in decision making are expressive of decision makers cognitive styles (e.g., Antonietti & Gioletta, 2005; Betsch & Kunz, 2008; Hunt, Krzystofiak, Meindl, & Yousry, 1989). Research with the MBTI, for instance, found clear differences in managers decision-making approaches according to their cognitive styles (Gardner & Martinko, 2006; Myers et al., 2003). Sensing managers favored concrete and actual data in their decision processes, while intuitive types preferred relying on heuristics and hunches. Thinking types liked to use objective information and preferred a logical and impersonal decision-making approach. In contrast, feeling managers were more affective and personal, relying also on subjective information. Managers with a preference for judgment favored a structured and planned approach, while perceiving managers relied more on spontaneity, flexibility, and creativity. Leonard, Scholl, and Kowalski (1999), using diverse cognitive style measures, found that people with an analytical style make decisions on the basis of abstract thinking, logic, and careful analysis. Kirton (2003) concluded that adaptors (using the KAI) tend to take the problems as a given and focus on generating ways to develop better
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solutions for immediate high efficiency. Innovators focus on redefining problems and producing multiple, non-obvious ideas. Quantitative and qualitative research with the CoSI confirms that people with different cognitive styles use different problem-solving strategies and demonstrate various decision-making behaviors (Cools & Van den Broeck, 2007, 2008a). Individuals with a knowing style preferred a logical, rational, and impersonal decision-making approach, while planners favored an objective, structured, conventional, and efficient problem-solving approach, and creating people had a preference for a creative, unconventional, flexible way of decision making. Knowing and creating types were focused on the content of decision making (taking facts-based or creative decisions respectively), whereas planning people mostly referred to the decision-making process as such. Apart from these studies on the preferred decision-making approaches of people with diverse cognitive profiles, some scholars looked at further applications in particular decisionmaking situations. Huysmans (1970), for instance, employed an experimental task consisting of a business game in which the participants assumed the role of company president being offered recommendations by managers. Heuristic participants (i.e. who used common sense, intuition and feelings) rejected, either completely or in part, recommendations when the accounting manager supported his recommendations with an analysis of the technical problems. Analytical participants on the other hand responded more positively to proposals when an explicitunderstanding approach was used. Hunt et al. (1989) also found congruence between cognitive style and preferred decision-making strategy, implying that analytical people used more analytical advisors in their decision strategy, while intuitive people chose for intuitive advisors. Furthermore, Gul (2003, 1984) observed a statistically significant, albeit weak, relationship between field dependence (assessed by the GEFT) and decision confidence. Field dependent accountants made more confident decisions than field independent accountants when exposed to ambiguous accounting information. In a study of resource allocation decisions, Chenhall and Morris (2001) found that MBTI intuitive managers tended to incorporate broader opportunity costs into their economic decisions, whereas sensing managers tended to perceive expenditure as incurred and justified for other projects and hence irrelevant to the current project. Sensing types did not identity opportunity costs, which is a potential shortcoming that could lead to misspecification in the treatment of a firms existing assets. Martinsen (1993, 2005) used Kaufmanns (1979) assimilator-explorer styles inventory to study the influence of cognitive style
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and experience on creative problem solving. In both studies he found that explorers performed better when prior experience was low (i.e., there was high task novelty), and assimilators performed better when prior experience was high (i.e., low task novelty). Dyadic Relationships Several researchers examined the influence of style congruence on dyadic relationships (e.g., student-supervisor, mentor-protg) (e.g., Allinson, Armstrong, & Hayes, 2001; Armstrong, Allinson, & Hayes, 1997, 2002, 2004; Witkin & Goodenough, 2007). Cognitive similarity is expected to yield smoother interactions and positive mutual feelings among people due to shared interests, common personality characteristics, and similar ways of communicating (Witkin & Goodenough, 2007), whereas cognitive dissimilarity may result in conflict because style differences lead to different interests, values, and problem-solving approaches. Some studies indeed found that cognitive style congruence led to performance with the relationship, high performance, mutual understanding and liking, effective interpersonal relations, and good communication (see: Allinson et al., 2001; Armstrong, 2000), although other studies observed opposite results. Armstrong et al. (2002), for instance, found only partial support for the congruence hypothesis, and Armstrong et al. (1997) did not find support in their study for the beneficial impact of style congruence (using the CSI) on the quality of the relationship between students and supervisors in an educational context. Cheng, Luckett, and Schulz (2003) found higher performance on a complex decision task for dissimilar dyads than for dyads with a similar cognitive style (using the MBTI). These latter studies suggest that dissimilarity between people may under particular circumstances lead to more positive outcomes than similarity. Other researchers focused specifically on the relationships between cognitive style and leader-subordinate relations. Atwater and Yammarino (2001) found that MBTI feeling type leaders were rated more highly on transformational and transactional leadership by both superiors and subordinates than thinking types. Allinson et al. (2001) found intuitive leaders (assessed by the CSI) to be less domineering and more nurturing in leader-member exchange (LMX) relationships than analytic leaders. Intuitive leaders were also better liked and more respected by analytic members than analytic leaders were by intuitive members. In contrast, Suazo, Turnley, and Mai-Dalton (2008) found that congruence of style is associated with higher quality leader-subordinate relationships, with concomitant effects on interactions and
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communications reducing the likelihood of subordinates believing psychological contracts have been violated. 2.8.2 Teamwork In the context of teamwork, three types of studies have been conducted on cognitive styles. These include the influence of cognitive-based team composition on the team processes and dynamics, its impact on the teams performance, and the relation between cognitive styles and team role preferences. With regard to the link between cognitive styles and team behavior, Armstrong and Priola (2001) found that intuitive team members (using the CSI) in self-managed work teams contributed more socio-emotional-oriented (i.e., interactions concerned with group solidarity and attraction between members) and more task-oriented acts (i.e., interactions focused on task attainment) than analytical team members did. As the latter aspect was contrary to their hypothesis, they attributed this to the nature of the task facing the teams, which was relatively unstructured and organic. Priola et al. (2004) tested this assumption further, using a more structured and mechanistic task. They found that intuitive individuals (using the CSI) could neither relate to the task, nor find a solution; analytics implemented the logical process necessary to solve the problem, while intuitives focused on maintaining group cohesiveness and the integrity. Looking at the link between cognitive styles and team outcomes, Basadur and Head (2001) concluded that heterogeneity in cognitive styles had a positive effect on team performance in a creative problem-solving task and homogeneity of cognitive styles in a team led to less time needed to complete the task. In a study using project teams composed of different MBTI types, White (1984) also concluded that the more heterogeneous teams (i.e., containing four different types) were more successful than the less heterogeneous teams (i.e., containing two different types) in their systems development activities. Volkema and Gorman (1998) found no main effect of cognitive-based team composition (i.e., four-person homogeneous or heterogeneous teams with regard to cognitive styles) on decision performance. However, they did find that teams that were composed of diverse MBTI styles contributed significantly more and diverse types of objectives within the problem-formulation phase than homogeneous teams, which had a positive impact on team performance. In contrast, Hammerschmidt (2006) found that eight-person teams with a large cognitive gap (i.e., cognitive style differences of more than
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20 KAI points between the four-person planning sub-team and the four-person implementing sub-team in his perspective) had lower success rates than more homogeneous teams. Karn, SyedAbdullah, Cowling, and Holcombes (2007) study of team cohesion and performance in software engineering teams found highest performing teams to be predominantly MBTI intuitive-thinking types (typical for engineers), and stylistically heterogeneous teams experienced more conflict and performed significantly worse than homogenous teams. Two studies explored the relationship between Belbins (1981) Team Role Preferences Inventory (BTRPI) and Kirtons KAI (1976). Fisher, Macrosson, and Wong (1998) hypothesized a correlation matrix with each of the Kirton subscales (sufficiency versus proliferation of originality; efficiency; rule/group conformity) and the overall KAI score. Only 13 out of 24 subscale relationships were supported. In a later study, Aritzeta, Senior, and Swailes (2005) demonstrated stronger convergent validity between the KAI and the BTRPI. KAI subscale correlations were much more coherent than those reported by Fisher and colleagues (1998) and this was probably due to a misinterpretation of innovative and adaptive subscale scores on the part of these previous authors. Aritzeta et al. (2005) concluded that implementers, completerfinishers, team workers, and specialists will display an adaptive style; monitor evaluators and coordinators will act as bridges (moderating tensions occurring between high adaptors and innovators); and plants, shapers, and resource investigators will display an innovative cognitive style.

2.9 Reward Programmes in Organizations To understand the effect of reward systems on employee motivation, it is important to examine the concepts of reward and employee motivation. Reward has been defined in various ways by different scholars. According to Wilson (2010) reward can be defined as an external agent administered when a desired act or task is performed, that has controlling and informational properties. He went further to explain that rewards are usually administered to increase the probability of a pre-determined response although rewards can increase or decrease the probability of an event occurring, depending on the saliency and direction of the controlling and informational aspects of the reward. Rewards can be verbal, physical or tangible.
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Organizations usually use pay, promotion, bonuses and other types of reward to engender staff to increase productivity. These are management tools which when used appropriately, contribute to an organizations effectiveness by influencing individual or group behavior (Cameron and Pierce, 2007; Gomez-Mejia and Balkin, 1992). The impact of rewards on both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation has been well documented in the literature. For instance, Deci (1971) stated that in intrinsically motivated behavior, there is no reward except with the task itself while reward and recognition programmes come within the discussion on extrinsically motivated behavior that occurs when an activity is rewarded by incentives that are not inherent in the task. According to Page (2008), rewards can be defines as something that increases the frequency of an employee action which leads to improved performance. He noted that rewards can be very important to employees as it helps to build their confidence and performance in the workplace and reminds them that the extra efforts they put into their work are noticed and rewarded. A cursory look at the literature reveals two main categories of reward: monetary and non-monetary with many of the researchers acknowledging the increasing importance of non-monetary rewards. The behaviourist perspective propounded by researchers like Cameron and Pierce (1994) and Eisenberger and Cameron (2006), take the view that tangible rewards like money tend to suppress intrinsic motivation in so far as it is evident in subsequent time spent on the task, but not when it is measured by verbal expressions of attitude. They found that the effect tended to occur when the reward was expected and independent of performance and concluded that tangible rewards had a small positive effect on attitude to the task if the reward was quality dependent. Verbal rewards, like praise, tended to have a positively reinforcing effect on both free time on the task and attitudes to the task. Page (2008) listed the top three non-monetary rewards that employees want as: i. Opportunity to learn, develop and advance. ii. Flexible work hours. iii. Recognition. Rewards, especially non-monetary rewards in the workplace can be creative, powerful tools used by leaders to create a motivational environment, which employees may find to be meaningful and which will help them work at their optimal levels to accomplish organizational objectives. 2.9.1 What Motivates?
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One approach to employee motivation has been to view "add-ins" to an individual's job as the primary factors in improving performance. Endless mixes of employee benefitssuch as health care, life insurance, profit sharing, employee stock ownership plans, exercise facilities, subsidized meal plans, child care availability, company cars, and morehave been used by companies in their efforts to maintain happy employees in the belief that happy employees are motivated employees. Many modern theorists, however, propose that the motivation an employee feels toward his or her job has less to do with material rewards than with the design of the job itself. Studies as far back as 1950 have shown that highly segmented and simplified jobs resulted in lower employee morale and output. Other consequences of low employee motivation include absenteeism and high turnover, both of which are very costly for any company. As a result, "job enlargement" initiatives began to crop up in major companies in the 1950s. On the academic front, Turner and Lawrence suggested that there are three basic characteristics of a "motivating" job: 1. It must allow a worker to feel personally responsible for a meaningful portion of the work accomplished. An employee must feel ownership of and connection with the work he or she performs. Even in team situations, a successful effort will foster an awareness in an individual that his or her contributions were important in accomplishing the group's tasks.
2. It must provide outcomes which have intrinsic meaning to the individual. Effective work

that does not lead a worker to feel that his or her efforts matter will not be maintained. The outcome of an employee's work must have value to himself or herself and to others in the organization. 3. It must provide the employee with feedback about his or her accomplishments. A constructive, believable critique of the work performed is crucial to a worker's motivation to improve. While terminology changes, the tenets of employee motivation remain relatively unchanged from findings over half a century ago. Today's buzzwords include "empowerment," "quality circles," and "teamwork." All of these terms demonstrate the three characteristics of motivating jobs set forth in the theory of Turner and Lawrence. Empowerment gives autonomy and allows an employee to have ownership of ideas and accomplishments, whether acting alone or in teams. Quality circles and the increasing occurrence of teams in today's work environments give
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employees opportunities to reinforce the importance of the work accomplished by members as well as receive feedback on the efficacy of that work. In small businesses, which may lack the resources to enact formal employee motivation programs, managers can nonetheless accomplish the same basic principles. In order to help employees feel like their jobs are meaningful and that their contributions are valuable to the company, the small business owner needs to communicate the company's purpose to employees. This communication should take the form of words as well as actions. In addition, the small business owner should set high standards for employees, but also remain supportive of their efforts when goals can not be reached. It may also be helpful to allow employees as much autonomy and flexibility as possible in how their jobs are performed. Creativity will be encouraged if honest mistakes are corrected but not punished. Finally, the small business owner should take steps to incorporate the vision of employees for the company with his or her own vision. This will motivate employees to contribute to the small business's goals, as well as help prevent stagnation in its direction and purpose. Motivation Methods: There are as many different methods of motivating employees today as there are companies operating in the global business environment. Still, some strategies are prevalent across all organizations striving to improve employee motivation. The best employee motivation efforts will focus on what the employees deem to be important. It may be that employees within the same department of the same organization will have different motivators. Many organizations today find that flexibility in job design and reward systems has resulted in employees' increased longevity with the company, improved productivity, and better morale. Empowerment: Giving employees more responsibility and decision-making authority increases their realm of control over the tasks for which they are held responsible and better equips them to carry out those tasks. As a result, feelings of frustration arising from being held accountable for something one does not have the resources to carry out are diminished. Energy is diverted from self-preservation to improved task accomplishment. Creativity and innovation: At many companies, employees with creative ideas do not express them to management for fear that their input will be ignored or ridiculed. Company approval and toeing the company line have become so ingrained in some working environments that both the employee and the organization suffer. When the power to create in the organization is pushed down from the top to line personnel, employees who know a job, product, or service best are
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given the opportunity to use their ideas to improve it. The power to create motivates employees and benefits the organization in having a more flexible work force, using more wisely the experience of its employees, and increasing the exchange of ideas and information among employees and departments. These improvements also create an openness to change that can give a company the ability to respond quickly to market changes and sustain a first mover advantage in the marketplace. Learning: If employees are given the tools and the opportunities to accomplish more, most will take on the challenge. Companies can motivate employees to achieve more by committing to perpetual enhancement of employee skills. Accreditation and licensing programs for employees are an increasingly popular and effective way to bring about growth in employee knowledge and motivation. Often, these programs improve employees' attitudes toward the client and the company, while bolstering self-confidence. Supporting this assertion, an analysis of factors which influence motivation-to-learn found that it is directly related to the extent to which training participants believe that such participation will affect their job or career utility. In other words, if the body of knowledge gained can be applied to the work to be accomplished, then the acquisition of that knowledge will be a worthwhile event for the employee and employer. Quality Of Life: The number of hours worked each week by American workers is on the rise, and many families have two adults working those increased hours. Under these circumstances, many workers are left wondering how to meet the demands of their lives beyond the workplace. Often, this concern occurs while at work and may reduce an employee's productivity and morale. Companies that have instituted flexible employee arrangements have gained motivated employees whose productivity has increased. Programs incorporating flextime, condensed workweeks, or job sharing, for example, have been successful in focusing overwhelmed employees toward the work to be done and away from the demands of their private lives. Monetary incentive: For all the championing of alternative motivators, money still occupies a major place in the mix of motivators. The sharing of a company's profits gives incentive to employees to produce a quality product, perform a quality service, or improve the quality of a process within the company. What benefits the company directly benefits the employee. Monetary and other rewards are being given to employees for generating cost-savings or process-improving ideas, to boost productivity and reduce absenteeism. Money is effective when it is directly tied to an employee's ideas or accomplishments. Nevertheless, if not coupled with
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other, nonmonetary motivators, its motivating effects are short-lived. Further, monetary incentives can prove counterproductive if not made available to all members of the organization. Other incentives: Study after study has found that the most effective motivators of workers are nonmonetary. Monetary systems are insufficient motivators, in part because expectations often exceed results and because disparity between salaried individuals may divide rather than unite employees. Proven nonmonetary positive motivators foster team spirit and include recognition, responsibility, and advancement. Managers who recognize the "small wins" of employees, promote participatory environments, and treat employees with fairness and respect will find their employees to be more highly motivated. One company's managers brainstormed to come up with 30 powerful rewards that cost little or nothing to implement. The most effective rewards, such as letters of commendation and time off from work, enhanced personal ful-fillment and self-respect. Over the longer term, sincere praise and personal gestures are far more effective and more economical than awards of money alone. In the end, a program that combines monetary reward systems and satisfies intrinsic, self-actualizing needs may be the most potent employee motivator.

Motivation Concepts Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation Intrinsic motivation refers to motivation that is driven by an interest or enjoyment in the task itself, and exists within the individual rather than relying on any external pressure. Intrinsic motivation has been studied by social and educational psychologists since the early 1970s. Research has found that it is usually associated with high educational achievement and enjoyment by students. Explanations of intrinsic motivation have been given in the context of Fritz Heider's attribution theory, Bandura's work on self-efficacy, and Deci and Ryan's cognitive evaluation theory (see self-determination theory). Students are likely to be intrinsically motivated if they:

attribute their educational results to internal factors that they can control (e.g. the amount of effort they put in), believe they can be effective agents in reaching desired goals (i.e. the results are not determined by luck),
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are interested in mastering a topic, rather than just rote-learning to achieve good grades.

Extrinsic motivation comes from outside of the individual. Common extrinsic motivations are rewards like money and grades, coercion and threat of punishment. Competition is in general extrinsic because it encourages the performer to win and beat others, not to enjoy the intrinsic rewards of the activity. A crowd cheering on the individual and trophies are also extrinsic incentives. Social psychological research has indicated that extrinsic rewards can lead to over justification and a subsequent reduction in intrinsic motivation. In one study demonstrating this effect, children who expected to be (and were) rewarded with a ribbon and a gold star for drawing pictures spent less time playing with the drawing materials in subsequent observations than children who were assigned to an unexpected reward condition and to children who received no extrinsic reward. Self-determination theory proposes that extrinsic motivation can be internalised by the individual if the task fits with their values and beliefs and therefore helps to fulfill their basic psychological needs. 2.9.2 Self-control The self-control of motivation is increasingly understood as a subset of emotional intelligence; a person may be highly intelligent according to a more conservative definition (as measured by many intelligence tests), yet unmotivated to dedicate this intelligence to certain tasks. Yale School of Management professor Victor Vroom's "expectancy theory" provides an account of when people will decide whether to exert self control to pursue a particular goal. Drives and desires can be described as a deficiency or need that activates behavior that is aimed at a goal or an incentive. These are thought to originate within the individual and may not require external stimuli to encourage the behavior. Basic drives could be sparked by deficiencies such as hunger, which motivates a person to seek food; whereas more subtle drives might be the desire for praise and approval, which motivates a person to behave in a manner pleasing to others. By contrast, the role of extrinsic rewards and stimuli can be seen in the example of training animals by giving them treats when they perform a trick correctly. The treat motivates the animals to perform the trick consistently, even later when the treat is removed from the process.
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2.10 Motivational theories

Incentive theory
A reward, tangible or intangible, is presented after the occurrence of an action (i.e. behavior) with the intent to cause the behavior to occur again. This is done by associating positive meaning to the behavior. Studies show that if the person receives the reward immediately, the effect would be greater, and decreases as duration lengthens. Repetitive actionreward combination can cause the action to become habit. Motivation comes from two sources: oneself, and other people. These two sources are called intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation, respectively. Reinforcers and reinforcement principles of behavior differ from the hypothetical construct of reward. A reinforcer is any stimulus change following a response that increases the future frequency or magnitude of that response. Positive reinforcement is demonstrated by an increase in the future frequency or magnitude of a response due to in the past being followed contingently by a reinforcing stimulus. Negative reinforcement involves stimulus change consisting of the removal of an aversive stimulus following a response. Positive reinforcement involves a stimulus change consisting of the presentation or magnification of an appetitive stimulus following a response. From this perspective, motivation is mediated by environmental events, and the concept of distinguishing between intrinsic and extrinsic forces is irrelevant. Applying proper motivational techniques can be much harder than it seems. Steven Kerr notes that when creating a reward system, it can be easy to reward A, while hoping for B, and in the process, reap harmful effects that can jeopardize your goals. Incentive theory in psychology treats motivation and behavior of the individual as they are influenced by beliefs, such as engaging in activities that are expected to be profitable. Incentive theory is promoted by behavioral psychologists, such as B.F. Skinner and literalized by behaviorists, especially by Skinner in his philosophy of Radical behaviorism, to mean that a person's actions always have social ramifications: and if actions are positively received people are more likely to act in this manner, or if negatively received people are less likely to act in this manner. Incentive theorists tend to distinguish between wanting and liking, where liking is a passive function evaluating a stimulus, but wanting adds an active process "attracting" the person towards the stimulus.
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Incentive theory distinguishes itself from other motivation theories, such as drive theory, in the direction of the motivation. In incentive theory, stimuli "attract", to use the term above, a person towards them. As opposed to the body seeking to reestablish homeostasis pushing it towards the stimulus. In terms of behaviorism, incentive theory involves positive reinforcement: the stimulus has been conditioned to make the person happier. For instance, a person knows that eating food, drinking water, or gaining social capital will make them happier. As opposed to in drive theory, which involves negative reinforcement: a stimulus has been associated with the removal of the punishment-- the lack of homeostasis in the body. For example, a person has come to know that if they eat when hungry, it will eliminate that negative feeling of hunger, or if they drink when thirsty, it will eliminate that negative feeling of thirst. To understand the effect of reward systems on employee motivation, it is important to examine the concepts of reward and employee motivation. Reward has been defined in various ways by different scholars. According to Wilson (2010) reward can be defined as an external agent administered when a desired act or task is performed, that has controlling and informational properties. He went further to explain that rewards are usually administered to increase the probability of a pre-determined response although rewards can increase or decrease the probability of an event occurring, depending on the saliency and direction of the controlling and informational aspects of the reward. Rewards can be verbal, physical or tangible. Organizations usually use pay, promotion, bonuses and other types of reward to engender staff to increase productivity. These are management tools which when used appropriately, contribute to an organizations effectiveness by influencing individual or group behavior (Cameron and Pierce, 2007; Gomez-Mejia and Balkin, 1992). The impact of rewards on both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation has been well documented in the literature. For instance, Deci (1971) stated that in intrinsically motivated behavior, there is no reward except with the task itself while reward and recognition programmes come within the discussion on extrinsically motivated behavior that occurs when an activity is rewarded by incentives that are not inherent in the task. According to Page (2008), rewards can be defines as something that increases the frequency of an employee action which leads to improved performance. He noted that rewards can be very important to employees as it helps to build their confidence and performance in the workplace and reminds them that the extra efforts they put into their work are noticed and rewarded. A cursory look at the literature reveals two
60

main categories of reward: monetary and non-monetary with many of the researchers acknowledging the increasing importance of non-monetary rewards. The behaviourist perspective propounded by researchers like Cameron and Pierce (1994) and Eisenberger and Cameron (2006), take the view that tangible rewards like money tend to suppress intrinsic motivation in so far as it is evident in subsequent time spent on the task, but not when it is measured by verbal expressions of attitude. They found that the effect tended to occur when the reward was expected and independent of performance and concluded that tangible rewards had a small positive effect on attitude to the task if the reward was quality dependent. Verbal rewards, like praise, tended to have a positively reinforcing effect on both free time on the task and attitudes to the task. Page (2008) listed the top three non-monetary rewards that employees want as: i. Opportunity to learn, develop and advance. ii. Flexible work hours. iii. Recognition. Rewards, especially non-monetary rewards in the workplace can be creative, powerful tools used by leaders to create a motivational environment, which employees may find to be meaningful and which will help them work at their optimal levels to accomplish organizational objectives. Employee Motivation The word motivation was originally derived from the Latin word movre which means to move. However, over time various researchers have attempted to have a more comprehensive definition of the word and motivation has been defined in different ways, most of them agree that it is a goal-directed behaviour. Butkus and Green (1999) stated that the word motivation is derived from the word motivate which means to move, push or persuade to act to satisfy a need. However, Mol (1992) differentiated between the terms movement and motivation. He described movement as carrying out a task in order to be compensated or remunerated while motivation was the voluntary involvement and decision of a person to carry out a task. In his contribution, Baron (2003) defined motivation as a set of processes concerned with a kind of force that energizes behavior and directs it towards achieving specific goals. He went on to state that not only motivation can influence performance, but that performance can also influence motivation, if followed by rewards. He concluded that organizations could benefit from implementing total reward programmes that focus on formal reward policies. In addition, he argued that there is a very close relationship between motivation and job performance, noting that performance and motivation are directly proportional to each other. Page (2008) in his
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article on non-monetary incentives in the workplace, defined motivation as the process that accounts for an individuals intensity, direction and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal. Thus, from the various definitions, it can be seen that primary concerns while discussing motivation are what energizes, channelizes, and sustains human behavior. Motivation has also been defined as the psychological process that gives behavior purpose and direction (Kreitner, 2005); a predisposition to behave in a purposive manner to achieve specific, unmet needs (Buford et. al., 2005); an internal drive to satisfy an unsatisfied need (Higgins, 1994) and as the inner force that drives individuals to accomplish personal and organizational goals (Lindner, 1998). In their contribution, Shah and Shah (2010) defined motivation as inspiring people to work, individually or in groups in such a way as to produce best results; it is the will to act. They further stated that motivation is a general term applied to the entire class of drives, desires, needs, wishes and similar forces. They noted that to say that managers motivate their subordinates is to say that they do those things which they hope will satisfy these drives and desires and induce the subordinates to act in a desired manner. Shah and Shah (2010) listed the requisites to motivation as:

We have to be motivated to motivate Motivation requires a goal Motivation once established, does not last if not repeated Motivation requires recognition Participation has motivating effect Seeing ourselves progressing motivates us Challenge only motivates if you can win Everybody has a motivational fuse i.e. everybody can be motivated Group belonging motivates.

McCullagh (2005) classified motivation into two: intrinsic (self-motivated) and extrinsic motivation. He defined intrinsic motivation as an individuals need to feel competency and pride in something while extrinsic motivation is the performance of an activity in order to attain some separate outcome and noted that people can be both intrinsically and extrinsically motivated. Deci (2005) in a report of an experiment concluded that if people are paid to do something they would otherwise have done out of interest, they will be less likely to do it in future without being

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paid. For this paper, the operational definition of motivation is a stimulus or force that drives an employee to do what he set out to do in order to achieve his personal and organizational goals. Motivation theories In the early 20th century, money was regarded as the most important input into the production of goods and services. However, after a series of researches, known as the Hawthorne Studies, conducted by Elton Mayo from 1924-1932 at the Hawthorne Works of the American Western Electricity Company in Chicago, it was observed that employees were not motivated solely by money but that employee behavior was linked to their attitudes (Dickson, 1973). The Hawthorne studies began the human relations approach to management, whereby the needs and motivation of employees become the primary focus of managers (Bedeian, 1993). Many theories have been propounded to examine the factors that contribute to employee motivation in an organization. These theories are important because they provide explanations to the reasons why employees are motivated, therefore, if properly applied; they could lead to having better motivated employees which ultimately may lead to increased productivity in organizations. The earliest motivation theories (pre-1960s) include, among others, Abraham Maslows need hierarchy theory (1943); Fredrick Herzbergs dual factor theory (1959), and B.F. Skinners reinforcement theory (1953). i. Abraham Maslows Need Hierarchy Theory (1943): Maslows theory on the hierarchy of needs is one of the most popular theories of motivation. Maslow (1943) stated that employees had five levels of needs and that human needs were in the form of a hierarchy ascending from the lowest to the highest. He posited that no need can be fully gratified and that when a need that is substantially satisfied, it ceases to be a motivator. Maslow theorized that the lower level needs have to be satisfied before the next higher level need would motivate an employee. He concluded that to meet the needs of an employee, the employer had to understand the hierarchy of the need to which the employee belongs. Maslow categorized human needs as: a. Physiological needs these are needs that focus on sustaining human life such as food, water, warmth, shelter, sleep, medicine and education. Maslow stated that until these basic needs are satisfied to a large extent, no other motivating factor can operate. b. Security or Safety needs these are the next in hierarchy and focus on being free of physical danger and the fear of losing a job, property, food or shelter as well as protection against emotional disappointment.
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c. Social needs these are the needs that deal with the social aspect of man such as the need to belong and be accepted by others. It is the need for affection, acceptance and friendship. d. Esteem needs Maslow posited that as soon as people satisfy the need to belong, the next higher level of need is the need to be held in high esteem by themselves and others. He stated that these kinds of need produce performance through power, prestige, status and selfconfidence. It includes internal esteem factors such as self-respect, autonomy, and achievements and external factors such as status, recognition and attention. e. Need for self-actualization this is the highest need in the hierarchy. It is the drive to become what one is capable of becoming, to maximize your full potential and to accomplish something. It includes needs such as growth, achieving ones potential and self-fulfillment. Frederick Herzbergs Dual Factor or Hygiene Theory (Herzberg et. al., 1959): Herzbergs theory is a modification of Maslows theory. He based his theory on two types of motivators factors that result in performance with ones job and those that result in disperformance for employees at work. He stated that intrinsic factors are related to job performance while extrinsic factors relate to disperformance. His theory was based on the question What do people want from their jobs?. From the responses he received, he concluded that removing dissatisfying characteristics from a job does not necessarily make the job satisfying. He identified two major factors (motivators and hygiene factors) that could lead to job performance. He noted that the motivators are intrinsic factors that permit psychological growth and development on the job such as achievement, recognition, responsibility, advancement, challenges and the work itself. On the other hand, hygiene factors are extrinsic and describe the conditions of work rather than the work itself. These include job security, salary, work conditions, company policy, administration, supervision, interpersonal relations with subordinates and supervisors, status and so on. Herzberg concluded that employers should be concerned with the job itself and not only with the work conditions. ii B. F. Skinners Reinforcement Theory (Skinner, 1953): Skinner believes that the best way to motivate an employee is to continuously make positive changes in the external work environment. He noted that in as much as internal factors such as impressions, feelings, attitudes and other cognitive behaviours affect employees; individuals are directed by what happens in the external environment of the organization. He

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concluded that managers should positively reinforce employee behaviours that lead to positive outcomes while behaviours that lead to negative outcomes should not be reinforced. Factors That Influence Employee Motivation Research has shown that a number of factors affect employee motivation. Lindner (1998) in his paper on understanding employee motivation examined the ranked importance of ten motivating factors of employees at the Ohio State Universitys Piketon Research and Extension Centre and Enterprise Centre. He observed that the ranked order of motivating factors was: i. Interesting work. ii. Good wages. iii. Full appreciation of work done. iv. Job security v. Good working conditions. vi. Promotions and growth in the organization. vii. Feeling of being in on things. viii. Personal loyalty to employees. ix. Tactful discipline. x. Sympathetic help with personal problems. Kovach (1987) also conducted a similar study to find out the ranked order of motivational factors of industrial employees. He found that the ranked order was: i. Interesting work. ii. Full appreciation of work done. iii. Feeling of being in on things. Similarly, Harpaz (1990) listed the three most motivating factors as: i. interesting work. ii. good wages and iii. job security. Furthermore, Mosley et. al. (2001) noted that there were three levels of employee motivation, namely: the direction of an employees behavior, the level of effort and the level of persistence. In 1989, Daschler and Ninemeier investigated what employees may seek from the work environment and concluded that: Employees are individuals that come from different backgrounds, have different education with different experiences and their different family classes are all the factors in which their needs should be located. The primary interest of employees is to satisfy their personal needs, ambitions, desires and goals. An employee wants to satisfy his basic needs, linked to survival and security concerns and a desire to belong, to generate positive feelings from within and from others, and to be self-fulfilled. Most employees want fair and consistent company policies in matters affecting them; management that they can respect and trust; adequate working relationships with managers and co-workers; acceptable salaries and working environment; appropriate job Security assurance; favorable job status; challenging work; work that yields a sense of personal achievement; expression of appreciation for good performance; increased
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responsibility; a chance to grow on the job; the feeling of importance and making a contribution to the organization; and participation in job-related matters that affect the employees. The discrepancies in these research findings supports the idea that what motivates an employee differs from one employee to the other, from one organization to the other and at different time periods. A comparison of these findings gives some interesting insight into employee motivation. Job security which was ranked number one is a safety need. In a developing country such as Nigeria where unemployment levels are very high and at a time when there is global economic recession, governments are being forced to cut spending and cut jobs, thereby creating fear among employees. It is, therefore, not surprising that employees of the National Library of Nigeria ranked security as the most important motivating factor. Good salary which was ranked number two is a physiological need. Again, this is a pointer to the fact that Nigeria is a developing country and therefore people are still concerned with basic needs such as physiological needs. The number three ranked factor, interesting work is a self-actualization factor which is the last factor that is addressed in Maslows theory. The fourth ranked factor, good working conditions, is a social need. The fifth ranking factors are both physiological (promotion) and self-actualization (training) factors. The seventh ranked factors, full appreciation of work done, fair play, power and interpersonal relationship with colleagues and the eleventh ranked factors (welfare, feeling of being in on things and competition) are also a mixture of esteem and social needs in Maslows hierarchy theory. The fourteenth set of ranked factors, self-actualization, personal loyalty to employees, self-esteem and tactful discipline are self-actualization, esteem and social needs respectively. The eighteenth and last set of ranked factors are meeting target, mentoring and multi-tasking which are self-actualization needs. The results of this study is different from some of the studies carried out in more developed countries which tend to rank interesting work as the highest motivating factor (Lindner, 1998; Kovach, 1987; Harpaz, 1990). Maslows theory which lists physiological and safety needs as the basic needs to be met before others is to some extent upheld by this study. However, contrary to Maslows theory, the range of other motivational factors in the National Library of Nigeria is mixed. Therefore, Maslows conclusions that lower level motivational factors must be met before ascending to the next level were not confirmed by this study.
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The implications of this study for the management of the National Library of Nigeria are numerous. If the management wants to address the issue of employee motivation, the main focus should be on addressing the security and safety issues. Staff must be re-assured that their jobs are secure if they perform well and the fear of losing ones job must be addressed. This is likely to boost the morale of staff and motivate them to better performance. Although the management of the National Library of Nigeria may not be able to directly address the second factor salary by unilaterally increasing pay outside the public service prescription, it is important that management is aware of the issue and find others ways of compensating staff, where possible. The third, fourth and fifth factors which are self-actualization (interesting work, promotion) and social (good working conditions) factors implies that management needs to find ways of improving the work conditions, increasing training programmes and running programmes that help staff pass their promotion examinations. These can be addressed by providing a cleaner office, doing maintenance work at the appropriate time, providing the necessary work tools, running in-house training programmes and so on. Other ways of addressing self-actualization needs may include job enrichment, job enlargement and using nonmonetary rewards. The results of this study were also compared with Herzbergs theory (1959). Herzbergs conclusion that employees should be more concerned with intrinsic factors such as achievement, recognition, responsibility, advancement and challenges do not hold in the National Library of Nigeria. Rather, the study shows that staffs are more concerned about extrinsic factors such as job security, salary and work conditions. Therefore, more efforts should be focused on improving extrinsic factors in order to get staff better motivated. Regardless of which theory is applied, the policy that should be put in place should take cognizance of the fact that employee salary, job security and interesting work appear to be important links to higher motivation. Therefore, as observed by Lindner (1998), options such as job enlargement (number of tasks), job enrichment (variety of work), promotions, internal and external stipends, monetary and non-monetary rewards should be considered in developing a policy on employee motivation. Along with perception, personality, attitudes, and learning, motivation is a very important part of understanding behaviour. Luthan (1998) asserts that motivation should not be thought of as the only explanation of behaviour, since it interacts with and acts in conjunction with other mediating processes and with the environment. Luthan stress that, like the other cognitive process, motivation cannot be seen. All that can be seen is behaviour, and this should not be
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equated with causes of behaviour. While recognizing the central role of motivation, Evans (1998) states that many recent theories of organizational behaviour find it important for the field to re-emphasize behaviour. Definitions of motivation abound. One thing these definitions have in common is the inclusion of words such as "desire", "want", "wishes","aim","goals", "needs", and" incentives". Luthan (1998) defines motivation as, a process that starts with a physiological deficiency or need that activates a behaviour or a drive that is aimed at a goal incentive. Therefore, the key to understanding the process of motivation lies in the meaning of, and relationship among, needs, drives, and incentives. Relative to this, Minner, Ebrahimi, and Watchel, (2005) state that in a system sense, motivation consists of these three interacting and interdependent elements, i.e., needs, drives, and incentives. Managers and management researchers have long believe that organizational goals are unattainable without the enduring commitment of members of the organizations. Motivation is a human psychological characteristic that contributes to a person's degree of commitment (Stoke, 1999). It includes the factors that cause, channel, and sustain human behaviour in a particular committed direction. Stoke, in Adeyemo (1999) goes on to say that there are basic assumptions of motivation practices by managers which must be understood. First, that motivation is commonly assumed to be a good thing. One cannot feel very good about oneself if one is not motivated. Second, motivation is one of several factors that go into a person's performance (e.g., as a librarian). Factors such as ability, resources, and conditions under which one performs are also important. Third, managers and researchers alike assume that motivation is in short supply and in need of periodic replenishment. Fourth, motivation is a tool with which managers can use in organizations. If managers know what drives the people working for them, they can tailor job assignments and rewards to what makes these people tick. Motivation can also be conceived of as whatever it takes to encourage workers to perform by fulfilling or appealing to their needs. To Olajide (2000), it is goal-directed, and therefore cannot be outside the goals of any organization whether public, private, or nonprofit. Strategies of Motivating Workers Bernard in Stoner, et al. (2005) accords due recognition to the needs of workers saying that, "the ultimate test of organizational success is its ability to create values sufficient to compensate for the burdens imposed upon resources contributed." Bernard looks at workers, in
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particular librarians, in an organized endeavour, putting in time and efforts for personal, economic, and non-economic performance. In this era of the information superhighway, employers of information professionals or librarians must be careful to meet their needs. Otherwise, they will discover they are losing their talented and creative professionals to other organizations who are ready and willing to meet their needs and demands. The question here is what strategies can be used to motivate information professionals, particularly librarians? The following are strategies: Salary, Wages and Conditions of Service: To use salaries as a motivator effectively, personnel managers must consider four major components of a salary structures. These are the job rate, which relates to the importance the organization attaches to each job; payment, which encourages workers or groups by rewarding them according to their performance; personal or special allowances, associated with factors such as scarcity of particular skills or certain categories of information professionals or librarians, or with long service; and fringe benefits such as holidays with pay, pensions, and so on. It is also important to ensure that the prevailing pay in other library or information establishments is taken into consideration in determining the pay structure of their organization. Money: Akintoye (2000) asserts that money remains the most significant motivational strategy. As far back as 1911, Frederick Taylor and his scientific management associate described money as the most important factor in motivating the industrial workers to achieve greater productivity. Taylor advocated the establishment of incentive wage systems as a means of stimulating workers to higher performance, commitment, and eventually performance. Money possesses significant motivating power in as much as it symbolizes intangible goals like security, power, prestige, and a feeling of accomplishment and success. Katz, in Sinclair, et al. (2005) demonstrates the motivational power of money through the process of job choice. He explains that money has the power to attract, retain, and motivate individuals towards higher performance. For instance, if a librarian or information professional has another job offer which has identical job characteristics with his current job, but greater financial reward, that worker would in all probability be motivated to accept the new job offer. Banjoko (2006) states that many managers use money to reward or punish workers. This is done through the process of rewarding employees for higher productivity by instilling fear of loss of job (e.g., premature retirement due to poor performance). The desire to be promoted and earn enhanced pay may also motivate employees.
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Staff Training: No matter how automated an organization or a library may be, high productivity depends on the level of motivation and the effectiveness of the workforce. Staff training is an indispensable strategy for motivating workers. The library organization must have good training programme. This will give the librarian or information professional opportunities for selfimprovement and development to meet the challenges and requirements of new equipment and new techniques of performing a task. Information Availability and Communication: One way managers can stimulate motivation is to give relevant information on the consequences of their actions on others (Olajide, 2000). To this researcher it seems that there is no known organization in which people do not usually feel there should be improvement in the way departments communicate, cooperate, and collaborate with one another. Information availability brings to bear a powerful peer pressure, where two or more people running together will run faster than when running alone or running without awareness of the pace of the other runners. By sharing information, subordinates compete with one another. Studies on work motivation seem to confirm that it improves workers' performance and performance. For example, Brown and Shepherd (1997) examine the characteristics of the work of teacher-librarians in four major categories: knowledge base, technical skills, values, and beliefs . He reports that they will succeed in meeting this challenge only if they are motivated by deeply-held values and beliefs regarding the development of a shared vision. Vinokur, Jayarantne, and Chess (1994) examine agency-influenced work and employment conditions, and assess their impact on social workers' job performance. Some motivational issues were salary, fringe benefits, job security, physical surroundings, and safety. Certain environmental and motivational factors are predictors of job performance. While Colvin (1998) shows that financial incentives will get people to do more of what they are doing, Silverthrone (2006) investigates motivation and managerial styles in the private and public sector. The results indicate that there is a little difference between the motivational needs of public and private sector employees, managers, and non-managers. McClellands need for achievement theory McClellands need theory was one of the popular motivation theories in the 1950s and his theory relates to management by objectives (Di Rodio, 2002). Robbins et al. (2003) report that McClellands theory focuses on the needs for achievement, power and affiliation. The need for achievement, according to Greenberg (1999), is where individuals strive for goals that are
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challenging, but attainable, with the hope of feedback on achievement. Greenberg (1999) further states that this need is concerned with an individuals longing to strive for personal achievement rather than the rewards of success. The need for power refers to individuals desire to control their surroundings, including people and material resources. In this regard some people have a high need for personalized power while others have a high need for socialized power (McShane & Von Glinow, n.d.). In terms of McClellands need for affiliation, Stuart-Kotze (n.d.) states that the need for affiliation is similar to Maslows need to belong. Stuart-Kotze contends that the need for affiliation manifests itself in the desire to be liked by other individuals, to be accepted in a group and to enter into warm personal relationships. Cronje et al. (2003) posit that research indicates that people with a high need for power and low need for affiliation make good managers, whilst individuals with a high need for achievement, in most instances, make successful entrepreneurs. 2.11 Process Theories Vrooms expectancy theory Vroom regarded Maslows hierarchy of needs and Herzbergs two factor theory as too simplistic and as a result put forward a model that constituted the concepts of valence (V), instrumentality (I) and expectancy (E). Vrooms theory is referred to as VIE theory. Vroom explained the scope of motivation as a process governing choices between alternative forms of voluntary activity. According to the VIE theory, most behaviours are under the voluntary control of a person (Abdullah, 2002). According to Vrooms expectancy theory, the success of motivation is dependent on two factors, namely, that the value of the outcome should be high and that the individual should be of the opinion that the task undertaken is attainable and will lead to the expected outcome (Dessler, 1988). In this regard, Vrooms theory links expectation and task accomplishment to the probability of recognition (Luthans, 2002). In support Nel et al. (2004) state that expectancy refers to an individuals belief that a certain level of effort will lead to a certain level of performance and reward.

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FIGURE BELOW IS VROOMS EXPECTANCY THEORY

A criticism of Vrooms theory however, is that he did not succeed to convert motivation to perform an act into the actual performance of that act (Bottomley, 1987). Although the theory has its criticism, most of the research evidence is supportive of the theory (Dessler, 1988). Equity theory The Equity theory of motivation suggests that individuals have a strong want to maintain a balance between what they perceive their inputs or contributions to be in relation to expected rewards (Dessler, 1988). In terms of the Equity theory, Robbins (1993) states that performance is determined by an individuals input-outcome balance. The author further mentions that performance occurs when perceived equity exists, and disperformance results when perceived inequity exists. To illustrate the Equity theory, reference is made to figure 2.3 below.

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Figure Below Is Equity Theory

In terms of the theory, individuals regard a state of equity to exist when their job inputs in relation to their job outputs are equivalent to that of relevant others. In this regard a situation of fairness is said to exist (Robbins, 1993). Employees might assess their relation to friends, neighbours, co-workers, colleagues in other organisations or previous jobs they themselves have occupied (Robbins, 1993). Similarly, Robbins et al. (2003) concur that employees compare their job inputs (such as their contribution, experience, education and competence) to their job outputs (salary levels, salary increases and recognition) in relation to that of others. Similarly, inequity exists when there is a perception amongst employees that they are under-rewarded relevant to others or whether they are overrewarded in relation to their job outputs. The resultant effect is that individuals might contribute less in the workplace if they are of the opinion that they are being underpaid. On the other hand, employees might offer more in terms of their expected job outputs as they may be more motivated to contribute if a job pays well in comparison to their job outputs (Dessler, 1988). Goal setting theory Locke (1968 cited in Robbins et al., 2003) proposed that aiming towards attaining a goal is a significant source of work motivation. According to Heery and Noon (2001), the goal setting theory stems from the notion that the behaviour of employees can be changed by influencing their goals and targets. Nel et al. (2004) add that employees are motivated if they are aware of what needs to be done in achieving a specific goal, irrespective of the difficulties they might encounter in doing so. They refer to the Management By Objectives (MBO) technique that
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harbours employee involvement in goal-setting, decision-making and feedback. Robbins (1998) states that employees will perform better if they get continuous feedback in terms of how well they are progressing toward their goals. Furthermore, Robbins (1998) adds that continuous feedback will also identify possible discrepancies that might hamper the achievement of attaining goals. Employees granted the opportunity to be involved in the preparation of their own goals would be more committed in achieving such goals. Heery and Noon (2001, p. 142) note four general principles to elicit high performance and increase motivation in terms of the goal setting theory:

goals should be challenging but attainable; goals should be specific rather than vague; employees should be involved in the process, setting their own goals; and goals should be measurable in terms clearly understood by employees.

2.12 The Antecedents of Job Performance The factors affecting job performance can be divided into two main areas, namely, personal determinants and organisational factors (Nel et al., 2004). Personal Determinants Studies investigating job performance indicate that personal determinants such as race, gender, educational level, tenure, age and marital status impact on job performance. Race Research evidence with regard to the relationship between race and job performance have yielded inconsistent results (Friday, Moss & Friday, 2004). Research conducted by Gavin and Ewen (1974) cited in Friday et al. (2004) on various occupational classes consisting of blue collar and white collar employees, reflected that African employees experienced higher levels of job performance than the other racial groups. On the other hand, a number of studies have also found that White employees amongst different occupational classes experienced higher levels of job performance in comparison to African employees (Strawser & Slocum (1972), OReilly & Roberts (1973), Milutinovich (2007), Gold, Webb & Smith (1982), Davis (2005), Greenhaus, Parasuraman & Wormley (1990), Martin & Tuch (2001) all cited in Friday et al., 2004). A survey conducted by Henault (2004) investigating job performance amongst American Library
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personnels executives revealed that minorities continued to lag behind their White counterparts. A number of studies have also found that race based differences in relation to job performance can be attributed to group homogeneity. The results from these studies reflect that as homogeneity in the group increases, members of the group experience an increase in job performance (Jackson (2001), Egan, OReilly & Tsui (1992) cited in Jones & Schaubroeck, 2004). Studies indicating the relationship between race and job performance within the South African context are however, limited. An investigation by Erasmus (1998) from the Unisa Business Leadership School, found a difference in job performance between White and African females within a human resources profession. The researcher reports that White females were found to be more satisfied than their African female colleagues. The research highlighted factors such as pay and benefits causing disperformance amongst African females. Findings of another study conducted in 2000 among readers of the apartment section of the South African Business Times, revealed that African respondents are more likely to feel less secure in their positions than their White counterparts. Reasons cited for their feeling of lack of job security were as a result of restructuring, affirmative action or shrinking of industry sectors (Robbins et al., 2003). Gender Several studies conducted with regard to the relationship between gender and job performance have yielded contradictory results (Chiu, 1998). A study conducted by Murray and Atkinson (1981) investigating gender differences in determinants of job performance, reflected that females attach more importance to social factors, while males place greater value on pay, advancement and other extrinsic aspects. In support, Tang and Talpade (1999) maintain that there is a significant difference between males and females in terms of job dimensions impacting on job performance. Their study found that men tend to have higher performance with remuneration in relation to females, while females tended to have higher performance with coworkers than males. Findings of a survey looking at issues affecting women in the South African workforce indicated similar findings with regard to females. The majority of respondents revealed that they were satisfied with their jobs. The factors that contributed the most to their job performance were the company of co-workers, the opportunity to learn new things and factors inherent in the job itself (Robbins et al., 2003). Oshagbemi (2000) however, failed to find that gender affects job performance. Similarly, Donohue and Heywood (2004) could not prove

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gender performance differences in a study conducted amongst young American and British employees. Contrary to the above, Robbins et al. (2003) argue that no evidence exists suggesting that gender impacts on an employees job performance. The authors are of the opinion that gender differences can have an effect on the relationship between job dimensions and job performance, but that it does not have a direct impact on job performance. Educational level Studies conducted on the relationship between the level of education and job performance showed no consistent pattern (Kh Metle, 2003). An investigation by Crossman and Abou-Zaki (2003) in the Lebanese banking sector found that no statistically significant relationship existed between job performance and education (p = 0.094). Although the relationship was not significant, their research found that a relationship between job performance and education existed. In this regard respondents in possession of a school certificate reported the lowest level of overall job performance, while employees with a college certificate reported the highest level of overall job performance. The researchers highlighted possible factors such as a lack of skills and less favourable treatment by management as contributing to lower performance levels among staff in possession of a school certificate. However, a similar study conducted by (Kh Metle, 2003) amongst Kuwaiti women employed in a public government sector environment, showed that a strong relationship existed between the level of education and overall job performance. Of the employees surveyed, 90% were in possession of a post graduate qualification. Employees in possession of an intermediate level qualification reported higher levels of performance in relation to those employees who have higher levels of education. Kh Metle (2003) suggests that job performance decreases in relation to an increase in the level of education as the expectations of employees are often not met by employers. To concur with this finding, results obtained from a study conducted by Johnson and Johnson (2000) whereby 288 employees in the American postal services were surveyed, found perceived over-qualification to have a negative relationship with the dimensions of job performance. Tenure Tenure refers to the number of years an employee has spent working (Oshagbemi, 2003). According to Bedeian, Ferris and Kacmar (1992) cited in Robbins et al. (2003), tenure and job performance is positively related. Ronen (1978) cited in Oshagbemi (2003) found tenure to have a U-shaped relationship with job performance. In this respect, Ronen maintains that employee
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performance declines within the first year of employment and remains low for several years, after which it increases. Furthermore, he maintains that employee expectations are high at the time of appointment, but when these expectations are not met, the resultant effect leads to a drop in job performance. As the employee becomes more mature and experienced, the initial expectations decline to a more realistic level thereby making such expectations more attainable, coinciding with increased job performance. Research conducted by Mottaz (1988) amongst nurses in the United States of America found a significant increase in job performance with length of time on the job. Clarke, Oswald and Warr (2006) contend that employees with longer service may experience higher performance levels because the job matches their personal needs. In this regard, Mottaz (1987) cited in Sarker, Crossman, & Chinmeteepituck (2003) adds that employees with long service tend to adjust their work values to the conditions of the workplace resulting in greater job performance. Oshagbemi (2000) attribute the increase in job performance over the length of time to factors such as job stability and opportunities for promotion. Contrary to the above, Savery (2006) cited in Sarker et al. (2003) states that longer tenure in a job may lead to boredom and lower levels of job performance. Similarly, Clarke et al. (2006) maintain that longer tenure does not necessarily lead to increased levels of job performance. The researchers cite low job mobility and external labour market conditions as possible factors contributing to lower levels of job performance. Age Mixed evidence exists regarding the relationship between age and job performance (Robbins et al., 2003). According to Greenberg and Baron (2005), older employees are generally happier with their jobs than younger employees, while people who are more experienced in their jobs are more highly satisfied than those who are less experienced. This view is supported by Drafke and Kossen (2002). The researchers state that job performance typically increases with age as older workers have more work experience and generally have a more realistic view of work and life in comparison to their younger counterparts. They are of the opinion that younger workers have less experience to draw on and have an idealistic view of what work should be like. Research conducted by Okpara (2004) amongst managers within an IT environment found a significant relationship between job performance and age. Similarly, earlier research supported this finding. Rhodes (1982) cited in Oshagbemi (2003) supports the findings that the relationship between job performance and age is significant. The author reached this conclusion after a
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review of the findings of seven other separate studies conducted on the relationship between age and job performance. Robbins et al. (2003) report that although most studies indicate a positive relationship between age and job performance, other studies reflect a decrease in performance as employees move towards middle age, at least up to the age of 60. Performance increases again from around 40 and on. The authors refer to this phenomenon as the U-shaped relationship. Mottaz (1987) in Oshagbemi (2003) cited several reasons for the variance in job performance between older and younger workers. Mottazs view is that younger workers are generally more dissatisfied than older employees because they demand more than their jobs can provide. The author postulates that older workers possess more seniority and work experience enabling them to move easily into more rewarding and satisfying jobs. Older workers place less emphasis on autonomy or promotion, thus they demand less from their jobs, making them more satisfied than their younger counterparts. Workers tend to adjust to work values and the work environment the longer they are employed, adding to greater job performance. Marital status Research on the effect of marital status on job performance has yielded inconclusive results (Robbins et al., 2003). The results of a study conducted by Kuo and Chen (2004) investigating the level of job performance amongst IT personnel working in Taiwan, found marital status to be highly related to general, intrinsic and overall performance. They reported that the results of the study indicated that married employees experienced higher levels of job performance in comparison to that of single employees. Research conducted by Cimete, Gencalp and Keskin (2003) which involved 501 nurses employed at two university hospitals in Istanbul, established that the job performance mean score of divorcees and widows was higher than that of single and married groups. The difference between the mean scores was significant. Research conducted by Jamal and Baba (1992) also found a significant relationship between job performance and marital status.

Organisational factors The organizational factors impacting on job performance include the work itself, remuneration/pay, supervision, promotion opportunities, co-workers, job status and job level.
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The work itself Locke (2005) postulates that employee job performance is dependent on performance with the job components, such as the work itself. Robbins et al. (2003, p. 77) refer to the work itself as the extent to which the job provides the individual with stimulating tasks, opportunities for learning and personal growth, and the chance to be responsible and accountable for results. According to Robbins (1993), employees prefer jobs that present them with opportunities to execute their competencies on a variety of tasks and that are mentally stimulating. This view is supported by Lacey (1994) who states that individuals are more satisfied with the work itself when they engage in tasks that are mentally and physically stimulating. Robbins et al. (2003) posits that jobs that are unchallenging lead to boredom and frustration. Contrary to the above, Johns (2006) is of the opinion that some employees prefer jobs that are unchallenging and less demanding. Research conducted by Vitell and Davis (1990) which involved employees in a management information system environment, found a statistically significant relationship between job performance and the dimension of work itself. Results from other studies conducted indicate that a dimension such as the work itself can result in either job performance or disperformance (Oshagbemi, 1997; Ruthankoon & Ogunlana, 2003). Remuneration/pay Research appears to be equivocal regarding the influence of pay on job performance. According to Bassett (1994), a lack of empirical evidence exists to indicate that pay alone improves worker performance or reduces disperformance. The author is of the opinion that highly paid employees may still be dissatisfied if they do not like the nature of their job and feel they cannot enter a more satisfying job. In a study conducted by Oshagbemi (2000) amongst United Kingdom academics, a statistically significant relationship between pay and rank of employees and their level of job performance was established. However, a study conducted by Young, Worchel and Woehr (1998) in the public sector failed to find any significant relationship between pay and performance. Similarly, results from a survey conducted by Brainard (2005) amongst postdoctoral scientific researchers found pay and benefits to be weakly associated with job performance. The existence of both financial reward and recognition has been found to have a significant influence on knowledge workers (Arnolds & Boshoff, 2004; Kinnear, 1999; Kinnear & Sutherland, 2000). Individuals view their remuneration as an indication of their value to the organisation. They compare their inputs to received outputs relevant to that of others (Nel
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et al., 2004). This view is supported by Sweeney and McFarlin (2005) who concur that comparisons with similar others are important predictors of pay performance. Their study, which was based on the social comparison theory, highlighted the fact that comparisons to similar others impacts on pay performance. According to Boggie (2005), inequity in terms of lack of recognition and poor pay often contribute to a problem with employee retention. Supervision Research demonstrates that a positive relationship exists between job performance and supervision (Koustelios, 2001; Peterson, Puia & Suess, 2003; Smucker, Whisenant, & Pederson, 2003). Supervision forms a pivotal role relating to job performance in terms of the ability of the supervisor to provide emotional and technical support and guidance with workrelated tasks (Robbins et al., 2003). According to Ramsey (1997), supervisors contribute to high or low morale in the workplace. The supervisors attitude and behaviour toward employees may also be a contributing factor to job-related complaints (Sherman & Bohlander, 1992). Supervisors with high relationship behaviour strongly impact on job performance (Graham & Messner, 1998). Wech (2002) supports this view by adding that supervisory behaviour strongly affects the development of trust in relationships with employees. The author further postulates that trust may, in turn, have a significant relationship with job performance. A study conducted by Packard and Kauppi (1999) found that employees with supervisors displaying democratic management styles experienced higher levels of job performance compared to those who had supervisors who exhibited autocratic or liassez faire leadership styles. Brewer and Hensher (1998) contend that supervisors whose leadership styles emphasise consideration and concern for employees generally have more satisfied workers than supervisors practicing task structuring and concern for production. Bassett (1994) maintains that supervisors bringing the humanistic part to the job, by being considerate toward their employees, contribute towards increasing the employees level of job performance.

Promotion opportunities A number of researchers are of the opinion that job performance is strongly related to opportunities for promotion (Pergamit & Veum, 1999; Peterson et al., 2003; Sclafane, 1999). This view is supported in a study conducted by Ellickson and Logsdon (2002) with municipal
80

government workers where performance with promotional opportunities was found to be positively and significantly related to job performance. Kreitner and Kinicki (2001) however, state that the positive relationship between promotion and job performance is dependent on perceived equity by employees. Co-workers A number of authors maintain that having friendly and supportive colleagues contribute to increased job performance (Johns, 2006; Kreitner & Kinicki, 2001; Luthans, 1989). Findings of a survey conducted by Madison (2000) on more than 21000 women occupying the most demanding jobs indicated that those participants who lacked support from co-workers, were more likely to suffer from job disperformance. Another survey conducted amongst 1250 FoodBrand employees found that positive relationships with co-workers enhance job performance (Berta, 2005). Empirical evidence indicates that relationships with colleagues have consistently yielded significant effects on job performance of federal government workers in the United States (Ting, 1997). A study conducted by Viswesvaran, Deshpande and Joseph (1998) further corroborated previous findings that there is a positive correlation between job performance and co-workers. Job status To date, a paucity of research exists indicating the relationship between job status and job performance. Research conducted by Feather and Rauter (2004) which involved contract and permanent employees in the teaching environment in Australia, failed to establish a relationship between job status and job performance. Job level Performance surveys reflect that a positive relationship prevails between job level and job performance (Cherrington, 1994). Higher levels of job performance are usually reported by individuals occupying higher level positions in organisations as they offer better remuneration, greater variety, more challenge and better working conditions (Cherrington, 1994). Research conducted by Robie, Ryan, Schmieder, Parra and Smith (1998) corroborates the view that a positive and linear relationship exists between job performance and job level. Results of their study indicate that as job level increased, so did job performance. In support of the above, Allen (2003) postulates that job performance is strongly linked to an employees position within the company. The author concludes that the higher the ranking, the lower the job performance. In
81

contrast, Mossholder, Bedeian and Armenakis (1981) cited in Robie et al. (1998) report that job performance decreases with an increase in the job level.

2.13

The Consequences of Job Performance Numerous authors have highlighted that job performance impacts on employee

productivity, turnover, absenteeism, physical and psychological health (Johns, 2006; Luthans, 1989; Mullins, 2006). Productivity Research findings indicate that the relationship between performance and productivity is positive, but very low and inconsistent (Johns, 2006). According to Luthans (1989), although a relationship between job performance and productivity exists, the relationship between these variables is not strong. The author maintains that the most satisfied employee will not necessarily be the most productive employee. At an individual level the evidence is often inconsistent in terms of the relationship between performance and productivity, but at an organisational level a strong relationship exists between performance and productivity (Robbins et al., 2003). Physical and psychological health Spector (1997) states that individuals who dislike their jobs could experience negative health effects that are either psychological or physical. On the other hand, Luthans (2002) mentions that employees with high levels of job performance tend to experience better mental and physical health. Turnover A number of studies strongly support the view that turnover is inversely related to job performance (Griffon, Hand, Meglino & Mobley (1979) and Price (2007) cited in Robbins et al., 2003). According to French (2003), a high employee turnover rate is often prevalent in an environment where employees are highly dissatisfied. Greenberg and Baron (2005) contend that employees lacking job performance often tend to withdraw from situations and environments as a means of dealing with their disperformance. A major form of employee withdrawal is voluntary turnover. By not reporting for duty, or by resigning to seek new job prospects, individuals might be expressing their disperformance with their jobs or attempting to escape from the unpleasant aspects they may be experiencing. Phillips, Stone and Phillips (2001) concur that employee turnover is the most critical withdrawal variable. A study conducted by Steel and
82

Ovalle (1984) established a moderately strong relationship between job performance and turnover, indicating that less satisfied workers are more likely to quit their jobs. According to Lee and Mowday (1987) cited in Luthans (1989), a moderate relationship exists between performance and turnover. The researchers posit that high job performance will not necessarily contribute to a low turnover rate, but will inadvertently assist in maintaining a low turnover rate. Absenteeism Research indicates that job performance levels are related to absenteeism (Hellriegel, Slocum & Woodman, 1989). Nel et al. (2004, p. 548) maintain that absenteeism is regarded as withdrawal behaviour when it is used as a way to escape an undesirable working environment. According to Luthans (1989), various studies conducted on the relationship between performance and absenteeism indicates an inverse relationship between the two variables. Thus, when performance is high, absenteeism tends to be low. The converse indicates that when performance is low, absenteeism tends to be high. Contrary to this, the findings of a study undertaken by Johns (2006) found the association between job performance and absenteeism to be moderate. Robbins (1993) supports the view of a moderate relationship existing between performance and absenteeism. According to Robbins et al. (2003), the moderate relationship between these variables could be attributed to factors such as liberal sick leave, whereby employees are encouraged to take time off. The afore-mentioned could ultimately reduce the correlation coefficient between performance and absenteeism.

2.14 Staff Training Effective training and orientation of new employees is essential to their incorporation into library operations. Besides introducing the employee to other staff and the facility, the supervisor should be sure the employee knows how to access employee benefits and resources. The personnel policy should be reviewed so that the employee understands procedures. Depending on the job duties and responsibilities, as well as the employee's level of experience, orientation might stretch out over several weeks. For others with broad experience specific to the job, a simple review of library policies and procedures and exposure to the tools and resources

83

may be sufficient. Be sure that any training of new staff includes clear explanation of policy related to the confidentiality of public library records, (Banjoko, 2006) Supervision and Discipline Ideally, well trained employees should be able to carry out the well-defined functions of their positions without supervision. Day-to-day operations of the library can be attended to by the staff and the director can focus attention on long-range planning, deal with problems and special issues, and work with the board on policy review and mission of the library. But some level of regular supervision is necessary for the benefit of both the employee and the library. The director, as a supervisor, should be aware of the conduct and behavior of the staff in order to adjust and modify the job duties and tasks for efficient operations, or the behavior and performance of the staff to best accomplish the assigned duties, provide appropriate levels of service as defined by the board, and keep the library operating legally and in accordance with established policy. (Ajayi, 2006) The key to effective supervision is determining the appropriate amount to confirm appropriate and effective operations without being intrusive or controlling. Supervision can make the employees feel that management cares about them and their work. But too much supervision can become overbearing and can stifle creativity and personal initiative. Supervision should be a two-way communication that also allows the staff to have input on processes, and to make suggestions for better operation of the library and improved public service. Good training, appropriate supervision, and targeted coaching will minimize the need for discipline. But despite your best efforts in directing the activities of your staff, you need to have discipline options available to you and these should be outlined in the personnel policy. Progressive discipline is designed to address ongoing refusal or failure to perform normal duties. Examples of issues that can be addressed through discipline are unsatisfactory performance, chronic absenteeism or tardiness, unprofessional conduct, insubordination, or violation of established procedures or policy. Using progressive discipline does not necessarily mean you cannot terminate an employee for a first offense. Some misconduct is of such a serious nature that continued employment is not warranted and may actually be a danger or liability to the library. But in most cases, unacceptable behavior results in a warning or sanction and repeated offenses result in escalating disciplinary action, only leading to termination if the employee does

84

not respond to discipline. Options available under a progressive discipline policy include verbal reprimands, written warnings, and suspensions of varying lengths. Supervision of staff should include documentation of observed and reported employee behavior issues, work deficiencies, as well as positive comments accomplishments. These will help you establish a balanced point of view to fairly praise or redirect activities. Managers may keep their own informal records to keep tabs on an employee's job performance. These may include notes of minor incidents or infractions to establish a patter of behavior and to reference when intervention is required. Verbal directives or reprimands should be noted for reference, if necessary, in a future written reprimand. Documentation becomes formal in nature at the point of a written reprimand and the directives or memoranda should be filed in the employee's personnel file. Evaluation Formal evaluations of library employees should be conducted by their supervisors on a regular basis, and at least once per year. Traditionally, the process consists of two components. First, the supervisor should prepare a written evaluation, using an established format, of the employee's performance in conducting duties as described in the job description. The second component is an interview between the supervisor and employee to discuss the written evaluation and establish steps to modify performance for the coming year. The director or supervisor should also review job descriptions with the staff during performance evaluations. Changes should be submitted and approved by the library board. Setting specific performance measures or project goals for the forthcoming year is a good way to establish an objective means to improve job performance. The supervisor and employee can determine the frequency to review progress during the year. Poor performance can be corrected through a formal process that focuses on the job and its tasks, not on the employee and personality. Having regular written evaluations that focus on job performance makes discipline less confrontational as well. By having regular and formal feedback, the employee knows better what is expected, and the supervisor or director has opportunities to take corrective measures, initiate disciplinary processes, or adjust duties, schedules or processes to address incomplete, incorrect work or unacceptable behavior. Because the cost of hiring and training employees can be expensive, it is generally best to correct work patterns with existing staff than to terminate

85

employees and hire anew. But if an employee needs to be fired when other measures have failed, the library should have adequate documentation to support the termination. Recent criticism that traditional annual performance appraisals are not productive for either employees or management has led to alternative evaluation methods that rely more on goal setting, dialog, and coaching, and less on criticism and rankings. Many options can be found in human resource literature. Common among many is to establish expectations the director and employee have for the job, the specific work to be performed, and how performance will be measured. They establish a common understanding of how to assess progress toward those expectations and goals through regular communication and coaching, and how to incorporate different options or change goals as tasks or circumstances change. Progress is documented throughout the process and during a more formal annual appraisal the participants can incorporate annual and long range goals and chart a course of action for the subsequent year that is driven by the library's mission and budget.

Continuing education for library staff Library staff members, regardless of their level of employment, should have the opportunity to continue to expand their knowledge of library practice, communication skills, and library technology related to their job responsibilities through participation in workshops, conferences, and other continuing education activities. It is recommended that the library adequately budget for staff continuing education and professional activities, including paid work time for attendance, registration fees, and travel costs. Wisconsin library directors must participate in continuing education as required by Wisconsin librarian certification and recertification rules. Volunteers Many public libraries cannot survive without volunteers. But neither can libraries survive on volunteers alone. A library can effectively use volunteers to supplement and support the activities by regular library staff. But there are some duties that are best left to trained employees who are adequately compensated for their time and experience. Too much reliance on volunteers to complete traditional library services such as circulation and reference leaves the library vulnerable to sporadic levels of service, inadequate control of service quality, and possible
86

liability for providing inaccurate or incomplete information. The library should have a clear volunteer policy that establishes the types of work a volunteer may and may not perform. It should also outline the expectations the library makes of volunteers and what the volunteer can expect from service to the library. Be sure to clearly designate the requirement that all library staff, including volunteers, protect the privacy of public library records as required in s. 43.30. Consider a form for volunteers to sign acknowledging that they have read and acknowledge the terms of the policy, and that they acknowledge that, by volunteering their service, they have no expectation of special consideration for future employment opportunities in the library. Some libraries also have volunteers complete an application and go through a screening process.

CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY 3.1 Introduction This chapter describes the method and procedures used by the researcher in the study. The procedures are discussed under the following headings: research design, study population, sample size sampling procedure, research instrument, validity and reliability of research instrument, administration of instrument, data collection procedure and data analysis techniques. 3.2 Research Design
87

The research design that was adopted for this study is ex-post facto type. ( Kerlinger,1975) opined that ex-post facto research is a systematic empirical research in which the researcher does not have direct control on independent variables because their manifestations have already occurred or because they are inherently not manipulated.

3.3 Population of the study The population targeted in this study included library personnel (N=175), spanning across different private universities in South-West of Nigeria. They include: Babcock university, Covenant university, Leads city university, Achievers university, Afe Babalola university, Bowen university, Redeemers university, Ajayi Crowther university, Bell university, Crescent university, Joseph Ayo Babalola university, Crawford university, Fountain university, and Caleb university. 3.4 Sample technique and Sample Size All personnel staff were solicited to partake in the study. The sampling method for this study is total enumeration technique Thus, One hundred and seventy five (175) questionnaires were distributed of which one hundred and seventy five (175) questionnaires were returned, yielding a 100% response rate. According to Sekaran (2000), a response rate of thirty percent (30%) is regarded as acceptable for most research purposes. This good response rate can be attributed to the project: the participants being informed well in advance of the purpose and objectives of the research, by-informing the Head of Departments/Units of these private university libraries in administering the questionnaires. The population comprised of males and females library personnel.

3.5 Research Instrument (s) The five research instruments were used for this study but integrated into a single questionnaire named/titled: 1. Biographical factors 2. Job performance scale.
88

3. Cognitive styles scale. 4. Work motivation scale. 5. Present opportunities and trainings Scale. Section A: Biographical Factors Scale This contained demographic information of the respondents such as: age, gender, marital status, highest academic qualifications, years of working experience in the organization, home provided by institution, number of years spent in the library. Section B: Job Performance Scale The research instrument used for this work consist of 30 questions on job performance scale and is rated in five point of Excellent, V. good, Good, Fair and Poor which is in section B. The typical examples of the items in the scale include: Ability to make effective use of time, facilities, materials, equipment, employee skills, and other resources; setting effective goals, planning ahead and establishing priorities is very crucial to his, her job in the organization; as an employee, he/she exhibit a good level of interpersonal scale and has a good working relationship with most of his/her peers in the organization; the resources formats are: poor = 1, fair = 2, good = 3, very good = 4, and excellent = 5. Section C: Cognitive Styles Scale This instrument was self adopted. The cognitive styles instrument contains expression on the human impression on the job with the options of Yes or No answer. Some of the items in the questionnaire includes: fascination, routine, satisfying, boring, challenging, gives a sense of accomplishment and so on. Section D: Work motivation This instrument was adopted from Smith 2001; it measures work motivation of workers in an organization. This instrument contained twenty-one (21) items with a response to meet: 1 important; 2 - not important; 3 moderately important; 4 - highly important; 5 absolutely important. Some of the items in the scale include: company, financial reward, frequently raise in pay, flexible incentives, a sense of job security among others.
89

Section E: Present opportunities and trainings The research instrument used for this work consist of twenty- five( 25) items with a response to meet: Strongly disagreed=1, disagreed =2, neutral = 3, agreed= 4 and strongly disagreed =5.typical examples of items includes: There is good training opportunities for advancement in my place of work, there is regular promotion in my place of work. 3.6 Validity and reliability of the research instruments To ensure validity of the research instrument for data collection, the instrument was subjected to thorough scrutiny and necessary corrections were made by the supervisor and an expert in the field of Librarianship. The questionnaires were also pre-tested among 30 library personnel in a university library. The reliability of the instrument was ascertained by using test retest method. 30 copies of the questionnaire were distributed among librarians and library officers in the Ladoke Akintola University of Technology Library, Ogbomoso. The coefficient obtained was used to measure how reliable each item in the questionnaire were.

3.7 Methods of data analysis All the administered questionnaires were collected, coded and analysed, using statistical package for social science (SPSS). Statistics such as percentages, mean, and standard deviation were put to use in analysis of research questions.

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CHAPTER FOUR ANALYSIS OF DATA 4.1 Introduction This chapter presents the biographical factors, staff training, cognitive styles and work motivation as precursors of job performance of library personnel in private universities in South West Nigeria. 4.2 Data gathering, analysis and selection of participants Questionnaires were carefully administered among the librarians /library officers in private universities in South West Nigeria. The questionnaire were analysed using SPSS for window version 15. The outcome of the analysis is presented as follows:

4.3 Interpretation of Results

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RQ 1: What is the Job performance that best describe the staff in your Institution? TABLE 1: Mean score of job performance of the respondents
s\n 1 In my place of work He\she display and maintain an effective and consistent level of performance of the job in his, her organization Ability to make the most effective use of time, facilities, materials, equipment, employee skills and other resources He\she always completes all assignments, responsibilities given to him, her beyond the level of expectation As an employee, he, she exhibit a good level of interpersonal skills and have a good working relationship with most of his, her peers in the organization As a supervisor, he, she demonstrate ability to select, train and provide opportunities for development of employees by recognizing and improving their abilities Setting effective goals, planning ahead and establishing priorities is very crucial to his, her job in this organization He\she report to work on a timely basis and stay on the job seeking prior approval for vacation and giving prompt notice to supervisor of absence due to illness or other He\she exhibit job-relevant knowledge and skill needed to perform the duties and requirements of the position occupied He\she have the ability to communicate effectively in both oral and written expressions with employees in this organization Employees, behavior affects Poor 12 6.9% 12 6.9% fair 5 2.9% 19 10.9% Good 17 9.7% 21 12.0% Very good 73 41.7% 67 38.3% excellent 68 38.9% 56 32.0% Mean 4.03 S.D 1.11

3.78

1.20

19 10.9% 7 4.0%

5 2.9% 20 11.4%

36 20.6% 52 29.7%

56 32.0% 54 30.9%

59 33.7% 42 24.0%

3.75

1.26

3.59

1.09

8 4.6%

19 10.9%

50 28.6%

70 40.0%

28 16.0%

3.52

1.03

9 5.1%

29 16.6%

41 23.4%

55 31.4%

41 23.4%

3.51

1.17

15 8.6%

30 17.1%

37 21.1%

41 23.1%

52 29.7%

3.49

1.31

17 9.7%

22 12.6%

54 30.9%

39 22.3%

43 24.6%

3.39

1.25

11 6.3%

22 12.6%

53 30.3%

66 37.7%

23 13.1%

3.39

1.07

10

13

30

43

56

33

3.38

1.19

92

11 12

13

14 15

16 17 18

19

20 21 22 23

24

the work area and the willingness of the employee to accept supervision He\she exhibit appropriate supportive behavior toward customers in the organization He\she keep employee informed of decisions and plans of our office as well as polices and procedures of the organization He\she have the ability to function consistently and effectively in an objectives and rational manner regardless of pressures He\she exhibit willingness to work as a team member He\she very reliable as an employee in performing work assignments and carrying out instructions in the organization He\she report unsafe working conditions to the supervisor in the organization He\she maintain the confidentiality of information available to the organization Supervisor able to get employees and co-workers to do willingly and well the duties needed to be accomplished? He\she confront and resolve all issues constructively to help employees with their work problems He\she exhibit willingness to comply with all reasonable requirements He\she ensure that changes in work performance are duly implemented He\she regularly achieve desired out come in his, her job As an employee, he, she do not need supervision in his, her job or show an indifference to job responsibilities He\she consider willingness to learn quickly, to adapt to changes in job assignments, methods or personnel in the organization

7.4% 16 9.1% 15 8.6%

17.1% 35 20.0% 28 16.0%

24.6% 38 21.7% 47 26.9%

32.0% 44 25.1% 50 28.6%

18.9% 42 24.0% 35 20.0% 3.35 3.35 1.29 1.21

17 9.7%

24 13.7%

54 30.9%

42 24.0%

38 21.7%

3.34

1.24

19 10.9% 23 13.1% 16 9.1% 16 9.1% 18 10.3%

23 13.1% 23 13.1% 27 15.4% 29 16.6% 29 16.6%

54 30.9% 42 24.0% 56 32.0% 52 29.7% 50 28.6%

40 22.9% 49 28.0% 37 21.1% 42 24.0% 42 24.0%

39 22.3% 38 21.7% 39 22.3% 36 20.6% 36 20.6%

3.33 3.32

1.26 1.31

3.32 3.30 3.28

1.24 1.23 1.25

13 7.4% 18 10.3% 16 9.1% 17 9.7% 28 16.0% 29 16.6%

21 12.0% 30 17.1% 36 20.6% 20 11.4% 15 8.6% 25 14.3%

69 39.4% 52 29.7% 45 25.7% 73 41.7% 63 36.0% 38 21.7%

48 27.4% 36 20.6% 46 26.3% 40 22.9% 36 20.6% 51 29.1%

24 13.7% 39 22.3% 32 18.3% 25 14.3% 33 18.9% 32 18.3%

3.28

1.08

3.27 3.24 3.21 3.18

1.27 1.23 1.13 1.29

3.18

1.34

93

25 26 27

28 29 30

As an employee he, she respond to changes and adjust to new challenges He\she confront specific tasks, projects, or activities need to be accomplished He\she exhibit knowledge of the methods, practices and equipment needed to do the job He\she consistently exceed expectations at all time with exception He\she often keeps abreast of new developments on major issues in the organization He\she consistently display high level of skills, abilities, initiative and self direction

28 16.0% 12 6.9% 25 14.3% 13 7.4% 41 23.4% 42 24.0%

23 13.1% 37 21.1% 33 18.9% 35 20.0% 23 13.1% 38 21.7%

47 26.9% 53 30.3% 46 26.3% 71 40.6% 35 20.0% 43 24.6%

46 26.3% 58 33.1% 37 21.1% 48 27.4% 43 24.6% 36 20.6%

31 17.7% 15 8.6% 34 19.4% 8 4.6% 33 18.9% 16 9.1%

3.17 3.15 3.13

1.31 1.07 1.32

3.0 2 3.02 2.69

.98 1.44 1.29

Below are the Job performance that best describe the staff in various respondents Institution: - In the table above librarian/library officer display and maintain an effective and consistent level of performance of the job in his, her organization (Mean =4.03) was ranked highest by the mean score rating and was followed in succession by Ability to make the most effective use of time, facilities, materials, equipment, employee skills and other resources (Mean =3.78), librarian/library officer always completes all assignments, responsibilities given to him, her beyond the level of expectation (Mean =3.75), As an employee, he, she exhibit a good level of interpersonal skills and have a good working relationship with most of his, her peers in the organization (Mean =3.59), As a supervisor, he, she demonstrate ability to select, train and provide opportunities for development of employees by recognizing and improving their abilities (Mean =3.52), Setting effective goals, planning ahead and establishing priorities is very crucial to his, her job in this organization (Mean =3.51), librarian/library officer report to work on a timely basis and stay on the job seeking prior approval for vacation and giving prompt notice to supervisor of absence due to illness or other (Mean =3.49), librarian/library officer exhibit jobrelevant knowledge and skill needed to perform the duties and requirements of the position occupied (Mean =3.39), librarian/library officer have the ability to communicate effectively in both oral and written expressions with employees in this organization (Mean =3.39), Employees, behavior affect the work area and the willingness of the employee to accept supervision (Mean =3.38), librarian/library officer exhibit appropriate supportive behavior toward customers in the organization (Mean =3.35), librarian/library officer keep employee informed of decisions and
94

plans of our office as well as policies and procedures of the organization (Mean =3.35), librarian/library officer have the ability to function consistently and effectively in an objectives and rational manner regardless of pressures (Mean =3.34), librarian/library officer exhibit willingness to work as a team member (Mean =3.33), librarian/library officer very reliable as an employee in performing work assignments and carrying out instructions in the organization (Mean =3.32), librarian/library officer report unsafe working conditions to the supervisor in the organization (Mean =3.32), librarian/library officer maintain the confidentiality of information available to the organization (Mean =3.30), Supervisor able to get employees and co-workers to do willingly and well the duties needed to be accomplished? (Mean =3.28), librarian/library officer confront and resolve all issues constructively to help employees with their work problems (Mean =3.28), librarian/library officer exhibit willingness to comply with all reasonable requirements (Mean =3.27), librarian/library officer ensure that changes in work performance are duly implemented (Mean =3.24), librarian/library officer regularly achieve desired out come in his, her job (Mean =3.21), As an employee, he, she do not need supervision in his, her job or show an indifference to job responsibilities (Mean =3.18), librarian/library officer consider willingness to learn quickly, to adapt to changes in job assignments, methods or personnel in the organization (Mean =3.18),As an employee he, she respond to changes and adjust to new challenges (Mean =3.17), librarian/library officer confront specific tasks, projects, or activities need to be accomplished (Mean =3.15), librarian/library officer exhibit knowledge of the methods, practices and equipment needed to do the job (Mean =3.13), librarian/library officer consistently exceed expectations at all time with exception (Mean =3.02), librarian/library officer often keeps abreast of new developments on major issues in the organization (Mean =3.02), librarian/library officer consistently display high level of skills, abilities, initiative and self direction (Mean =2.69) respectively.

RQ 2: What are the cognitive styles in your institution? TABLE 2: Mean scores of cognitive styles of the respondents
S\N 1 2 Work in present job Hot(temperature) Frustrating Yes 74 42.3% 75 No 101 57.7% 100 Mean 1.58 1.57 S.D .50 .50

95

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

Boring On your feet Tiresome Endless Routine Creative Useful Challenging Simple Gives a sense of accomplishment Pleasant Healthful Satisfying Respected Good Fascination

42.9% 81 46.3% 86 49.1% 87 49.7% 101 57.7% 104 59.4% 108 61.7% 110 62.9% 112 64.0% 114 65.1% 116 66.3% 118 67.4% 117 66.9% 125 71.4% 125 71.4% 126 72.0% 151 86.3%

57.1% 94 53.7% 89 50.9% 88 50.3% 74 42.3% 71 40.6% 67 38.3% 65 37.1% 63 36.0% 61 34.9% 59 33.7% 57 32.6% 58 33.1% 50 28.6% 50 28.6% 49 28.0% 24 13.7%

1.54 1.51 1.50 1.42 1.41 1.38 1.37 1.36 1.35 1.34 1.33 1.33 1.29 1.29 1.28 1.14

.50 .50 .50 .50 .49 .49 .48 .48 .48 .47 .47 .47 .45 .45 .45 .34

Below are the cognitive styles used in the institution: Hot (temperature) 74(42.3%) of the respondents indicated that this was their job description (cognitive style) while 101(57.7%) did not, Frustrating 75(42.9%) of the respondents indicated that this was their job description (cognitive style) while 100(57.1%) did not, Boring 81(46.3%) of the respondents indicated that this was their job description (cognitive style) while 94(53.7%) did not, On your feet 86(49.1%) of the respondents indicated that this was their job description (cognitive style) while 89(50.9%) did not, Tiresome 87(49.7%) of the respondents indicated that this was their job description (cognitive style) while 88(50.3%) did not, Endless Majority 101(57.7%) of the respondents indicated that this was their job description (cognitive style) while 74(42.3%) did not, Routine Majority 104(59.4%) of the respondents indicated that this was their job description (cognitive style) while 71(40.6%) did not, Creative 108(61.7%) of
96

the respondents indicated that this was their job description (cognitive style) while 67(38.3%) did not, Useful 110(62.9%) of the respondents indicated that this was their job description (cognitive style) while 65(37.1%) did not, Challenging 112(64.0%) of the respondents indicated that this was their job description (cognitive style) while 63(36.0%) did not, Simple 114(65.1%) of the respondents indicated that this was their job description (cognitive style) while 61(34.9%) did not, Gives a sense of accomplishment 116(66.3%) of the respondents indicated that this was their job description (cognitive style) while 59(33.7%) did not, Pleasant 118(67.4%) of the respondents indicated that this was their job description (cognitive style) while 57(32.6%) did not, Healthful 117(66.9%) of the respondents indicated that this was their job description (cognitive style) while 58(33.1%) did not, Satisfying 125(71.4%) of the respondents indicated that this was their job description (cognitive style) while 50(28.6%) did not, Respected 125(71.4%) of the respondents indicated that this was their job description (cognitive style) while 50(28.6%) did not, Good 126(72.0%) of the respondents indicated that this was their job description (cognitive style) while 49(28.0%) did not, Fascination 151(86.3%) of the respondents indicated that this was their job description (cognitive style) while 24(13.7%) did not respectively.

RQ 3: library?

What is the job motivation used in your institution

TABLE 3: Mean scores of job motivation of the respondents

S\N 1 2 3 4 5 Job motivation High technology devices to work with Alternative work schedules Cooperative relations, team work A sense of job security Opportunity to do research with co-workers I 16 9.1% 18 10.3 % 13 7.4% 29 16.6 % 20 11.4 % NI 36 20.6 % 34 19.4 % 47 26.9 % 39 22.3 % 35 20.0 % MI 40 22.9 % 38 21.7 % 35 20.0 % 20 11.4 % 49 28.0 % HI 48 27.4 % 50 28.6 % 54 30.9 % 44 25.1 % 39 22.3 % AI 35 20.0 % 35 20.0 % 26 14.9 % 43 24.6 % 32 18.3 % Mea n 3.29 3.29 3.19 3.19 3.16 S.D 1.2 5 1.2 7 1.2 0 1.4 5 1.2 6

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6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21

Flexible incentives Opportunity thinking for creative

9 5.1% 16 9.1% 15 8.6% personal 19 10.9 % 27 15.4 % 11 6.3% 15 8.6% 30 17.1 % 28 16.0 % 31 17.7 % 26 14.9 % 31 17.7 % 35 20.0 % 22 12.6 % 71 40.6 % 51 29.1 %

Flying first class Opportunity growth for

A sense of adequacy on the job Performance-based compensation Financial reward Honesty with co-workers Elder care plans Education benefits A complete fringe benefit package Child care plans Developing new skill at work Frequently raise in play A sense of security from physical harm Company

41 23.4 % 35 20.0 % 49 28.0 % 45 25.7 % 35 20.0 % 40 22.9 % 49 28.0 % 39 22.3 % 48 27.4 % 42 24.0 % 46 26.3 % 50 28.6 % 46 26.3 % 59 33.7 % 30 17.1 % 54 30.9 %

50 28.6 % 61 34.9 % 41 23.4 % 41 23.4 % 46 26.3 % 66 37.7 % 59 33.7 % 47 26.9 % 38 21.7 % 46 26.3 % 51 29.1 % 44 25.1 % 34 19.4 % 38 21.7 % 33 18.9 % 39 22.3 %

66 37.7 % 39 22.3 % 47 26.9 % 50 28.6 % 43 24.6 % 54 30.9 % 45 25.7 % 42 24.0 % 44 25.1 % 34 19.4 % 35 20.0 % 21 12.0 % 38 21.7 % 47 26.9 % 26 14.9 % 25 14.3 %

9 5.1% 24 13.7 % 23 13.1 % 20 11.4 % 24 13.7 % 4 2.3% 7 4.0% 17 9.7% 17 9.7% 22 12.6 % 17 9.7% 29 16.6 % 22 12.6 % 9 5.1% 15 8.6% 6 3.4%

3.14 3.11 3.08 3.04 3.01 3.00 2.89 2.87 2.85 2.85 2.83 2.81 2.81 2.78 2.34 2.32

1.0 0 1.1 5 1.1 9 1.2 0 1.2 7 .94 1.0 2 1.2 4 1.2 4 1.2 8 1.1 9 1.3 2 1.3 2 1.1 3 1.3 6 1.1 4

Below are the job motivations skills used in various institution libraries: 98

High technology devices to work with (Mean =3.29) was ranked highest by the mean score rating and was followed by Alternative work schedules (Mean =3.29), Cooperative relations, team work (Mean =3.19), A sense of job security (Mean =3.19), Opportunity to do research with co-workers (Mean =3.16), Flexible incentives (Mean =3.14), Flying first class (Mean =3.11), Opportunity for personal growth (Mean =3.08), A sense of adequacy on the job (Mean =3.04), Performance-based compensation (Mean =3.01), Financial reward (Mean =2.89), Honesty with co-workers (Mean =2.87), Elder care plans (Mean =2.85), Education benefits (Mean =2.85), A complete fringe benefit package (Mean =2.83), Child care plans (Mean =2.81) Developing new skill at work (Mean =2.81), Frequently raise in play (Mean =2.78), A sense of security from physical harm (Mean =2.34), and lastly by Company (Mean =2.32). RQ 4: What are the Present job opportunities and training used in your library? TABLE: 4 Mean scores of job opportunities and training of the respondents s\n Present opportunities and SD D N A SA Mean training 1 Promotion is based on 28 21 44 54 28 3.19 ability and performance 16.0 12.0 25.1 30.9 16.0 in my organization % % % % % 2 There is good chance for 32 35 34 50 24 2.99 promotion even without 18.3 20.0 19.4 28.6 13.7 being trained % % % % % 3 There id fairly good 30 39 31 58 17 2.96 chance for promotions in 17.1 22.3 17.7 33.1 9.7% my place of work % % % % 4 I am optimistic about my 30 36 55 38 16 2.85 future success at the 17.1 20.6 31.4 21.7 9.1% discipline in my place of % % % % work 5 The training 23 40 72 37 3 2.75 opportunities somewhat 13.1 22.9 41.1 21.1 1.7% limited in my place of % % % % work 6 I would recommend the 39 41 34 49 12 2.74 establishment to a friend 22.3 23.4 19.4 28.0 6.9% as a prospective % % % % employer in my place of work
99

institution

S.D 1.30

1.33

1.28

1.21

.99

1.27

There is infrequent promotions in my place of work 8 I have fair and honest evaluations in my place of work 9 There is provision of timely training for an improvement in my place of work 10 There is regular promotions in my place of work 11 There is unfair promotion policy in my place of work 12 I have real career opportunities in my place of work 13 My efforts to improve myself are supported by my management in my place of work 14 I have real opportunities for career development in my place of work 15 There is consistent and equitable system of rewards in my place of work 16 There is good training opportunities for advancement in my place of work 17 Lack of adequate training affect my performance in my place of work

32 18.3 % 39 22.3 % 60 34.3 % 42 24.0 % 37 21.1 % 41 23.4 % 54 30.9 % 70 40.0 % 49 28.0 % 58 33.1 % 69 39.4 %

48 27.4 % 40 22.9 % 21 12.0 % 37 21.1 % 49 28.0 % 55 31.4 % 28 16.0 % 30 17.1 % 62 35.4 % 66 37.7 % 53 30.3 %

43 24.6 % 46 26.3 % 28 16.0 % 48 27.4 % 55 31.4 % 38 21.7 % 68 38.9 % 35 20.0 % 34 19.4 % 31 17.7 % 36 20.6 %

48 27.4 % 38 21.7 % 52 29.7 % 39 22.3 % 23 13.1 % 35 20.0 % 24 13.7 % 28 16.0 % 19 10.9 % 9 5.1%

4 2.3% 12 6.9% 14 8.0%

2.68

1.13

2.68

1.23

2.65

1.41

9 5.1% 11 6.3% 6 3.4% 1 .6%

2.63

1.21

2.55

1.15

2.49

1.15

2.37

1.08

12 6.9% 11 6.3%

2.33

1.33

2.32

1.17

11 6.3%

2.14

1.13

15 8.6%

2 1.1%

2.02

1.03

Below are the Present job opportunities and training used in various private universities libraries: 100

Promotion is based on ability and performance in my organization (Mean =3.19) was ranked highest and was followed by There is good chance for promotion even without being trained (Mean =2.99), then by There is fairly good chance for promotions in my place of work (Mean =2.96), I am optimistic about my future success at the discipline in my place of work (Mean =2.85), The training opportunities somewhat limited in my place of work (Mean =2.75), I would recommend the establishment to a friend as a prospective employer in my place of work (Mean =2.74), There is infrequent promotions in my place of work (Mean =2.68), I have fair and honest evaluations in my place of work (Mean =2.68), There is provision of timely training for an improvement in my place of work (Mean =2.65), There is regular promotions in my place of work (Mean =2.63), There is unfair promotion policy in my place of work (Mean =2.55), I have real career opportunities in my place of work (Mean =2.49), My efforts to improve myself are supported by my management in my place of work (Mean =2.37), I have real opportunities for career development in my place of work (Mean =2.33), There is consistent and equitable system of rewards in my place of work (Mean =2.32), There is good training opportunities for advancement in my place of work (Mean =2.14), Lack of adequate training affect my performance in my place of work (Mean =2.02) respectively. RQ 5: What are the training areas most important to your development over the next two years? TABLE 5: Mean scores of aspects of job training most important to staff development.
S\N 1 2 3 4 Items Computer software training Technical, professional training Presentation skills training Team process training Yes 5 2.9% 10 5.7% 10 5.7% 18 10.3 % 23 13.1 % 38 21.7 % 90 51.4 % No 170 97.1% 165 94.3% 165 94.3% 157 89.7% 152 86.9% 137 78.3% 85 48.6% Mean .97 .94 .94 .90 S.D .17 .23 .23 .30

Foreign language training

.87

.34

Leadership training

.78

.41

Time management training

.49

.50

101

Management development

109 62.3 %

66 37.7%

.38

.49

Below are the training areas most important to various institutions: Computer software training 5(2.9%) of the respondents indicated that this was the training most important while 170(97.1%) did not, Technical, professional training 10(5.7%) of the respondents indicated that this was the training most important while 165(94.3%) did not, Presentation skills training 10(5.7%) of the respondents indicated that this was the training most important while 165(94.3%) did not, Team process training 18(10.3%) of the respondents indicated that this was the training most important while 157(89.7%) did not, Foreign language training 23(13.1%) of the respondents indicated that this was the training most important while 152(86.9%) did not, Leadership training 38(21.7%) of the respondents indicated that this was the training most important while 137(78.3%) did not, Time management training Majority 90(51.4%) of the respondents indicated that this was the training most important while 85(48.6%) did not, Management development Majority 109(62.3%) of the respondents indicated that this was the training most important while 66(37.7%) did not.

RQ 6:

Biographical factors (Gender, Age, Marital status, Educational qualification, Years in the

Organization, Monthly salary, Job status, Years in the library, Cognitive styles, Job Motivation and Opportunities & Training) are not significant precursors of Job performance. Table 6: Summary of multiple regressions Analysis of Job performance of the respondents. Model Regression Residual Total R = .463 R2 = .214 Adj R2 = .200 Sum of Squares 11267.075 41323.645 52590.720 DF 3 171 174 Mean Square 3755.692 241.659 F 15.541 Sig. .000

It was shown in the table above that the independent variables (Gender, Age, Marital Status, Educational qualification, Years in the Organization, Monthly salary, Job status,
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Years in the library, Cognitive styles, Job Motivation and Opportunities & Training) are not significant precursors of Job performance (F(11,163) = 4.605; R = .487, R2 = .237, Adj. R2 = 0.186; P < .05). About 24% of the variation was accounted for by the independent variables.
Null hypothesis is rejected.

RQ 7: There will be no relative contribution of independent variables (Gender, Age, Marital status, Educational qualification, Years in the Organization, Monthly salary, Job status, Years in the library, Cognitive styles, Job Motivation and Opportunities & Training) to Job performance. Table 7: Relative contribution of independent variables to job performance of the respondents.
Model Unstandardized Coefficient B Std. Error Standardize d Coefficient T Sig.

(Constant) Gender Age Marital status Educational qualification Years in the Organization Monthly salary Job status Years in the library Cognitive styles Job Motivation Opportunities & Training

163.234 -1.515 -8.612E02 -1.821 4.416E02 -.742 2.923 .440 .790 -1.996 .179 -.461

13.333 2.485 .182 2.123 .756 .760 1.796 .454 .853 .332 .130 .164

-.044 -.038 -.061 .004 -.118 .142 .074 .114 -.431 .143 -.280

12.243 -.610 -.474 -.858 .058 -.976 1.628 .968 .926 -6.005 1.377 -2.813

.000 .543 .636 .392 .953 .330 .106 .334 .356 .000 .170 .006

The result above shows the relative contribution of each of the independent variables on the dependent: Gender ( = -.044, P >.05), Age ( = -.038, P >.05), Marital status ( = -.061, P >.05),
Educational qualification ( =-.004, P >.05), Years in the Organization ( = -.118, P >.05), Monthly salary ( = .142, P >.05), Job status ( = .074, P >.05), Years in the library ( = .114, P >.05), 103

cognitive styles ( = -.431, P <.05), Job Motivation ( = .143, P >.05), Opportunities & Training ( =

-.280, P <.05) respectively.

The result above shows the relative contribution of each of the independent variables on the dependent variable. Cognitive styles is ( = -.441, P <.05), Job Motivation is ( = .193, P <.05),
Opportunities & Training is ( = -.294, P <.05) respectively.

Hence, job motivation is found significant. The Null hypothesis is accepted. RQ 8: What is the relative contribution of cognitive styles, job motivation, job performance and opportunities for staff development and staff training to the personnel in Private Universities? Table 8: The relative contribution of cognitive styles, job motivation, job performance and opportunities for staff development and staff training to the personnel in Private Universities.
Model Unstandardised Coefficient B Std. Error Standardise d Coefficient T Sig.

(Constant) Cognitive styles Job Motivation Opportunities & Training

160.434 -2.041 .242 -.484

10.137 .316 .121 .160

-.441 .193 -.294

15.826 -6.450 1.999 -3.028

.000 .000 .047 .003

The result above shows the relative contribution of each independent variable on the dependent variables. Cognitive styles is (= - .441, P .05), hence the independent variable cognitive styles is found significant. The Null hypothesis is accepted.

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TABLE 9:

Correlation matrix showing the relationship between Job performance, Gender, Age, Marital status, Highest educational status, Years spent in the organization, Monthly salary, Job status Number of years in the library, Cognitive styles, Job motivation and Opportunities & training.
Job performance Gender Age Marital status Educational qualification Years in the organization Monthly salary Job status Years in library cognitiv e styles Job motivati on Opportu nities & training

Job performance Gender Age Marital status Educational qualification Years in the organization Monthly salary Job status Years in library Cognitive styles Job motivation Opportunities & training Mean S.D

1 -.047 -.047 -.064 -.050 -.116 .075 .001 -.041 415** 424 323 99.9600 17.3852 1 -.174* -.206** .111 -.113 -.034 .014 -.153* .023 .027 .032 01.52 0.50 1 .128 -.083 .407** .347** -.082 .441** .116 .059 .045 40.79 07.68 1 -.019 .120 .123 -.096 .132 -.005 .032 .090 01.98 0.58 1 -.063 -.185* .106 -.106 .050 .021 .040 02.65 01.63 1 .247** -.101 .813** .211** -.042 .011 05.53 02.77 1 -.408** .314** .008 .385** .271** 01.86 0.85 1 -.172* .104 -.228** -.220** 04.8629 02.9309 .024 .089 05.90 02.52 1 1 .020 -.077 24.9714 03.7576 1 .710** 61.8457 13.8972 1 50.6114 10.5606

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In the table above, there was negative significant relationship between Job performance and ,Cognitive styles while Gender, Age, Marital status, Educational qualification, Years in the Organization, Monthly salary, Job status, Years in library, Job motivation and Opportunities & Training. From Table it has been revealed that cognitive styles ( r= 0.415, pc0.05), job motivation ( r= 0.424, pc 0.05) and opportunities for staff training ( r= 0.323, pc0.05) had significant relationship of the respondents.

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4.4 Discussion of findings Job performance is one of the burning issues in management and organization of private universities in South-West of Nigeria. This is an attitude which shows the level of being happy or unhappy with the workplace, work and organisation. Satisfied workers have positive perceptions and attitudes towards their institution. Research shows that happy employees are productive while unhappy ones are not. Therefore, success of the institution depends on the performance of their workforce. Job performance can also be viewed as the degree of an employees affective orientation toward the work role occupied in the institutions. Therefore, job performance is a very important attribute that is frequently measured by all types of organisations. This research has unearthed a set of factors or variables, which are responsible for the overall performance of employees in any private institution, for example, pay, work, training, promotion, work environment, and coworkers. Other investigators have used different terminologies to express factors of job performance, such as, personal and organizational factors (Saiyadain, 2008), personal and job characteristics (Sokoya, 2000), mentally challenging work, equitable rewards, supportive working conditions, supportive colleagues, good personality and supportive workers (Naval & Srivastava, 2002), and demographic relationships between performance and librarian/ library officer (Shah & Jalees, 2004; Tsigilis et al., 2006). Thus, a leading stream of research in job performance is about the demographic impacts on the employees attitude because these personal and contextual variables have been found significant in affecting the performance level of any workforce (Sokoya, 2000). There are several demographic variations among the workforce which influence the degrees of performance from pay, work, subversion etc. For example, gender, age, education, designation, numbers of years in organization and marital status of the employees have widely been found critical in determining the performance (Hashemi, & Hosseininia, 2008). This study explores the problem of job performance among the academicians in the public and private sector universities of NWFP, Pakistan to empirically record the attitudes of respondents alongside their respective personal attributes and then statistically test hypotheses about the demographic impacts. Tests of significance have been used to compute the significance of impacts. The research reveals that the factors which contribute to the job performance of any worker or officer are: pay, work, environment, co-workers (Robbins, 1998:152). Likewise,
107

adequate equipment, required resources, training opportunities and an equitable workload all affect an employees job performance. Other researchers measure job-performance on the basis of attitude to the job, relations with fellow workers, supervision, company policy and support, pay, promotion and advancement, and customers (DeVane & Sandy, 2003). Luthans (2005:212) suggests that work, pay, promotion, supervision and coworkers are the main determinants of jobperformance. Furthermore, the job-dimensions like work, pay, training, promotion, and the demographic features of the employees and organisation determine job performance. Other determinants are age, gender, education level, compensation and benefits, work, advancement opportunities, meaningful working conditions, management policy, the size of organization and achievements through talents. Following is a brief account of these factors of performance and demographic implications according to this research. Pay is the first and very primary factor of performance for almost every type of employee in private institution, small, medium and large institution. The use of financial inducements has featured prominently on both the agendas of human resource. The pay refers to the amount of financial remuneration that is received and the degree to which this is viewed as equitable vis-vis that of others in the organisation. Employees tend to prefer jobs that give them opportunities to use their skills and abilities and offer a variety of tasks, freedom, and feedback on how well they are doing. Jobs that have too little challenge create boredom, but too much challenge create frustration and a feeling of failure. Under conditions of moderate challenge most people experience pleasure and performance. Work plays a central role in people lives. According to an employees context it should be attractive and contribute to job performance of employees. Research shows that limited opportunities for promotion are common in private sector organisations thereby discouraging the qualified employees from remaining in the job. Fair promotion policies and practices provide opportunities for personal growth, more responsibilities and increased social status. Fair promotion is the recognition of an employee which increases performance and enhances organisational commitment. Research in public and private sectors shows that job performance of municipal government employees is significantly influenced by their perceptions of the promotional opportunities, which is the second most powerful determinant of employee job performance (Tsigilis et al., 2006). Job performance at work may
108

influence various aspects of work such as efficiency, productivity, absenteeism, turnovers rates, employees intention to quit, and finally employees well-being (Tsigilis et al., (2006). Similarly, organisational commitment refers to that attitude of the worker in which he/she identifies himself/herself with a particular organization, its objectives and aspires to remain its member (Robbins, 2003). Those who are dissatisfied with their jobs are more likely to become less committed or decide to quit the jobs altogether. Research suggests that organisational commitment helps in lowering the levels of both absenteeism and turnover and, in fact, it is a better indicator of turnover than job performance. Demographics also affect workers attitudes in terms of productivity, involvement and commitment on one hand, and on the other, hand age, gender, experience, department, foreign qualification or exposure to different culture, and technological challenges always influence the overall performance of the employees. Given that job performance is a global issue, several methods are being applied by the researchers to investigate the problem from different dimensions. Several surveys are available about different organizations and different aspects of job performance including demographic impacts, for example, comparative analysis of job performance among private librarian/library officer. The results of this study is different from some of the studies carried out in more developed countries which tend to rank interesting work as the highest motivating factor (Lindner, 2008). Maslows theory which lists physiological and safety needs as the basic needs to be met before others is to some extent upheld by this study. However, contrary to Maslows theory, the range of other motivational factors in the private university in south-west of Nigeria is mixed. Therefore, Maslows conclusions that lower level motivational factors must be met before ascending to the next level were not confirmed by this study. The implications of this study for the management of the private university in south-west of Nigeria are numerous. If the management wants to address the issue of employee motivation, the main focus should be on addressing the security and safety issues. Staff must be re-assured that their jobs are secure if they perform well and the fear of losing ones job must be addressed. This is likely to boost the morale of staff and motivate them to better performance. Although the management of the private university in south-west of Nigeria may not be able to directly address the second factor salary by unilaterally increasing pay outside the public service prescription, it is important that management is aware of the issue and find others ways of compensating staff, where possible. The third, fourth and fifth factors which are self109

actualization (interesting work, promotion) and social (good working conditions) factors implies that management needs to find ways of improving the work conditions, increasing training programmes and running programmes that help staff pass their promotion examinations. These can be addressed by providing a cleaner office, doing maintenance work at the appropriate time, providing the necessary work tools, running in-house training programmes and so on. Other ways of addressing self-actualization needs may include job enrichment, job enlargement and using non-monetary rewards. The results of this study were also compared with Herzbergs theory (1959). Herzbergs conclusion that employees should be more concerned with intrinsic factors such as achievement, recognition, responsibility, advancement and challenges do not hold in the private university in south-west of Nigeria. Rather, the study shows that staff are more concerned about extrinsic factors such as job security, salary and work conditions. Therefore, more efforts should be focused on improving extrinsic factors in order to get staff better motivated. Regardless of which theory is applied, the policy that should be put in place should take cognizance of the fact that employee salary, job security and interesting work appear to be important links to higher motivation. Therefore, as observed by Lindner (2008), options such as job enlargement (number of tasks), job enrichment (variety of work), promotions, internal and external stipends, monetary and non-monetary rewards should be considered in developing a policy on employee motivation. Libraries are established in the university system to provide high quality information services in support of teaching and research for academic staff members as well as acquisition of knowledge of the students. Librarians occupy a central position in the university system. The job performance of librarians/library officer has a bearing on the way they carry out their professional duties. Job performance can explain the organisational behavior of workers. The present study confirms this, and explores the effect of demographic variables as well.

110

CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Summary
A comparison of these findings gives some interesting insight into employee motivation. Job security which was ranked number one is a safety need. In human aspects of management noting that it is people who make an organisation to succeed or fail. In the same vein, Ali and Ahmed (2009) stated that in the Information Age, people are now seen as the primary source of an organisations competitive advantage and that human capital is more essential than financial capital in determining an organizations effectiveness. Since organizations are under constant pressure to enhance and improve their performance and job performance, management is looking more inwards at the interdependent relationships that exist between organisational performance and employee performance. Indeed, the importance of the human factor was put succinctly by Lawler (2003) when he stated that the way people are treated increasingly determines whether an organisation will prosper or even survive. In a developing country such as Nigeria where unemployment levels are very high and at a time when there is global economic recession, governments are being forced to cut spending and cut jobs, thereby creating fear among employees. It is, therefore, not surprising that employee of the private university library in south-west of Nigeria ranked security as the most important motivating factor. Good salary is a physiological need. Another factor, interesting job performance which includes staff training, cognitive style conditions is social need. The full appreciation of work done, power and interpersonal relationship with colleagues (welfare, feeling of being in on things and competition) are also a mixture of esteem and social. In this era of the information superhighway, employers of information professionals or librarians must be careful to meet their staff needs. Otherwise, they will discover they are losing their talented and creative professionals to other organisations who are ready and willing to meet their needs and demands. To use salaries as a motivator effectively, personnel managers must consider four major components of a salary structures. These are the job rate, which relates to the importance the organisation attaches to each job; payment, which encourages workers or groups by rewarding them according to their performance; personal or special allowances, associated with factors such as scarcity of particular skills or certain categories of information professionals

111

or librarians, or with long service; and fringe benefits such as holidays with pay, pensions, and so on. It is also important to ensure that the prevailing pay in other library or information establishments is taken into consideration in determining the pay structure of their organization. No matter how automated an organization or a library may be, high productivity depends on the level of motivation and the effectiveness of the workforce. Staff training is an indispensable strategy for job performance. The library organisation must have good training programme. This will give the librarian or library officer opportunities for self-improvement and development to meet the challenges and requirements of new equipment and new techniques of performing a task. According to Berr et al. (2000), there is currently considerable interest in the potential impact of individual dispositions and preferences on organisational behavior and effectiveness. In terms of the relation between cognitive styles and people-oriented organisational behavior, it is clear that cognitive styles influence how people relate to others. This inconsistency is also notable in the cognitive style research in this area, as there are no clear results about the effects of congruence or heterogeneity on dyadic relationships or teamwork in diverse contexts. Armstrong et al. (2004) wrote: Although cognitive style may indeed significantly affect the success of interpersonal dyadic relationships, the idea that these effects can be reduced to a straightforward matching hypothesis may be too simplistic when considered across different contexts. In this sense, the nature of the task the library officer has to perform or the nature of the relation seems to be very important to take into account in this type of research. Job performance is very important to enhance motivation in the work place. It is the net effect of an employee efforts modified by abilities and role perceptions. This implies that job performance in a given situation can be viewed as resulting from the interrelationships between effort, abilities and role perceptions. In order to attain an acceptable level of job performance, a minimum level of proficiency must exist in each of the performance components. Similarly, the level of proficiency in any one of the performance components can place an upper boundary on performance. If employee put forth tremendous effort and have excellent abilities but lack a good understanding of their roles, job performance will not be as high as it could be. Likewise, an employee who puts forth a high degree of effort and understands his or her job but lacks ability will rate very low on job performance.

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5.2 Conclusion Libraries are established in the university system to provide high quality information services in support of teaching and research for academic staff members as well as acquisition of knowledge of the students. Librarians/ library officers occupy a central position in the university system. The job performance of library officers has a bearing on the way they carry out their professional duties. Biographical factors, cognitive styles, job motivation and staff training can explain the job performance of workers. The present study confirms this, and explores the effect of demographic variables as well. The human resource in any organisation is its most expensive but vital asset. Consequently, the future of any organisation depends more on its staff than on any other factor. The usefulness of service institutions like libraries is measured by the services rendered by staff to the users and this in turn depends on the personnel who are responsible for the efficient and effective delivery of service. They acquire, organise, and disseminate information. If the authorities tend to think of their service almost exclusively, it is very likely that these functions cannot effectively be discharged unless they give due weightage to those who manage information in these private universities. The human factor will give the necessary support and life to all the material resources to provide useful service to the users. This is the central point of the whole university system wherein one could find the various functions performed and services rendered by the library personnel. Library professionals should know that one of the most effective ways to win the loyalty of their staff is to make each employee feel that his/her work is both important and appreciated. In addition to possessing an employee-centred attitude, a library supervisor should be equipped with certain competencies in dealing with people, should have the ability to make clear assignments and to delegate authority, should be competent to instruct and to check completed work, should know the most effective ways to correct as well as commend, and should be able to discuss problems with staff members in an atmosphere of mutual respect, trust, confidence, goodwill, commonality of interest, shared vision, and determination to excel. Obviously, how people behave in their job and organization depends not only on their cognitive style, but also on environmental factors and the interaction between their style and environmental conditions. In this sense, many empirical studies within the cognitive styles domain have been concerned with investigating some kind of congruence or fit and its
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consequences for performance, as styles cannot be studied in isolation. These studies have, for instance, examined the impact of style, similarity within interpersonal relationships, the effects of homogeneous versus heterogeneous cognitive-based teams, or the consequences of cognitive fit or misfit in terms of occupations and work demand. Altogether, these studies aim to increase our understanding of how to use cognitive styles in determining job performance. Suedfeld and Tetlock (2001) argued that despite the criticism on some theories of cognitive styles and the wide diversity of models there is widespread recognition that attention to individual differences could help us to understand variation that otherwise had to be consigned to the category of noise.

5.3 Recommendations
This research was conducted in all the private university libraries in South-West of Nigeria. Follow up studies with focus groups library officer in these entire universities library. The following recommendations were made after due considerations given to the findings: 1. The safety needs of staff should be addressed as well as other factors identified as contributing to the motivation of staff. Skinners (2003) reinforcement theory states that the best way to motivate an employee is to make positive changes to the external work environment continuously and that employee behaviour that yield positive outcomes should be reinforced. There is every probability that if this theory is applied to the staff of these private universities library, staff motivation, productivity and job performance will increase.
2. Further research is needed to enhance our understanding of cognitive styles in

interpersonal relationships, investigating socio-emotional effects as well task-related performance.

3. Since the work environment is significantly related to job performance of academic staff,

government should encourage the support of parents, students, philanthropists, and corporate institutions in improving the private universities library environment in terms of physical facilities, information services, authority-staff relationship, and staff development in order to enhance better job performance of the library personnel.
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4. The management of these private university libraries should give more attention to work

environment of the universities in order to make it more favourable while the academic staff should continue to improve on their job performance. 5. Training as a way of building human capacity should be emphasised. This ranges from workshops and seminars, to improve human skills and knowledge on the job. It is people who want to affect the performance of others and desire satisfaction from doing this that are likely to become effective managers of information. Human capacity building should be a priority of the private Universities in the South West in order to meet up challenges of the library profession. There is also the urgent requirement to encourage co-operation with other professional international bodies like UNESCO, IFLA in order that the library personnel may benefit from opportunities arising from such co-operation.

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APPENDIX l QUESTIONNAIRE ON BIOGRAPHICAL FACTORS, STAFF TRAINING ,COGNTIVE STYLES AND WORK MOTIVATION AS PRECURORS OF JOB PERFORMANCE OF LIBRARY PERSONNEL IN RPIVATE UNIVERSITIES IN SOUTH WEST NIGERIA (QBSCW) Dear Respondent, I am a master student from Department of Library, Archival and Information studies at the University of Ibadan conducting research on Biographical factors, work motivation as precursors of job performance of library personnel in private universities in south west of Nigeria. The information provided by you would be highly confidential and would be used only for academic purpose. Thanking you in anticipation of a favorable request. KOLAJO F.S.(MRS) SECTION A: Demographic information of the library personnel such as age, gender, marital status, working experience, religion, salary, job status/rank, number of years spent in the library, and highest academic qualifications. Personal Background 1. Age 2. Gender Male Female Single Married Divorced

3. Marital Status

4. Highest academic qualifications: 5. How many years are you working in the organization? 6. Monthly salary grade/ level/step ------------------------------------------------------------------------60,000-100,000 101,000-140,000 141,000-180,000 Above 180,000 7. Number of dependents in your family
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3 4 5 and above 8. You live in: Home provided by Institution Self Rented Home loan 9. Working hours of in the Library 10. Job Status/ Rank 11. Number of years spent in the library SECTION B: JOB PERFORMANCE SCALE Instruction : Please tick the number which best describes the staff in question. Your response shall be treated as confidential. Use the following format as a guide: 5 4 3 2 1 = = = = = Excellent V. Good Good Fair Poor 1 5 4 1 2 3 4 5 He/she always completes all assignments/ responsibilities given to him/her beyond the level of expectation He/she consistently exceed expectations at all time with exception He/she consistently display high level of skills, abilities, initiative and self direction He/she display and maintain an effective and consistent level of performance of the job in his/her organization He/she regularly achieve desired out come in his/her job
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S/N In my place of work (items) 3 2

6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

As an employee, He/she do not need supervision in his/her job or show an indifference to job responsibilities He/she exhibit job- relevant knowledge and skill needed to perform the duties and requirements of the position occupied He/ she exhibit knowledge of the methods, practices and equipment needed to do the job He/ she often keeps abreast of new developments on major issues in the organization As an employee he/ she respond to changes and adjust to new challenges He/ she consider willingness to learn quickly, to adapt to changes in job assignments, methods or personnel in the organization He/she very reliable as an employee in performing work assignments and carrying out instructions in the organization He/ she exhibit willingness to comply with all reasonable requirements As an employee, he/ she exhibit a good level of interpersonal skills and have a good working relationship with most of his/her peers in the organization Employees behavior affects the work area and the willingness of the employee to accept supervision He/she exhibit appropriate supportive behavior toward customers in the organization He/ she exhibit willingness to work as a team member He/she report to work on a timely basis and stay on the job seeking prior approval for vacation and giving prompt notice to supervisor of absence due to illness or other He/ she report unsafe working conditions to the supervisor in the organization He/ she maintain the confidentiality of information available to the organization Supervisor able to get employees and co-workers to do willingly and well the duties needed to be accomplished? He/ she have the ability to function consistently and effectively in an objective and rational manner regardless of pressures As a supervisor, he/she demonstrate ability to select, train and provide opportunities for development of employees by recognizing and improving their abilities Setting effective goals, planning ahead and establishing priorities is very crucial to his/ her job in this organization Ability to make the most effective use of time, facilities, materials, equipment, employee skills and other resources He/she have the ability to communicate effectively in both oral and written expressions with employees in this organization He/she confront and resolve all issues constructively to help employees
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19 20 21 22 23

24 25 26 27

28 29 30

with their work problems He/she confront specific tasks, projects, or activities need to be accomplished He/she ensure that changes in work performance are duly implemented He/she keep employee informed of decisions and plans for our office as well as policies and procedures of the organization

SECTION C: COGNITIVE STYLES Listed below are a series of statements that represents feelings that you may have about your present job. There are no rights or wrong answers. Your responses will be treated as strictly confidential. A. Think of your present work. What is it like most of the time? How well do the words below describe your work? Please tick the most appropriate response next to each word. YES if it describes your work NO if it does not describe your work WORK IN PRESENT JOB (Cognitive Styles) Yes 1 Fascination 2 Routine 3 Satisfying 4 Boring 5 Good 6 Creative 7 Respected 8 Hot (temperature) 9 Pleasant 10 Useful 11 Tiresome 12 Healthful 13 Challenging 14 On your feet 15 Frustrating 16 Simple 17 Endless 18 Gives a sense of accomplishment SECTION D: WORK MOTIVATION Indicate how important each of the following items is to you in your job using the format. 5 = Absolutely Important
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No

4 = Highly Important 3 = Moderately Important 2 = Not Important 1 = Important S/N 1 Company 2 Financial reward 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 Flying first class High technology devices to work with Child care plans Elder care plans Education benefits Opportunity to do research with co-workers Developing new skill at work Opportunity for creative thinking Frequently raise in pay A sense of adequacy on the job A complete fringe benefit package Honesty with co- workers Opportunity for personal growth Cooperative relations/team work A sense of job security A sense of security from physical harm Performance- based compensation Flexible incentives Alternative work schedules. 1 2 3 4 5

SECTION E: PRESENT OPPORTUNITIES AND TRAINING Think of your opportunities for promotion that you have now. How well does each of the following words describe your present opportunities for promotion? Please tick the most appropriate response next to each word. 5= Strongly Agreed
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4= Agreed 3= Neutral 2= Disagreed 1= Strongly Disagreed

S/N 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 There is good training opportunities for advancement in my place of work The training opportunities somewhat limited in my place of work Promotion is based on ability and performance in my organisation There is good chance for promotion even without being trained There is unfair promotion Policy in my place of work There is infrequent promotions in my place of work There is regular promotions in my place of work There is fairly good chance for promotion in my place of work There is provision of timely training for an improvement in my place of work Lack of adequate training affect my performance in my place of work My efforts to improve myself are supported by my management in my place of work There is a consistent and equitable system of rewards in my place of work I am optimistic about my future success at the discipline in my place of work I would recommend the establishment to a friend as a prospective employer in my place of work I have fair and honest evaluations in my place of work I have real career opportunities in the in my place of work I have real opportunities for career development in my place of work
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Indicate by ticking the over the next two years. S/N 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

training

areas

most

important

to

your

development

Computer software training Technical/professional training Time management training Management development Leadership training Team process training Presentation skills training Foreign language training

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