EDC Unit 2

Review of semi conductor Physics n and p type semiconductors, Mass Action Law, Continuity Equation, Hall Effect, Fermi level in intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors, Open-circuited p-n junction, The p-n junction Energy band diagram of PN diode, PN diode as a rectifier (forward bias and reverse bias), The current components in p-n diode, Law of junction, Diode equation, Volt-ampere characteristics of p-n diode, Temperature dependence of VI characteristic, Transition and Diffusion capacitances, Step graded junction, Breakdown Mechanisms in Semi Conductor (Avalanche and Zener breakdown) Diodes, Zener diode characteristics, Characteristics of Tunnel Diode with the help of energy band diagrams, Varactor Diode, LED, LCD. And photo diode.

Review of semi conductor Physics n and p type semiconductors: To continue our path of trying to understand the physics of semiconductors, we must begin to bring many atoms together to form a solid.

Pauli Exclusion Principle still holds! Electrons on neighboring atoms "overlap" and must shift energies slightly to that each stays out of the others' states. we get more detailed analysis in quantum physics

Energy levels "blur" into energy bands.

Figure: 2:1 formation of energy bands Based on the energy band structure materials can be classified into 3 types 1. insulators 2. semiconductors 3. conductors Semiconductors: A material for which the width of the forbidden energy region is relatively small is called semiconductor .the most important semiconductor materials are Ge and si which have values of E.g. of 0.785 and 1.21 eV at 0o k. Conduction band .. Eg =1ev

ooooooooooooooo Valance band Figure: 2:2: Energy band diagram of semiconductor

The pure semiconductor is called as intrinsic semiconductor and if impurities are doped in the semiconductor that is called as extrinsic semiconductor. Insulator: The energy band structure is shown in bellow figure. The forbidden separates the filled valance region from the vacant conduction band. The energy which can be supplied to an electron from an applied field is too small to carry the particle from the filled into the vacant band. Since the e- cannot acquire sufficient applied energy. Condition is impossible. Ex: diamond. Conduction band

Eg =6ev

.. Valance band Figure: 2:3: Energy band diagram of insulator Conductors: A solid which contains a partly filled band structure is called a metal. Under the influence of an applied electric field the e- s may acquire additional energy and move into energy states. Since these e s constitute a current this substance is a conductor. And partly filled region is the conduction band.

Conduction band

.. Valance band

Figure: 2:4: Energy band diagram of conductor

Insulator and Semiconductor

View graph of energy levels as a function of atom separation for Group 4 elements (four valence electrons )

Model

of

crystal

structure

(Bring to

ball-and-stick four

model

to

class.)

*covalent

bonding

nearest-neighbors

* sharing of electrons.

Relative size of band gap is the energy separation between valence and conduction bands

Figure: 2:5: energy gap of different materials

Element:

Band Gap: Configuration: (eV) (At room temp.) [helium] 2s2 2p2 [neon] 3s2 3p2 [argon] 4s2 4p2

(Diamond) Carbon 5.5 Silicon Germanium 1.1 0.7

Diamond is considered to be an insulator, where as Si, and Ge is considered to be semiconductors. Diamond is transparent to visible light, Si and Ge is not; this can be explained with relative band gap energies. Optical absorption; energy or photon is absorbed by electron and photon disappears. (Examine wafer of silicon.) In general, thermal electrons still cannot "jump" band gap in pure semi conducting materials. However Photons of sufficient energy can "promote" conduction electrons.

Intrinsic semiconductor: The pure for of the semiconductor is called intrinsic semiconductor. At 0o K it acts as insulator. At room temperature some of the covalent bonds will be break.
s s s s

Figure: 2:6: pure Si crystal In a pure semi conducting material number of electrons equal to number of holes. That is concentrations are equal. n = p= ni in intrinsic ni2 = Ao T3 exp (-EGo/KT) Where T EGo K Ao absolute temperature in ok , energy gap at 0ok Boltzmann constant, constant

Extrinsic materials: A semi conducting material subjected to doping process is called an extrinsic semi conductor. Their are two types of extrinsic semi conducting materials they are n- Type and p- type. Both are formed by adding a predetermined number of impurity atoms to a silicon base. Impurities change electrical properties of the material.

N-type material: This is formed by doping with elements that have five valence electrons (pentavalent), such as antimony, arsenic, and phosphorus.

s b

Figure: 2:7: Antimony impurity in N type material Note that the four covalent bonds are still present .their is, however, an additional fifth e- due to the impurity atoms which is unassociated with any particular covalent bond. The remaining e- , loosely bound to its parent (antimony) atom, is relative free to move within the newly formed n- type material. Hence antimony is called donor atom. In n- type protons = e-. The effect of this doping process on the relative conductance can best be described through the use of the energy band diagram. Discrete energy levels (donor levels) appears in the forbidden band with an EG significantly less than that of the intrinsic material. Conduction band

This Eg is less than Intrinsic Eg Donor Eg level

Eg =6ev

* *

Energy gap for intrinsic

..
Valance band Figure: 2:8 donor energy level Those free e-s due to the added impurity sit at this donor energy level and easily absorb a sufficient thermal energy to move into the conduction band at room temperature. The result is that at room temperature, there are a large number of

carriers (e-) in the conduction level and the conductivity of the material increases significantly. Intrinsic Si material has 1 free e- for every 1012 atoms. If the dosage level is 1 in 107 the ratio 1012/ 107 = 105 indicates that the carrier concentration has increased by the ratio of 100000:1. P-type material: What happens if we add a few atoms of gallium to silicon? Gallium has one fewer valence electron than silicon when it is placed substitutionally in the lattice for a Si atom only three of the neighboring Si atoms are successfully bound, a hole remains, which also aids conduction since electrons may now move more freely through the lattice, "jumping" into a hole and leaving a hole behind to be filled.

Figure :2:9: Gallium impurity in p-type material In the band structure picture, impurity states are created much closer to the valence band. These states are known as acceptors, since they can accept electrons from the valence band. Again, it is much easier to "liberate" the electron for conduction at lower thermal energy. A semiconductor doped with acceptors is known as a "p-type" semiconductor. (p for positive charge carrier)

Figure: 2:10: acceptor level in doped semiconductor P-type material is formed by doping a pure Ge, Si crystals with trivalent impurity atoms such as boron, gallium, and indium. There is no sufficient number of e - to complete the covalent bonds of the formed lattice. The resulting vacancy will readily accept a free e- . The diffused impurities with three valance e- are called acceptor atoms. The resulting p-type material is electrically neutral, for that the number of protons is equal to number of e- . Concentration of Doping - Semiconductors into Metals

Figure: 2:11: doped semiconductor The effects of doping on resistivity of semiconductor are as follows Donor Concentration Resistivity (micro percent) (ohm-cm) 5 109 50 105 150 10 300 0.1 The first factor of ten increases in doping leads to a factor of ten-thousand increase in conductivity! For comparison, this is like a return of Rs.2 on an Rs.1 investment, shooting up to an Rs.20, 000 returns on increasing to an Rs.10 investment... A factor of 60 variations in doping level results in ten orders of magnitude variation in resistivity. This doping converts germanium effectively into a metal! Electron versus Hole flow:
s s s s

i Hole flow

i electron flow

Figure: 2:12: electron hole flow If a valance e- acquire sufficient kinetic energy it will break the bond and fills the void created by a hole. Than a vacancy, or hole, will be created in the covalent bond that released the eMajority and minority carriers: In the intrinsic state, the number of free e- in Ge or Si is due to those few e- in the valence band that have acquired sufficient energy form thermal or light source to

break the covalent bond or to the few impurities that could not be removed. In n- type their are more e- and in p-type there are more holes. In n- type e- are called as majority carriers, and holes are called minority carriers. In p type holes are called majority carriers and e- s are called minority carriers. Mass action law: Doping with n-type impurities decreases the number of holes and increases the number of e- . Whereas doping with p type impurities increases the number of holes and decreases the number of e- . This concentration is less then the concentration of intrinsic semiconductor. Under thermal equilibrium the product of the free ve and +ve charge concentration is a constant independent of the amount of donor and acceptor impurity doping. This relationship is called the mass action law. Given by np = ni2 Where n concentration of ep - Concentration of holes ni intrinsic concentration. Continuity Equation: The carrier concentration in the body of a semiconductor is a function of both time and distance. The differential equation, is based upon the fact that charge can be neither created nor destroyed, will govern this functional relation. P holes per m3

Area A I I+Id

x+dx

Figure: 2:13: relating to the concentration of charge. P p e is average hole concentration . is mean life time of the holes. is electronic charge.

P/ p is holes per second lost by recombination per unit volume. Because of recombination , the number of coulombs/second decrease within the volume

= e A dx P / p volume = e A dx g

-------------------------------------------(1)

Due to thermal generation the number of coulombs / sec increase within the -------------------------------------------(2)

Where g is thermal rate of generation of hole electron pair / unit volume. Current will vary with distance within the semiconductor as shown in figure. Due to current flows the number of coulombs / sec decrease within the volume = dI -------------------------------------------(3)

Because of equ (1) , (2), (3) hole density must change with time. The total number of coulombs / sec change within the volume = e A dx dp/ dt Since charge must be conserved. e A dx dp/ dt = - e A dx P / p + e A dx g - dI -----------------------(5) We know that hole current = diffusion current + drift current. i.e., I = e A Dp dp/ dx + A p e p E ------------------------------------------ (6) Where E is electric field intensity within the volume. When semiconductor is in thermal equilibrium with its surroundings and is subjected to no applied fields. The hole density will attain a constant value Po under these conditions I = 0, dp/dt = 0 So from equ (5) g = Po / p. ---------------------------------------------------------------- (7) equ (7) indicates Hole generated thermally = hole lost because of recombination under equilibrium. Combining equ (5),(6),(7) we get the equation of conservation of charge or continuity equation , dp/dt = - (p-po)/ p + Dp d2 pn /dx2 - p d(pn E )/dx -------------------------(8) If we consider n-type material and since p depends on two variables partial derivatives is used .So we get pn/t = - (pn-pno)/ p + Dp 2 pn /x2 - p (pn E )/ x -----------------------(9) ------------------------------------------- (4)

Special case of continuity equation: Concentration independent of x and with zero electric field: Assume that radiation falls uniformly over the surface of a semiconductor and raises the concentration to Pno , which is above the thermal equilibrium value pno .At time t =0 the illumination is removed. Concentration will decrease as follows. From equ (8) we get

dpn/dt = - (pn-pno)/ p -------------------------------------------- (10) solution for this is pn-pno = (Pno - pno ) e-t/ p -----------------------------------------(11) where p is the constant with which the concentration returns to its normal value. Or The time it takes the injected concentration to fall to 1\e of its initial value. Concentration independent of t and with zero electric field: Here E=0 ,study state has been reached . i.e., pn/t =0 Then 2pn/t2 = (pn-pno)/ p Dp -----------------------------------------------------(12) Solution is (pn-pno) = K1 e-x/Lp + K2 ex/Lp ---------------------------------------------(13) K1 and K2 are constants of integration and Lp =( Dp p)1/2-----------------------(14) Where Lp is diffusion length for hole Pn (x) = pn-pno = Pn (0) e x/Lpdx Lp may be defined as the average distance which an injected hole travels before recombining with an electron. |dPn| = Pn (0) / Lp -----------------------------------------------------------------(15) Pn(0) Pn(x) |dPn| holes recombine in the distance dx

dx

x=0

Figure: 2:14: relating to the injected hole concentration in n-type material Each hole traveled x distance. |dPn| holes traveled x |dPn|. X is average distance covered by holes Which is equal to = = = Lp ---------------------------------------(16)

Thus confirming that the mean distance of travel of a hole before recombination is Lp. Concentration varies sinusoidally with t and zero E.field:

Here electric field is zero , the injected concentration varies sinusoidally with an angle frequency w in phasor notation. Pn (x.t) = Pn(x) e jwt ------------------------------------------------------ (17) Pn(x) is space dependence of the injected concentration by substituting equ(17) in continuity equ we get J w Pn(x) = d2Pn(x) / dx2 = + Dp ( d2Pn(x) / dx2 ) Pn ------------------------------------------------(18)

at zero frequency continuity equation is d2Pn(x) / dx2 = Pn/Lp2 By comparing above equ with equ(18) it is clear that ac solution at frequency w 0 can be obtained from the dc solution (w=0) by replacing Lp by Lp(1+jw p)-1/2 The Hall Effect: If a specimen (metal or semiconductor) carries a current transverse Magnetic field, an electric field to both is placed in a is induced in the direction perpendicular

. This phenomenon is known as Hall Effect is used to determine whether

a Semiconductor is n- or p- type and to find the carrier concentration . Also by Simultaneously measuring the conductivity ,the mobility can be calculated . If I is in +ve X, B is in +ve Z, then f will be in ve Y direction and if semiconductor Is ntype. e- will experience force to down wards to Y side 1

D w X Figure: 2:15: pertaining to the Hall Effect the carrier (e- or hole ) are subjected to a B side 2 force in the ve Y direction reach plate 1 side1 potential VH called Hall voltage exists b/w side 1 &2 at equilibrium eE =Bev ------------------------------------------------------------------(1) E = VH / d ,J = pv =I/wd Charge density can be find from VH = Ed = B v d = If side 2 is +ve it is n-type material If side 2 is ve it is p-type material ---------------------------------------------------(2) I

Hall coefficient RH defined as RH = 1/ = VH w / BI -----------------------------------------------------(3) If conduction is due primarily to charge of one sine the conductivity is related to The mobility by = -----------------------------------------------------------------------(4) Or RH = ---------------------------------------------------------------------(5) v is mean drift speed of all particles. If random thermal distribution in speed is considered RH = VH w / BI provided that RH is defined by And = RH .

Fermi level in intrinsic semiconductor and extrinsic semiconductor : ENERGY DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRONS It is important to know that what energies are possessed by the electron in a Metal. This relationship is called the energy distribution function. Energy density distribution in energy of the free electron in a metal dnE = E dE----------------------------------------------------------------(1) Where dnE is free electrons per m3 E is density of electrons in interval and dE is energy interval In each unit volume of metal there will be electrons having all possible energies. Distribution in energy E = f(E) N(E) -------------------------------------------------------------(2) Where N(e) is density of states f(E) is probability that a quantum state with E is occupied. N(E) = Where ---------------------------------------------------------------(3) = 4 (2me/h2)3/2 = 6.82* 1027 -----------------------------------------(4)

The Fermi-Dirac function: f(E) Fermi Dirac probability function specifies the fraction of all states at energy E occupied under conditions of thermal equilibrium. f(E) = ----------------------------------------------------------(5)

K = boltzman constant , eV / T = temperature . EF = Fermi level , or characteristic energy , for crystal in eV s

Fermi level represents the energy state with 50% probability of being filled if no forbidden band exists. If E = EF then f(E) = At any temp At absolute zero temperature E = (for E< EF ) = 0 ( for E> EF ) ------------------------------(6)

At absolute zero temperature EF is maximum energy that any electron may posses . Equ(6) is called as completely degenerate energy distribution function. f(E) E-EF ( ev) 1.0 0.8 T= 2500 0.6 T=300 0.4 0.2 T=0 -0.2 -0.4 -0.6 -0.8 -1.0 1.0 (E-EF ,eV) 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

1.0 0.8 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.2 0

T=0 T= 300 T=2500

-1.0 -0.6 -0.2 0 0.2

0.6

f(E)

Figure: 2:16: the Fermi Dirac distribution function f(E) gives the probability that a state of energy is occupied. E T= 0 T= 2500

EF

Figure: 2:17: energy distribution in metallic tungsten at 0oK and 2500oK The distribution function changes only very slightly with temperature .even though The temperature change is as greater as 2500oK .the effect of the high temp is merely To give those electrons having the higher energies at absolute zero still higher Energies , where as those having lower energies have been left practically undisturbed. Since asymptotically, a few electrons will have large values of energy. The Fermi level: The area under the curve in above figure represents the total number of free electrons Thus. n= =2 E)2/3/3

EF =

2/3

-----------------------------------------------------------------(1) (since =6.82*1027) --------------------(2)

EF = 3.64*10-19n2/3

As n (density ) varies EF also varies in metal. From specific gravity atomic weight and free electrons per atom we can calculate the n value from this n value we can calculate EF . For most metals its value is less than 10eV./ Uncertainty principle: This was proposed by Heisenberg. . The measurement of a physical quantity Is characterized by in an essential way by lack of precision The intrinsic concentration: f(E) = 1 f(E) = --------------------------------------------------------(1)

Fermi function for a hole = 1- f(E). (EF-E) >> KT for E EV The number of holes per m3 in valence band is ,

= NV * Where Similarly NV = 2 n = NC n * p = NV * NC Substituting the values of Ne & NV n*p= Carrier concentration in a semiconductor: = N(E) *f(E) * dE is the number of conduction electrons per m3 whose energy lies b/w E & E+dE f(E) is the probability that a quantum state with energy E is occupied by the electron. N(E) is the density of states. f(E) = The concentration of electron in conduction band is

n= For E f(E) = EC E-EF is KT

We get

n = Nc NC = 2

Ni is constant Where is effective mass of the electron Similarly the number of holes per m3 in the valence band p = Nv Where NV = 2

Fermi level is the maximum energy level that can be occupied by the electron at 0oK Fermi level in intrinsic semiconductor: n=p= n = Nc p = Nv n=p NC = Nv

Electrons in the valence band occupy energy levels up to EF . EF is defined that way then the additional energy that has to do supplied so that free electrons will move from valence band to the conduction band is EC = = Taking logarithmic on both sides = EF=

NC = 2

Nv = 2 Where mn & mp are effective masses of hole and electron. If we assume that mn = mp (though not valid) NC = NV =0 EF = The graphical representation is as shown in figure above Fermi level in intrinsic semiconductor lies in the middle of energy gap EG Fermi Level in a Doped (Extrinsic) semiconductor: = (n n + p p) e So the electrical characteristics of a semi conductor depend upon n & p the concentration of hole & e- . The expression for n = Nc And p = Nv

These are valid for both intrinsic & extrinsic .The e- & h respond to an external field As if their mass is m* (m*=0.6m) and not m, so this m* is know as effective mass. With impurity concentration only EF will change. If donor type impurity is added to The intrinsic semiconductor it becomes n-type. So assuming that all the atoms are Ionized, each impurity atom contributes at least one free e-. So the first ND states in The conduction band most be filled. Then it will be more difficult for the electron to Reach conduction band, bringing the gap between covalent band & valence band. So The number of electron hole pair, thermally generated at that of the probability of Occupancy of the energy states. Since because of doping, more energy state in the Conduction band are filled, the Fermi level will move towards the C.B. expression for EG. p = Nv n = Nc n * p = Nc * Nv e (Ec-EF)/KT (EC-EV) = EG n*p=
2

= NV * NC / NV * NC =

Taking logarithms ln (
2

/ NV * NC) = ln
2

EG = KT ln (NV * NC /

The position of Fermi level is as shown in below figure. Conduction band conduction band EC EC ED Energy EF EG EF EA EV Valence band 0 0.5 f(E) 1.0 0 EV valence band 0.5 f(E) 1.0 EG

Figure: 2:18: position of Fermi level for p-type semiconductor after doping for n-type semiconductor Similarly, in the case of p-type materials, the Fermi level moves towards the V.B. since the number of holes has increased. In the case of n-type semi conductor the number of free electron has increased. So energy in covalent band has increased. Fermi level move towards conduction band. Similarly in p-type semiconductor. Fermi level move towards valence band. So it is as shown in above figure. To calculate the exact position of the Fermi level in n-type semiconductor. n ND n = Nc ND = Nc Taking logarithm ln (ND/ NC ) = ln EF = EC KT ln (ND/ NC ) So Fermi level EF is close to conduction Band EC in n-type semiconductor. Similarly for p-type material. p NA p = Nv (NA/NV )=

Taking logarithm ln (NA/ NV ) = ln EF = EV + KT ln (NA/ NV ) Fermi level is close to valence band EV in p-type semiconductor. Energy gap: The forbidden region Eg in a semiconductor depends upon temperature. For silicon EG(T) = 1.21 3.6 * 10-4 T At room temperature (300oK) EG = 1.1 eV For Ge EG (T) = 0.785 2.32 * 10-4 T At room temperature (300oK) EG = 0.72 eV Mobility & conductivity: When an electron field is applied to the semiconductor as a result of this, the electron are accelerated and the velocity would increase with time. At each collision with an ion an electron loses energy and a steady state condition is reached where a finite value of drift Speed v is attained. This drift velocity is in the direction opposite to that of electric field. The average speed or drift speed v is proportional to electric field v=E where is mobility of electrons in m2/ Vs Current density: If N e- are contained in length L of conductor and if it takes an electron a time T to travel a distance of Lm in the conductor , the total number of electrons passing through any cross section of wire in unit time is N/T . thus the total charge/sec passing Any area is the current i.e., I = Nq / T = Nqv / L (since drift speed of electron v = L/T ) The current density J is the current/ unit area of the conducting medium. J = I /A Hence J = Nq v / LA L A is simply the volume containing the N electrons and so N / LA is the electron concentration n n = N / LA J=nqv =v = n q is the charge density , coulombs / m3 Conductivity: J=nqv=nqE=E

Conductivity = n q In (ohm-meter )-1 Mobility: Mobility varies as T-m over a temperature range of 100o K to 400o K For Si m = 2.5 for e= 2.7 for hole For Ge m = 1.66 for e= 2.33 for hole Dependence of mobility on electric field varies with field strength as shown bellow E 1/ E 1/E for E < 103 V/cm for 103 < E < 104 V/cm for higher fields
2

Charge density in a semiconductor : The electron and hole concentrations are related by n p = these densities are further interrelated by the law of electrical neutrality. Let ND equal to the concentration of donor atoms . Hence the total positive charge density is ND + p similarly NA is the concentration of acceptor atoms these contribute NA ve charge/ m3 the total ve charge density is NA + n. since the semiconductor is essentially neutral, the magnitude of +ve charge density must equal that of the ve concentration ND + p = NA + n Consider an n-type material having NA=0 since the number of e- is much greater than the number of holes in the n-type semiconductor (n>>p). n ND in an n-type material the free e- concentration is approximately equal to the density of donor atom hence for an n-type semiconductor nn ND the concentration pn of holes in n-type is obtained from nn pn = pn = pn NA nppp = pp =
2 2 2 2

/ ND

similarly for p-type material

/ NA

Electrical properties of Ge & Si: The main difference between metal and semiconductor is that the form is unipolar where as semiconductor is bipolar. Conductivity: one carrier is ve of mobility n and the other is +ve of mobility p. These particles move in opposite

directions in an e.field E. but since they aer of opposite sign the current of each is in the same direction hence the current density J is J = Jn+Jp = o (1+ (T-To) J = (n n + p p )q E = E For a pure or intrinsic semiconductor n = p = i.e., = ( n + p ) q Semiconductor Diode Characteristics: Combination of p-type & n-type semiconductor gives rectifier property Qualitative theory of the p-n junction: If donor impurities are introduced into one side and acceptor impurities into the other side of a single crystal of a semiconductor, say germanium, a p-n junction is formed. Initially there are nominally only p-type carries to the left of the junction and only n-type carries to the right of the junction. Because there is a density gradient across the junction holes will diffuse to the right across the junction and e- to the left. As a result of the displacement of these charges an electric field will appear across the junction. Equilibrium will be established when the field becomes large enough to restrain the process of diffusion Ions neighborhood of the junction gets neutralized. The un neutralized ions in the neighborhood of the junction are referred to as uncovered charges. As junction is depleted of mobile charges it is called the depletion region or space charge or transition region. The thickness of this region is of the order of 10-4 cm = 10-6 m=1 Micron.

Acceptor ions o o o o o o o Hole o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o (a) p type

junction

donor ion

electron

0.5cm

n- type

Space charge region 10-4 cm Charge density , (b) d2v/ dx2 = - / E + distance from junction

(c) E = - d v/ dx = ( / E) dx electric field intensity, E

electrostatic potential V or potential energy barrier for hole V = - E dx VO Distance from junction (e)

potential energy barrier for eVO Distance from junction Figure: 2:19: A schematic diagram of a p-n junction, including the charge density, electric field intensity , and potential energy barrier at the junction.

The p n junction as a diode: The essential electrical character of a pn junction is thaa it constitutes a diode which permits the easy flow of current in one direction but resists the flow in the opposite direction. Reverse Bias: Metal ohmic contacts P N In order to have a study flow of holes to the left , these holes must be supplied across the junction from n-type . there are very few holes in the ntype hence zero current results .actually a small V I + (b) Figure: 2:20: (a) p-n junction biased in the reverse direction (b) the rectifier symbol is used for the p-n diode + (a) current does flows because a small number of hole electron pairs are generated throughout the crystal as a result of thermal energy. The holes so formed in the n-type will wander over to the junction . a small remark applies to the e- thermally generated in the p-type germanium. This small current is the diode reverse saturation current and its magnitude is designated by Io. This reverse current will increase with increase in temperature. Hence the back resistance of a crystal diode decreases with increase in temperature. Forward bias: Metal contacts P + (a) N An ideal p-n diode has zero ohmic voltage drops across the body of the crystal. For such diode the height of the potential barrier at the junction will be lowered by the applied forward voltage V. the equilibrium initially established between the force tending to produce diffusion of majority carriers and the restraining influence of the + (b) Figure: 2:21: (c) p-n junction biased in the Forward direction (d) the rectifier symbol is Used for the p-n diode potential energy barrier at the junction will be disturbed. Hence for a forward bias, the holes cross the junction from the p type to the n type and the e- cross the junction in the opposite direction. These majority carriers then travels around the closed circuit and relatively large current will flow.

Ohmic contacts: We have introduced two metal semiconductor junctions. Metal semiconductor contacts are non rectifying. Ohmic contact: the contact potential across these junctions is approximately independent of the direction and magnitude of the current. The short circuited and open circuited p-n junction: If applied voltage is zero p-n junction would be short circuited no current flows I=0, And their will be Vo constant electrostatic potential exists. If in an attempt to measure Vo we connected a voltmeter across the diode the volt meter would read zero voltage. Large forward voltage: When applied voltage is equals to the Vo the barrier disappears, and I is large. As the forward voltage V becomes comparable with Vo, the current through a real p-n diode will be governed by the ohmic contact resistance and the crystal bulk resistance. Thus the volt-ampere characteristics become approximately a straight line. The p-n junction Energy band diagram of PN diode, Consider that a PN junction has a p type and n type materials in close physical contact.fermi level must be constant throughout the specimen at equilibrium. In the energy band diagram Ecp not equal to Ecn and Evn not equal to. Where Ecp--- least energy level in conduction band in P type Evp--- highest energy level in valance band in P type Ecn---least energy level in conduction band in N type Evn---highest energy level in conduction band in N type Hence a shift in energy level Eo is indicated. Eo = Ecp- Ecn = Evp-Evn =E1 + E2 ----------------------------------- (1) This Eo represents the potential energy of the e- at the junction. The contact difference of potential: We now obtain an expression for Eo. EF Evp = EG E1 ------------------------------------(2) And Ecn - EF = EG E2 ------------------------------------(3) Adding these two equation we obtain Eo = E 1 E2 = EG (EF Evp) - ( Ecn - EF )--------(4) We know that EG = KT ln [(Nc ND )/ ni2 ] ----------------------------(5) Ecn - EF = KT ln [ Nc / ND ]---------------------------- (6) EF Evp = KT ln [ Nv / NA ] ---------------------------(7) Eo = KT{ ln [(Nc ND )/ ni2 ] - ln [ Nc / ND ] - ln [ Nv / NA ] } = KT ln { [(Nc ND )/ ni2 ] [ Nc / ND ] [ Nv / NA ]}

= KT ln [(NA ND )/ ni2 ]

-----------------------------(8)

P region Conduction band Ecp EG/2

N region

conduction band

Eo EG/2 E1 EF Eo Evp Valance band Eo E2

Ecn

EG/2 EG/2 Evn

Valance band Figure: 2:22: band diagram for a p-n junction under open-circuited conditions. Represents potential energy for electrons. The width of the forbidden gap is EG in electron volts. space charge potential Vo is numerically equal to Eo. Vo depends only upon the equilibrium concentrations and not at all upon the charge density in the transition region. By substituting nn ND , pn ni2 / ND , np ni2/ NA in equ (8) we get Eo = KT ln [ Ppo / Pno ] = KT ln [ nno/ npo] -----------------------------------------(9) Subscript o represents thermal equilibrium. For ppo = 1016 cm-3 , pno = 104 cm-3 and KT = 0.026ev at room temperature Eo 0.5ev An alternative derivation for Vo : Since the net hole current is zero . the negative of the ole diffusion current must equal the hole drift current. e Dp dp/dx = e p p E ------------------------------------------(10) the Einstein relation is dp/p = VT -----------------------------------------------------------(11) substituting equ(11) in equ(10) we get dp/p = E dx/ VT = - dv/ VT ------------------------------------(12)

if this equation is integrated b/w limits which extend aaccross the junction . from the p material where the equilibrium hole concentration is ppo, to the n side, wher the hole density is pno , the result is ppo = pno exp{Vo/ VT} ------------------------------------------(13) Vo = VT ln {ppo/ pno} since Vo/VT = Eo/ KT Eo = KT ln {ppo/ pno} The Current Components in A p-n diode junction: If forward bias is applied, holes are injected into the n side and e- injected into the p side. Number of these injected minority carriers fall off exponentially with distance from the junction. Since the diffusion current of minority carriers is proportional to the concentration gradient, the current must also vary exponentially with distance. Figure: 2:23: The hole and ecurrent components Vs distance in a p-n junction diode. (a) Ipp hole current Inp e- current X=0 V total current Inn electron current Ipn hole current The space-charge region at the junction is assumed to be negligible small

Minority current Ipn, Inp e- cross x=0 from right to left h cross x=0 from left to right cause current in h direction total current I at x=0 is I=Ipn(0)+Inp(0)----------------(14) Since the current is the same throughout a series circuit, I is independent of x. Consequently, in the p side, there must be a second component of current Ipp which when added to Inp given the total current I. Hence this hole current in the p side Ipp is Ipp(x)=I-Inp(x)-----------------------(15) For unsymmetrically doped diode Ipn not equal to Inp. Deep in the p side the current is a drift current Ipp of holes sustained by the small electric field in the semiconductor. As the holes approach the junction some of them recombine with the electrons. Which are injected into p side from n side. Hence part of current I pp

becomes negative current just equal in magnitude to the diffusion current Inp. This remaining current of Ipp enters into n-side and becomes Ipn. In forward biased pn diode the current enter the p side as a hole current and leaves the n-side as an ecurrent of the same magnitude. Current in pn diode is bipolar as is made of two charges. The law of Junction: If the hole concentrations at the edges of the space charges region are p p & nn in the p & n materials. And if the barrier potential across this depletion layer is VB then Pp=Pne (VB/VT) -------------------------------------------------------------(1) This is the Boltzmann relationship of kinetic gas theory. It is valid even under non equilibrium condition as long as the net hole current is small compared with the diffusion or the drift hole current under this condition called low-level injection we may to a good approximation again equate the magnitude of the diffusion and drift currents. Consider now a junction biased in the forward direction by an applied voltage V. Then the barrier voltage VB is decreases from its equilibrium value Vo by the amount V, VB= Vo-V. The hole concentration throughout the p region is constant and equal to the thermal equilibrium value. pp=pp0. The hole concentration varies with distance into the n-side, as the edge of the depletion layer, x=0, pn=pn(0). ppo = Pn(0) e(Vo-V)/VT Pn = pno e V/VT ---------------------------------------------------------------(2) This boundary condition is called the Law of junction. It indicate that for a forward bias (V>0) the hole concentration Pn(0) at the junction is greater than the thermal equilibrium value pn0. A similar Law valid for e- is obtained by interchanging p and n. The hole concentration Pn(0) injected into the n side at the junction is obtained by Pn(0)= pno(eV/VT - 1)----------------------------------------------------(3) Diode Equation: The forward currents: The hole current Ipn(0) crossing the junction into the n side is given by below equation with x=0, Using Pn(0) value we obtain Ipn(0)= --------------------------------------------(1)

The electron current Inp(0) crossing the junction into the p-side is obtained by Inp(0)= Total diode current is sum of equ(1)&(2) -------------------------------------------(2)

I = Io ( Io = +

) --------------------------------------------------(3)

If Wp & Wn are the widths of the p & n materials. The above derivation has implicitly assumed that Wp >> Lp & Wn >> Ln . Sometimes the widths are much smaller than the diffusion lengths, the expression for Io remains valid provided that Lp & Ln are replaced by Wp &Wn. The reverse saturation current: For a reverse bais whose magnitude is large compared with VT(~ 26mV at room temperature ) , I is equal to Io .hence Io is called reverse saturation current. We get Io = A e Where ni2 is given by ni2 = A0 T3 e EG0 /KT = A0 T3 e VG0 /KT ----------------------------------- (5) VG0 is voltage numerically equal to the forbidden gap energy EG0 in eV ,and VT is the voltage equivalent of temperature. For Ge diffusion constant Dp & Dn vary Approximately inversely proportional to T . hence temperature dependence of Io is Io = K1 T2 e VG0 /KT --------------------------------------------------------- (6) Charge generation current I = Io (eV/ VT 1 ) ---------------------------------------------------------- (7) = 2 for small currents and = 1 for large currents. Io ni if K2 is a constant Io = K2 T1. 5 e VG0 / 2VT ----------------------------------------------------- (8) The volt ampere characteristics: We know I = Io (eV/ VT 1 ) ----------------------------------------------------------- (1) If current +ve means I flowing from p-side to n-side and if voltage +ve means diode is in forward bias. VT = T / 11600 = voltage equivalent temperature. = 26 mV at room temperature. Current increased exponentially with voltage. In reverse bias ,and when bias voltage,V >> cut in voltage(V ) I - Io where Io is the reverse saturation current.. At Vz voltage diode is said to be in breakdown region. -------------------------------------------------(4)

I,
5

(mA)

Io

V Io Vz I, (a) (A) (b)

0.5

V (volt)

Figure: 2:24:

(a) . Volt ampere characteristics of ideal p-n diode (b) . Volt ampere characteristics of Ge diode

The cut in voltage: V Their exists a cutin , offset, break point , or threshold voltage V bellow which the current is very small . for Ge V = 0.2V , for Si V = 0.6V. Io in Ge diode is 1000 times greater than Io in Si diode Since = 2 for Si at lower voltages I varies as eV/2VT. And = 1 at higher voltages I varies as eV/VT . This initial smaller dependence of the current on voltage accounts for the further delay in the rise of the silicon characteristic graph. I(mA)
160 140 120

Ge

Si

100 80 60 40 20

V (volts)
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0

Figure: 2:25: the forward volt- ampere char of a Ge (IN 270) and a Si (IN 3605) diode at 25o C.

Logarithmic characteristics: log I = log Io + 0.434 V/ VT at low voltages curve is linear, at higher voltage curve is nonlinear. Because of ohmic resistance of diode, in applied voltage some is used to form electric field to over come this ohmic resistance. I(mA)
100 50 10

5 1 0.5 0.1 0.05 o 150 C o 25 C o - 55 C

V (volts)
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0

Figure: 2:26: : volt ampere char at 3 different temperatures. Temperature dependence of VI characteristic: At fixed current voltage variation with temperature. We know Io = KTm e - VGO / VT --------------------------------------------(1)

k- constant e VGO- forbidden gap energy in joules. For Ge =1 m=2 VGO = 0.785V For Si =2 m=1.5 VGO=1.21V Taking derivation of log of equ(1) 1 d I O d l n I O m V GO = = + dt dt T T V T IO At room temperature for Ge dIo/ d T = 0.11 oC-1 For si dIo/ d T = 0.08 oC-1 Reverse saturation current due to leakage over surface is independent of temperature. Reverse saturation current approximately doubles for every 100 C rice in temperature. 1 d IO V dV V = = V T dT T dT IO dV/dT = -2.1 mV/o C for Ge and On average

(V

GO

+ m V T

Let at room temperature, above threshold voltage Vr -2.3 mV/o C for Si -----------------------(4)

dV/dT = -2.5 mV/t In equation(3) V/T results from temperature dependence of VT

(V

GO

+ m V T T

Result from temperature dependence of Io,

and does not depend on diode voltage V. as voltage increases dV/dT become less -ve V =

(V

GO

+ m V T T

dV/dT =0

if we further increase voltage dV/dt become +ve REVERSE CHARACTERISTICS: As reverse voltage increases, Io increases. It is due to leakage across the surface of the diode and also due to new current carriers may be generated by collision in the transistion region at the junction. As Temperature increases for Ge Io increases, by 100s of micro ampere As Temperature increases for Si Io increases by 10s micro ampere.

Reverse current A

Reverse current A

500 100 50 10 5 1 0.5 0.1 0 20 40 60 80 - 55 o C 55 o C 25 o C 90o C

5 150 o C 100 o C

1.0 0.5

0.1 0.05 0.01 0.005 0.0001 100 0 20 40

25 o C 60 80

100

Reverse voltage V

Reverse voltage V

Figure: 2:27: examples of diodes which do not exhibit a constant reverse saturation current.(a) Ge diode IN 270, Diode Resistance: Static resistance R of a diode is the ration of V/I. At any point VI Characteristics of diode the R is equal to the reciprocal of the slope of a line R=V/I Dynamic resistance is defined as the reciprocal of the slope of the VI Characteristics (b) Si IN 3605.

r = dV/dI. g = dI / dV =I e V
O V /

VT

I + IO

V T

r = VT I

Space charge or transition capacitance: A reverse bias causes majority carriers to move away from the junction therby uncovering immobile charge. Hence the thickness of space charge layer at junction increases with reverse voltage. This increase in uncovered charge with voltage may be considered a capacitive effect. dQ dV

= dQ dt

i=

i = CT

dQ dt

This CT is called as transition region, space charge barrier. Depletion region capacitance. This capacitance depends on reverse voltage. Diffusion Capacitance: In forward bias this capacitance will exist incremental capacitance defined as the rate of change of injected charge with applied voltage. This capacitance C D is called the diffusion, or storage capacitance. Derivation of Expression for CD: Assume P is doped more than n so that I= Ipn (0) The remaining minority charge Q. is given by Q = Ae
0

x / (0) e L p dx = Ae L p

(0) --------------------------(1)

And

CD =
I= d

d p (0) dQ n = Ae L p dV dV

Hole current

Ae D p

p
p

(0)

L
n

And

(0)

dV

=
2

L Ae D
p

dI Lp g = dV Ae D p

Then

Lg = c D
p D p

-------------------------------------------------------------(2)

Hole mean life time p

=
p p

L = D C
= D

CD = g
Then

since g = I/ VT

.I V T

Diffusion capacitance is proportional to the current this I is due to holes only. In reverse bias CD << CT in forward bias CD >> CT STEP GRADED JUNCITON: Their is an abrupt charge from acceptor ions on one side to donor ions on the other side. Such a Junction is formed by placing indium, which is trivalent, against n type Ge and heating the combination to a high temperature for a short time. Some of the indium dissolves in to the Ge to charge the Ge from n to p type at junction such a step graded junction is called an alloy or fusion junction. The acceptor impurity density is much larger than the donor impurity concentration. Since the net charge must be zero. NA Wp = ND Wn P N (a) ND if NA >> ND, then Wp << Wn W
2

d
d

V
2

q ND

NA wn wp w

E=

dV = q N D dx dx w
x

= q N D ( x w) Neglecting small potential drop across Wp and V=0 at x = 0

potential Vo x=0 x = wp Figure: 2:28: charge dencity and potential variation at a fusion p-n junction (w 10-4cm)

V = q N D ( x w) dx 0
x

= q N ( x
D

2
2

wx )

= q N D ( x 2wx ) 2 At x =w potentialV=Vj

V
=

= j

qND 2

(w 2 w )

Charge density - w/2 w/2 Figure: 2:29: charge density variation at a grown p-n junction

qND 2

w
j

If A is the area of junction, the charge in the distance w is Q = q NDwA Transition capacitance CT is given by dQ dw A = Aq N D = dV dV w A = w =

C C

For a linear graded junction w (Vj)1/3 instead of Vj1/2 Breakdown Mechanisms in Semi Conductor (Avalanche and Zener breakdown) Diodes, Zener diode characteristics, Breakdown Diodes: Diodes which are designed with adequate power dissipation capabilities to operte in the breakdown region may be employed as voltage reference or constant voltage devices there are called Avalanche, break down zener diodes. I R VZ + IZK RL VZ IZ +

IZ

(a) (b) Figure: 2:30: (a)the volt-ampere characteristics of an avalcnche or zener, diode. (b) A ckt in which such a diode is used to regulated the voltage across RL against change due to variation in load current and supply voltage. Large change in diode voltage produce only small change in diode voltage. Two mechanism of diode breakdown for increasing reverse voltage are recognized. The

thermally generated e- & holes acquire sufficient energy from the applied potential to produce new carriers by removing valance electron from their bonds. These new carriers in turn produce additional carriers again through the process of disrupting bonds. This cumulative process is called as avalanche multiplication. It cuase a flow at large reverse currents & diode finds itself in avalanche breakdown region. even if the initially available carriers do not acquire sufficient energy to disrupt bonds. It is possible to initiate breakdown through a direct rupture of the bonds because of the existence of the strong electric field. Under these circumstances the breakdown is referred to as zener breakdown. In Zener effect breakdown voltage below 6v. The TUNNEL DIODE: (1958 by Esaki) If the concentration of impurity atoms is greatly increased say, to I port in 10 3, the device characteristics are completely changed. The Tunneling Phenomenon: The width of the junction barrier varies inversely as the square root of impurity concentration and there fore is reduced from 5 microns to less than 100A.for barrier as thin as those estimated above in the Esaki diode, the Schrdinger equation indicates that these is a large probability that an electron will penetrate through the barrier. This quantum mechanical behaviour is referred to as tunneling. And hence these high impurity density p-n junction devices are called tunnel diodes. This tunneling effect is responsible for high field emission of electron from a cold metal and for radio active emissions. I Ip Forward current

IV Reverse Voltage VP VV forward voltage VF V

Figure: 2:31: volt-ampere characteristic of a tunnel diode.

Energy-band structure of a highly doped (tunnel) p-n diode:

P side conduction band EC EG EV EF Empty states (holes)

n side conduction band

conduction band filled states Eo EF EC EG EV

Valence band Figure: 2:32: energy bands in a heavily doped p-n junction diode under open circuited condition

P side conduction band EC EG EV EF Empty states (holes)

n side conduction band

conduction band filled states Tunneling Eo EF EC

applied

EG Valence band

reverse bias

EV

Figure: 2:33: energy bands in a heavily doped p-n junction diode under reverse baised condition

P side conduction band EC EG EV

tunneling

n side conduction band

conduction band

filled states

Eo EF EC

EF Empty states (holes) EG

EV Valence band Figure: 2:33: energy bands in a heavily doped p-n junction diode under forward baised condition Applications: it can be used as very high speed high frequency oscillator Advantages: low cost, low noise, low power, high high IP/ IV ratio with silicon. Varactor Diode, The varactor diode is also termed as varicap, voltage variable capacitance diode (VVC) and volt cap. The transition capacitance (CT) is depends upon the width of the depletion region. Since CT = The depletion width is increased by increasing the reverse bias voltage so the capacitance is decreases. By decreasing the width the capacitance is increases. So the capacitance is depends upon the reverse bias voltage. The diode which operates on this condition is known as varactor diode. The symbol of varactor diode is shown bellow CT(pF) speed and environmental immunity generally tunnel diode are made from Ge, or GaAs. It is difficult to obtain

VR Figure: 2:33: varactor diode

Applications: Used in self biased bridge circuits. In parametric amplifiers Photo diode:

VR radiation

Dark Current IR(A) Figure: 2:34: photo diode

p n

If light is focused on a reverse bias p-n junction .the current varies linearly with of light. This effect is used in semiconductor photo diode. Light radiation is allow to fall upon one surface across the remaining side of the plastic are either painted black or enclosed in a metal enclosure. If the reverse voltage is applied almost constant current flows through the diode. The reverse saturation current under no radiation (light) is known as dark current The light act as minority carrier injector in the diode. These injected minority carriers diffuse to the junction and contribute to the current. The current under large reverse bias is I = Io + Is Where Is is short circuit current which is proportional to the light intensity. light

Figure: 2:35: symbol of photo diode. The current ina reverse biased semiconductor photo diode depends upon the diffusion of minority carriers to the junction . if the light is focused into a small spot far away from the junction . the injected carriers can recombine before diffusing to the junction. Hence much smaller current will than if the minority carriers were injected at the junction. It can be used in high speed reading of computer punched cards . Light detection systems , reading of films , sound track , light speared switches.

A photodiode is a PN junction or PIN structure. When a photon of sufficient energy strikes the diode, it excites an electron, thereby creating a mobile electron and a positively charged electron hole. If the absorption occurs in the junction's depletion region, or one diffusion length away from it, these carriers are swept from the junction by the built-in field of the depletion region. Thus holes move toward the anode, and electrons toward the cathode, and a photocurrent is produced. Photovoltaic mode When used in zero bias or photovoltaic mode, the flow of photocurrent out of the device is restricted and a voltage builds up. The diode becomes forward biased and "dark current" begins to flow across the junction in the direction opposite to the photocurrent. This mode is responsible for the photovoltaic effect, which is the basis for solar cellsin fact, a solar cell is just a large area photodiode. Photoconductive mode In this mode the diode is often reverse biased, dramatically reducing the response time at the expense of increased noise. This increases the width of the depletion layer, which decreases the junction's capacitance resulting in faster response times. The reverse bias induces only a small amount of current (known as saturation or back current) along its direction while the photocurrent remains virtually the same. The photocurrent is linearly proportional to the luminance. Although this mode is faster, the photoconductive mode tends to exhibit more electronic noise.[citation needed] The leakage current of a good PIN diode is so low (< 1nA) that the JohnsonNyquist noise of the load resistance in a typical circuit often dominates. Other modes of operation Avalanche photodiodes have a similar structure to regular photodiodes, but they are operated with much higher reverse bias. This allows each photo-generated carrier to be multiplied by avalanche breakdown, resulting in internal gain within the photodiode, which increases the effective responsivity of the device. Phototransistors also consist of a photodiode with internal gain. A phototransistor is in essence nothing more than a bipolar transistor that is encased in a transparent case so that light can reach the base-collector junction. The electrons that are generated by photons in the base-collector junction are injected into the base, and this photodiode current is amplified by the transistor's current gain (or hfe). Note that while phototransistors have a higher responsivity for light they are not able to detect low levels of light any better than photodiodes.[citation needed] Phototransistors also have slower response times. Materials

The material used to make a photodiode is critical to defining its properties, because only photons with sufficient energy to excite electrons across the material's bandgap will produce significant photocurrents. Materials commonly used to produce photodiodes include Material Silicon Germanium Indium gallium arsenide Lead(II) sulfide Wavelength range (nm) 1901100 4001700 8002600 <1000-3500

Because of their greater band gap, silicon-based photodiodes generate less noise than germanium-based photodiodes, but germanium photodiodes must be used for wavelengths longer than approximately 1 m. Unwanted photodiodes Since transistors and ICs are made of semiconductors, and contain P-N junctions, almost every active component is potentially a photodiode. Many components, especially those sensitive to small currents, will not work correctly if illuminated, due to the induced photocurrents. In most components this is not desired, so they are placed in an opaque housing. Since housings are not completely opaque to X-rays or other high energy radiation, these can still cause many ICs to malfunction due to induced photo-currents. Applications 1. P-N photodiodes are used in similar applications to other photodetectors, such as photoconductors, charge-coupled devices, and photomultiplier tubes. 2. Photodiodes are used in consumer electronics devices such as compact disc players, smoke detectors, and the receivers for remote controls in VCRs and televisions. 3. In other consumer items such as camera light meters, clock radios (the ones that dim the display when it's dark) and street lights, photoconductors are often used rather than photodiodes, although in principle either could be used. 4. Photodiodes are often used for accurate measurement of light intensity in science and industry. They generally have a better, more linear response than photoconductors.

5. They are also widely used in various medical applications, such as detectors for computed tomography (coupled with scintillators) or instruments to analyze samples (immunoassay). They are also used in pulse oximeters. 6. PIN diodes are much faster and more sensitive than ordinary p-n junction diodes, and hence are often used for optical communications and in lighting regulation. 7. P-N photodiodes are not used to measure extremely low light intensities. Instead, if high sensitivity is needed, avalanche photodiodes, intensified charge-coupled devices or photomultiplier tubes are used for applications such as astronomy, spectroscopy, night vision equipment and laser rangefinding.

LED, LED is a diode that gives off visible or invisible light when energized . bellow table provides a list of common compound semiconductors and the light they generate and typical range of forward bias potential for each. Colour Amber Blue Green Orange Red White Yellow construction AllnGaP GaN GaP GaAsP GaAsP GaN AllnGaP typical forward voltage(V) 2.1 5.0 2.2 2.0 1.8 4.1 2.1

The light intensity of an LED will increase with forward current until a point of saturation arrives where any further increase in current will not effectively increase the level of illumination. One of the major concerns when using an LED is the reverse bias breakdown voltage , which is typically between 3V and 5V. This range of values is significantly less than that of a standard commertial diode ,where it can extend to thousands of volts. As a result one has to be acutely aware of this severs limitation in the design process.in the analysis and desige of networks with LED it is helpful to have some idea of the voltage and current levels to be expected.

Multi colour LED:

Figure: 2:36: light emitting diode

Pin 1: blue Pin 2: green Pin 3: anode Pin 4: red Light-emitting diodes are darn cool and have found uses in so many places - traffic lights, standard lightbulb sockets and high-powered flashlights to name a few. The Multi-Color LED Lightbulb is a super bright LED bulb that can transition through dozens of color and brightness combinations and is compatible with a standard lightbulb socket. The included IR remote can select an individual color or brightness level or choose one of four different transition effects. Great for mood lighting, decorating, parties or special lighting environments. It has multiple brightness level settings and four transition effects (long pause on each color, short pause, slow fade between colors, faster fade). The light is generated from a 5 Watt LED. LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY: Each pixel of an LCD typically consists of a layer of molecules aligned between two transparent electrodes, and two polarizing filters, the axes of transmission of which are (in most of the cases) perpendicular to each other. With no actual liquid crystal between the polarizing filters, light passing through the first filter would be blocked by the second (crossed) polarizer.

The surface of the electrodes that are in contact with the liquid crystal material are treated so as to align the liquid crystal molecules in a particular direction. This treatment typically consists of a thin polymer layer that is unidirectionally rubbed using, for example, a cloth. The direction of the liquid crystal alignment is then defined by the direction of rubbing. Electrodes are made of a transparent conductor called Indium Tin Oxide (ITO). Before applying an electric field, the orientation of the liquid crystal molecules is determined by the alignment at the surfaces of electrodes. In a twisted nematic device (still the most common liquid crystal device), the surface alignment directions at the two electrodes are perpendicular to each other, and so the molecules arrange themselves in a helical structure, or twist. This reduces the rotation of the polarization of the incident light, and the device appears grey. If the applied voltage is large enough, the liquid crystal molecules in the center of the layer are almost completely untwisted and the polarization of the incident light is not rotated as it passes through the liquid crystal layer. This light will then be mainly polarized perpendicular to the second filter, and thus be blocked and the pixel will appear black. By controlling the voltage applied across the liquid crystal layer in each pixel, light can be allowed to pass through in varying amounts thus constituting different levels of gray. LCD with top polarizer removed from device and placed on top, such that the top and bottom polarizers are parallel. The optical effect of a twisted nematic device in the voltage-on state is far less dependent on variations in the device thickness than that in the voltage-off state. Because of this, these devices are usually operated between crossed polarizers such that they appear bright with no voltage (the eye is much more sensitive to variations in the dark state than the bright state). These devices can also be operated between parallel polarizers, in which case the bright and dark states are reversed. The voltage-off dark state in this configuration appears blotchy, however, because of small variations of thickness across the device. Both the liquid crystal material and the alignment layer material contain ionic compounds. If an electric field of one particular polarity is applied for a long period of time, this ionic material is attracted to the surfaces and degrades the device performance. This is avoided either by applying an alternating current or by reversing the polarity of the electric field as the device is addressed (the response of the liquid crystal layer is identical, regardless of the polarity of the applied field). When a large number of pixels are needed in a display, it is not technically possible to drive each directly since then each pixel would require independent electrodes. Instead, the display is multiplexed. In a multiplexed display, electrodes on one side of the display are grouped and wired together (typically in columns), and each group

gets its own voltage source. On the other side, the electrodes are also grouped (typically in rows), with each group getting a voltage sink. The groups are designed so each pixel has a unique, unshared combination of source and sink. The electronics, or the software driving the electronics then turns on sinks in sequence, and drives sources for the pixels of each sink. Display applications Television and digital television Liquid crystal display television (LCD TV) LCD projector Computer monitor Aircraft Instrumentation displays (see glass cockpit) HD44780 Character LCD a widely accepted protocol for small LCDs

PROBLEMS
Example 2.1 A uniformly doped Silicon PN junction with very thick P and N regions has the following characteristics:

For a forward bias of 0.626 Volts, calculate, excess minority carrier concentrations and minority carrier currents at the edges of depletion region. Calculate also the net current flowing through the device.

Solution : The wide-base diode is model valid here. Using the expressions derived earlier:

The net current is the sum of electron and hole current = 0.56+0.44 = 1 mA. Example (a) (b) (c) (d) carrier 2.2 For the carrier carrier carrier drift field currents example currents currents currents in calculated in in above, in in determine N N N the example expressions and and and P P for

majority majority majority

P-regions regions regions N-region 2.1

diffusion

electric diffusion

(e) minority carrier drift currents. Confirm that they are much smaller than minority

Solution: We will carry out the solution for the N-region since the solution for P-

region is similar. The minority hole current in N-region can be written using the results of previous example as:

The hole current is primarily diffusion current and the sum of hole and electron currents is equal to the total current. The electron current on the N-side is therefore simply:

The

electron

diffusion

current

can

be

written

as:

Using the concept of quasi-neutrality in the N-region :

, so that

The

electron

diffusion

current

can

therefore

be

expressed

as

The term in the bracket is simply the hole diffusion current which has already been obtained earlier:

The

electron

drift

current

can

be

written

as

The low level injection assumption holds true in this case because so that

An electron mobility of 800 current

was assumed. Let us calculate the hole drift current is

at the depletion edge where there is an electric field of 28.7 mV/cm. The hole drift

which is much smaller than the diffusion current component.

Example 2.3 A PN junction diode has the same characteristics as that of example 2.1 except that the thickness of the N region The thickness of the P-region remains very long. Calculate the total current flowing through the diode.

Solution : This is an example of a diode that can neither be considered a fully widebase diode nor a fully narrow-base diode. On the P-side, the diode is very thick so that we can use the expression for electron current valid for wide base diodes. Therefore as On the N-side so that the narrow-base model can be before. used

The

net

current

will

be

0.44

25.2

mA

25.64

mA.

The current is predominantly determined by the narrow base side of the junction.

Example 2.4 Suppose the P-side thickness is also reduced to current flowing through the

. Calculate the total diode again.

Solution: This diode can be modeled as a narrow-base diode. We have already calculated the hole current in example 2.3 which remains the same. The electron can similarly be calculated as

The

net

current

will

be

12.32+25.2

37.5

mA

This current is significantly higher than that calculated for wide-base diode in example 2.1. This illustrates that for comparable doping values, narrow-base diodes provide higher current for the same bias or equivalently have a smaller turn-on voltage.

The expression for current was derived on the basis of two assumptions: (i) (ii) negligible low recombination level injection within within the N depletion and region P-regions

These assumptions limit the range of validity of the derived expression. The first assumption determines the lower limit, while the second assumption determines the upper limit.

Lower limit: As stated earlier, this is determined by neglect of space charge recombination. If the hole continuity equation is integrated across the depletion region, we obtain the relation

where Eq.(80) implies that the correct expression for total current should be

In

other

words

So as long as

, the neglect of SCR recombination is justified

So what we need to do first is to get an estimate for the SCR recombination current: We shall use a simple model for the Shockley-Hall-Read recombination:

The recombination is assumed to take place via a single deep level at the midgap with equal Within hole and the electron recombination depletion lifetimes region:

where

the

definition

has

been

used

Noting

that

either

p(x)

or

Because of the exponential dependence of p and n on the voltage (which varies quadratically with x ), the function shown is a rapidly varying function of the form below:

The recombination rate would have a peak value where the factor maximum value. Since pn = constant,this would occur

attains a when

The sharp variation of U implies that most of the recombination current comes from a small region around the peak value. This allows the following simplification to be performed:

In appendix C, this relation is derived more rigorously, where it is also shown that

where occurs.

is the magnitude of the electric field at the place where peak recombination

Let

us

now

determine

the

condition

under

which

Substituting the expressions for condition:

and

derived earlier, we obtain the following

So

as

long

as

recombination within the SCR can be neglected within ~10% accuracy and the ideal diode equation can be used. For values of current SCR major (i) The ideal diode current increases as , the diode current would be determined primarily by the recombination current. differences: while the recombination current

If we compare this recombination current with ideal diode current, we can see two

increases

as

The other way of stating this is that the ideality factor defined as

is unity for ideal diode current and 2 for SCR recombination current.

(ii) The SCR current goes as diode and is independent

, while the ideal current goes as of lifetime for narrow

for wide base base diodes.

It is for this reason that the SCR current is considered as an index of material quality because the recombination lifetime is very sensitive to fabrication conditions. The upper limit for the validity of ideal diode equation is determined by the assumption of low level injection condition.

This low level injection condition will first break down for the region which has the smaller doping level. We shall assume, for the sake of discussion, that N-region is the lightly doped region.

The low level injection assumption had allowed the following simplifications to be made:

(i)

Minority

carrier

current

is

diffusive

(ii)

The

expression

to

be

simplified

as

(iii) The major departure in I-V Characteristics is caused by the breakdown of (ii) and (iii) relations because they are associated with an exponential factor.

When

, the actual minority carrier density at the depletion edge is about 10

% smaller than that predicted by the simplified expression. The (iii) simplification amounted to neglect of the IR drop in the N-region. This drop is negligible when

The expression for current under these conditions remains valid so that

for

wide

base

diode

for

wide

base

diode

All these limits are comparable in nature so that for equation The upper ca limit for be the assumed validity of the to ideal

, the ideal diode be equation is valid. then:

for

wide

base

diode

(95)

for

wide

base

diode

(96)

So for

, the ideal diode equation remains valid.

Example 2.5 Calculate the range of validity for ideal diode equation for a wide base diode described in Example 2.1 Solution : For simplicity, we take in Eq. (88) to be at V=0.6Volts

For this example, the ideal diode equation is valid over five orders of magnitude variation of current. It is because of the wide range of validity of the final equation, that the assumptions of negligible SCR recombination and low level injection are such good assumptions!

Example 2.6 For a forward bias of 0.326 Volts, calculate the ideality factor of the current for a PN junction described in Example 2.1 Solution : In general, the current consists of two components; one kT-like ideal diode current with ideality factor 1 and another 2kT-like space charge generation/recombination current with ideality factor 2:

Using Eq. (78) and Eq. (89) we obtain I(kT) = 10 nA and I(2kT) = 11 nA n = 1.35

Example 2.7 Determine expression for current in a wide-base

junction

illuminated with light. For simplicity assume that there is a uniform carrier generation rate .

Solution : For a

diode, the current would be determined primarily by hole

injection into the N-region so that under low level injection conditions:

The hole continuity equation now includes an additional term due to optical generation rate:

The hole continuity equation can be re-written as

The solution of this equation gives: As before:

The net current can be written as:

Thus the current includes an additional component due to light which represents the current due to flow of carriers generated effectively within a distance of one diffusion length of the depletion edge. There would be an optical generation current due to generation within the depletion region as well which can be written as , where

W is the total depletion width. Since depletion width is often much smaller than diffusion length, this component can be neglected. However, in some especially designed PIN diode structures, this component is the dominant current.

Example 2.8 In the analysis of narrow base diodes, it was assumed that the excess carrier density at the contact is zero. This however is true only if the contact can be assumed to be ideal. For practical contacts, the excess carrier density may be small but is nonzero. These contacts are characterized by a parameter called surface

recombination

velocity,

which

for

holes

can

be

defined

as

(a) Derive an expression for current in a condition

diode using the above boundary

(b) Determine the value of SP that is needed for a contact to be considered ideal. Assume a diode with

Solution:

Using the boundary condition at the contact: expression for

, we obtain the final current:

s (b) The first term represents the standard current expression, while the second term represents the modification due to finite recombination velocity. The equation above shows that as , the expression becomes identical with that derived for ideal contacts. Thus an ideal contact is one with an infinite recombination velocity. More

practically when the factor

, then the contact could be considered almost .

ideal. This condition for the values given translates into