Performance and Unavailabilty - Principles and Formulae

Planning digit al radio-relay net works
k&k engineering

Performance and
unavailability
Principles & formulae
Version G.826

2
k&k engineering
01-07-2003 TECHNI CAL PAPER KKE 5201/ 5 Rev. H

1998-2003
Copying t he cont ent s of t his booklet as well as t ranslat ions t o ot her languages, complet ely or part ly, is not
allowed wit hout t he permission of K&K Engineering HB. This includes any kind of copying by print , duplica-
t ion, t ape recording, elect ronic met hods et c.

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Phone & Fax: + 46-155-535 77
or: + 46-8-532 51 888
E-mail: Heinz.Karl@KK-Engineering.a.se
I nt ernet home page: ht t p: / / www.KK-Engineering.a.se

030701

3
k&k engineering TECHNI CAL PAPER KKE 5201/ 5 Rev. H 01-07-2003
Introduction
K&K Engineerings PC-based computer programs FORMULA and RLTool, are in-
tended for the prediction of performance and availability of radio-relay paths and circuits. This
paper, which is based on H. Karls booklets Planning and engineering of radio-relay networks
and Performance and availability as applied to digital radio-relay systems {1,2}, describes the
principles and formulae utilized in the program.
In version 1 of this TECHNICAL PAPER KKE 5201/1, the formulae were mainly derived from
CCIR Report 338. The ITU-R Recommendation P.530 has later on replaced this report.
In September 1997, the ITU-R published version 7 of its Rec. P.530. This recommendation con-
tains a complete new set of formulae for the prediction of both flat and selective multipath fad-
ing, as well as for the improvement due to diversity. Also the formulae for the prediction of at-
tenuation by atmospheric gases have been modified - Rec. P.676-3. This new formulae have
been introduced in the above programs with effect from version 2.0 for FORMULA and version
2.20 for RLTool.
During 2001, ITU-R introduced version 9 of Rec. P.530, which contains a complete new set of
formulae for the prediction of multipath fading. This new formulae have been introduced in the
above programs with effect from version 2.0 for FORMULA and version 3.0 for RLTool.
This paper is based on the new versions of the above ITU-R recommendations.

Note:
In some of the formulae, a distance parameter may be included. Dependent on the subject of the
formula, this distance parameter may represent the geodetic distance, as read from a map, or the
real distance of the radio beam between two antennas. To distinguish between these two dis-
tances, two different symbols are used:
d... distance as read from a map in km, or: geodetic path length = plane projection of the radio
path
d
*
... real length of the radio beam between transmitter and receiver antenna in km = beam path
length
d
*
can be calculated applying the following formula:

( )
6 2 2 *
10
+ =
B A
h h d d

d
*
... real length of the radio beam between transmitter and receiver an-
tenna in km
d ... geodetic path length in km = plane projection of the radio path
h
A
... height above sea level for station A in m
h
B
... height above sea level for station B in m

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k&k engineering
.The revision concerns:
The note on page 3
d = Formlerna 1-6, 8, 10, 14, 15, 17, 21-29, 33, 49, 76, 79
d
*
= Formlerna 31, 32, 38, 47, 48, 64, 85, 113
corr. of formulae [106]
corr av section 4.6.4.2
fr.o.m. formel 109: -1 siffra

5
Table of contents
1 Path geometry........................................................................................................................ 9
1.1 Co-ordinates and bearing............................................................................................... 9
1.1.1 Calculation of great-circle distance and bearing.................................................... 9
1.1.2 Determination of co-ordinates ............................................................................... 9
1.2 1
st
Fresnel zone radius................................................................................................... 9
1.3 Calculation of antenna heights..................................................................................... 10
1.4 Calculation of path clearance....................................................................................... 11
1.5 Effective Earth radius factor k ..................................................................................... 11
1.6 Ground reflection and its calculation........................................................................... 11
1.6.1 Calculation of antenna heights............................................................................. 11
1.6.2 Location of reflection point ................................................................................. 13
1.6.3 Difference in path length between direct and reflected ray.................................. 13
1.6.4 The distance between receiver input level minima or maxima............................ 14
1.6.5 Optimum antenna spacing with space diversity protection.................................. 14
1.6.6 Efficiency of selected space diversity versus k-value variation........................... 14
1.6.7 Antenna discrimination........................................................................................ 15
2 Path attenuation and receiver input level ............................................................................. 16
2.1 Total path attenuation during fading-free time ............................................................ 16
2.2 Free-space basic attenuation ........................................................................................ 16
2.3 Additional attenuation(s) ............................................................................................. 16
2.4 Gain or loss in a passive repeater, antenna back-to-back............................................. 16
2.5 Gain or loss in a passive repeater, plane reflector........................................................ 17
2.5.1 Check of far-/near-field operation: ...................................................................... 17
2.5.2 Angle in space...................................................................................................... 17
2.5.3 Repeater gain in far field...................................................................................... 17
2.5.4 Half-power (3 dB) beam width............................................................................ 19
2.6 Losses due to atmospheric gases.................................................................................. 19
2.7 Receiver input level during fading-free time ............................................................... 20
3 Overall performance of a digital radio-relay link during fading-free time and time of
shallow fading.............................................................................................................................. 21
4 Overall performance of a digital radio-relay link during fading - Performance calculation21
4.1 General......................................................................................................................... 21
4.2 The multipath occurrence factor .................................................................................. 21
4.2.1 Prediction formula ............................................................................................... 21
4.2.2 Path inclination .................................................................................................... 21
4.2.3 Geoclimatic factor K............................................................................................ 22
4.3 Performance prediction considering multipath fading and related mechanisms.......... 23

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k&k engineering
4.3.1 Prediction formulae ............................................................................................. 23
4.3.2 Fading margin...................................................................................................... 24
4.3.3 Paths going via passive repeaters ........................................................................ 24
4.4 Performance prediction considering distortions due to propagation effects (selective
fading) 24
4.4.1 Prediction formulae ............................................................................................. 24
4.4.2 Prediction procedure for path going via a passive repeater ................................. 25
4.5 Small-time-percentage for exceeding the planning objectives due to attenuation caused
by precipitation........................................................................................................................ 25
4.5.1 Attenuation caused by rain .................................................................................. 25
4.5.2 Attenuation coefficient ........................................................................................ 25
4.5.3 Rainfall intensity ................................................................................................. 26
4.5.4 Effective path length............................................................................................ 26
4.5.5 Fading probability due to rain for one path ......................................................... 26
4.5.6 Prediction procedure for path going via a passive repeater ................................. 27
4.5.7 Worst-month concept and average annual probability ........................................ 27
4.6 Improvement of the performance by diversity reception............................................ 28
4.6.1 Improvement by frequency diversity................................................................... 28
4.6.2 Improvement by space diversity.......................................................................... 29
4.6.3 Improvement by combined frequency and space diversity - 2 Rx....................... 31
4.6.4 Improvement by combined frequency and space diversity - 4Rx........................ 31
4.7 Total performance with respect to the G.826 objectives. ............................................ 32
4.7.1 Calculation of the block-based severely errored seconds ratio (SESR)............... 33
4.7.2 Fading exceeding the background block error ratio (BBER) objective............... 34
4.7.3 Fading exceeding the errored second ratio (ESR) objective ............................... 36
4.7.4 Total performance for the circuit ......................................................................... 36
5 Unavailability calculations for radio-relay systems ............................................................ 38
5.1 Unavailability and reliability of hardware................................................................... 38
5.1.1 Single (unprotected) structures............................................................................ 38
5.1.2 Duplicated (protected) structures......................................................................... 38
5.2 Unavailability due to propagation disturbances........................................................... 39
5.3 Total unavailability...................................................................................................... 39
6 Frequency planning............................................................................................................. 41
6.1 The number of disturbing signals reaching a receiver ................................................. 41
6.2 General formula for the calculation of interfering signal levels .................................. 41
6.3 Formulae for triangular network configuration ........................................................... 42
6.3.1 Nodal station disturbs outstation (Tx
A1
_
Rx
C
).................................................. 42
6.3.2 Outstation disturbs nodal point (Tx
C

_
Rx
A1
) ..................................................... 43
6.4 Interference via passive repeater ................................................................................. 44

7
6.4.1 Passive repeater as first-source transmitter .......................................................... 44
6.4.2 Passive repeater as receiver of interfering signals ............................................... 45
6.5 Total interference......................................................................................................... 46
7 Bibliography........................................................................................................................ 46
Appendix I .................................................................................................................................. 50
Appendix II................................................................................................................................. 52
Appendix III ............................................................................................................................... 53

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k&k engineering

9
Principles and formulae
1 Path geometry
1.1 Co-ordinates and bearing
1.1.1 Calculation of great-circle distance and bearing
[1] [ ] ( )
1 2 2 1 2 1
cos cos cos sin sin cos 12 . 111 x x y y y y a d + =
d... great-circle distance in km
x
1
... longitude for site A in degrees negative values for
x
2
... longitude for site B in degrees W of Greenwich
y
1
... latitude for site A in degrees negative values for
y
2
... latitude for site B in degrees S of the equator
and the antenna bearing in A is:
[2]
( )
( )
1
2 2 '
1
cos 0089992 . 0 sin
0089992 . 0 cos sin sin
cos
y d
d y y
a

=
for sin (x
2
- x
1
) > 0:
1
=

'
1

for sin (x
2
x
1
) < 0:
1
=

360
o
- '
1

1.1.2 Determination of co-ordinates
If the co-ordinates for one site, eg A, and the bearing and great-circle distance to the other site
are known, the co-ordinates of that site can be calculated accordingly:
[3] [ ] [ ] ( ) d y y d a y + = 0089992 . 0 cos sin cos 0089992 . 0 sin cos sin
1 1 1 2

[4]
[ ]
2 1
2 1
1 2
cos . cos
sin sin 0089992 . 0 cos
cos
y y
y y d
a x x

=
for
1
< 180
o
: +acos
for
1
> 180
o
: -acos
1.2 1
st
Fresnel zone radius

[5]
d f
d d
. r
=
2 1 1
3 17
r
1
... radius of the 1
st
Fresnel zone at a certain point in m

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k&k engineering
d... radio beam length in km
d
1
... distance from one site to that point in km
d
2

= d d
1
, in km
f... radio frequency in GHz
1.3 Calculation of antenna heights
The below formula presumes the knowledge or the assumption of one antenna height. If the an-
tenna height at A is the known one, the antenna height at B can be calculated according to:
[6]
[ ]
( ) ( )
B
GA A OBST
GB
h
d
h h d d
. k
d d d
h r d
h
+
+ +
=
1
1
2 1 1
74 12

h
GA
... height above ground level for antenna at A in m
h
GB
... height above ground level for antenna at B in m
h
A
... height above sea level for station A in m
h
B
... height above sea level for station B in m
h
OBST
... height above sea level for highest obstacle (with respect to propagation) in m
d... distance A to B in km
d
1
... distance A to obstacle in km
k... effective earth radius factor
r
1
... required clearance above obstacle in m
where:
[7]
100
1
1 r
r r
r

=
r
1
... radius at the 1st Fresnel zone in m
r
r
... required clearance above obstacle in %

11
If there is more than one obstacle which may influence the determination of antenna heights, the
calculation will have to be repeated and the highest value for h
GB
chosen.
For calculation of h
GA
, if h
GB
is known, replace the indices
1
by
2
,
A
by
B
, and
B
by
A
.
1.4 Calculation of path clearance
Referring to the same parameters as in formula [6] and the associated figure, the clearance above
an obstacle is:
[8]
( ) ( )( ) ( )
74 12
1 1 1 1 1
. k
d d d
h
d
h h d d h h d
r
OBST
GA A GB B

+ + +
=
For r
1
> r
1
the 1
sr
Fresnel zone is free from intrusions
For r
1
> r
1
> 0 the 1
sr
Fresnel zone is intruded, but there is still line-of-sight
For r
1
< 0 no line-of-sight
1.5 Effective Earth radius factor k
The antenna heights according to the above sections have to be calculated for both the standard
atmosphere - k = 1.33 - and for k
min
.
If k
min
is not known, the below diagram may be used. Path lengths <20 km should be set to 20
km.

1.6 Ground reflection and its calculation
1.6.1 Calculation of antenna heights
The below formulae require the antenna height above the reflection area. Reference should
hereby be made to the figure, which shows the basic path geometry for a reflective path. Pa-
rameters not stated below are according to section 1.3.
[9] + + = tan 10
3
1
o o A GA
x y h h h

12
k&k engineering
[10] ( ) + = tan 10
3
2 o o B GB
x d y h h h
h
1
... height of antenna above reflection area at site A in m
h
2
... height of antenna above reflection area at site B in m
tan ... inclination angle for sloping terrain ( = 0 for horizontal terrain) according to
formula [11]
[11]
( )
3
1 2
1 2
10
tan

=
x x
y y

x
o
, y
o
... midpoint of the reflection area according to formulae [12] and [13]
[12]
2
1 2
1
x x
x x
o
+ =
[13]
2
1 2
1
y y
y y
o
+ =
x
1
... the distance from site A to the beginning of the reflection area in km
x
2
... the distance from site A to the end of the reflection area in km
y
1
... the altitude in m above sea level for point x
1

y
2
... the altitude in m above sea level for point
x
2

Fig 2 Basic geomet ry for a reflect ive pat h

13
1.6.2 Location of reflection point
[14] ( ) Z
d
d + = 1
2
1

[15] ( )
1 2
1
2
d d Z
d
d = =
d
1
and d
2
are the distances in km to the reflection point from either side of the path according to
Figure 2.
[16]
2 1
2 1
h h
h h
q
+
=
q... parameter to be used in formula [18]
h
1
... height of antenna above reflection area at site A in m
h
2
... height of antenna above reflection area at site B in m
[17]
( )
2
2 1
2
51
d
h h k
Q
+
=
Q... parameter to be used in formulae [18]-[20]
The other parameters have their previous significance.
[18]
Q
q
V
1
1+
=
[19]
[ ] [ ] [ ]

+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ = ....
1 1 1
1
1
4
8
3
6
2
4 2
Q
V
Q
V
Q
V
Q
V
V Z
Since the series in the above formula converges quite rapidly, it can, with good approximation,
be terminated after the fourth term, and the formula can consequently be written as follows:
[20]
[ ] [ ]

+
+
+
+
+
+
3
6
2
4 2
1 1
1
1
Q
V
Q
V
Q
V
V Z
1.6.3 Difference in path length between direct and reflected ray
[21]
3
2
2
2
2
1
1
10
74 . 12 74 . 12
2

=
k
d
h
k
d
h
d

... difference in path length between direct and reflected ray in m
Expressed in terms of wavelengths, this difference will be:
[22]
3 . 0
f
=

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k&k engineering
... difference in path length between direct and reflected ray in number of wavelengths
Each time the number of wavelengths, , is a positive integer (1, 2, etc), the receiver input level
passes through a minimum. The receiver input level will pass through more than one minimum
when k is varying, as shown in Figure 1-5.
1.6.4 The distance between receiver input level minima or maxima
The pitch,
1
(or
2
), i.e. the distance between adjacent minima or maxima in the input level,
can be calculated using the formulae below:
[23]
3
2
2
2
1
10
74 . 12
1 15 . 0
=
k
d
h
f
d

[24]
3
2
1
1
2
10
74 . 12
1 15 . 0
=
k
d
h
f
d

1.6.5 Optimum antenna spacing with space diversity protection
Optimum spacing between the antennas, for a certain k value, is obtained by dividing the pitch
1
and
2
respectively by a factor 2, i.e.:
[25]
( )
( )
2
2 1
2 1

= h
h
1(2)
... antenna spacing between diversity antennas in m at station A or B respectively
1(2)
... as above
1.6.6 Efficiency of selected space diversity versus k-value variation
[26]
3
2
2
2
1
1
10
74 . 12 3 , 0
2

=
k
d
h
d
h f

Fig 1 Receiver input level vs k value variat ion

15
[27]
3
2
1
1
2
2
10
74 . 12 3 , 0
2

=
k
d
h
d
h f

1(2)
... space diversity efficiency at station A or B respectively: = 0.5 corresponds to
optimum efficiency
1.6.7 Antenna discrimination
On steep paths or paths with large clearance it is sometimes possible to take advantage of the
radiation pattern of the antennas to discriminate the reflected signal. Then the angles
1
and
2

in Figure 1-4 must be determined. With these values we can enter the radiation pattern for the
used antennas.
[28]
3 2 2 1
1
1
1
10
74 . 12
180

=
k
d
d
h h
d
h

[29]
3 1 1 2
2
2
2
10
74 . 12
180

=
k
d
d
h h
d
h

1(2)
... angles between direct and reflected ray in degrees according to Figure 1-4
All other parameters have their previous significance.

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k&k engineering
2 Path attenuation and receiver input level
2.1 Total path attenuation during fading-free time
[30]
R B W W g A o L
G G G A A A A A A A + + + + + =
2 1 2 1

A
L
.... total (or net) path attenuation in dB
A
o
.... free-space basic attenuation in dB
A
A
... additional attenuation(s) in dB
A
g
... attenuation due to atmospheric gases in dB
A
W1,2
... antenna feeder attenuation at the transmitting (1) and receiving (2) end, in dB
A
B
... attenuation in the RF-branching assembly of the radio-relay equipment in dB
G
1,2
... antenna gain at the transmitting (1) and receiving (2) end, in dB
G
R
... gain in a passive repeater in dB
2.2 Free-space basic attenuation
[31] f d A
o
lg 20 lg 20 4 . 92
*
+ + =
d
*
... length of the radio beam between transmitter and receiver antenna in km
f ... radio frequency in GHz
2.3 Additional attenuation(s)
The additional attenuation can be caused by:
- RF attenuators
- obstacles,
- partial clearance,
- periscopic antennas,
- passive repeaters in the near-field of the closest antenna.
The first four values have to be given as fixed input data, the computer program is not designed
to determine one of these values. Passive repeaters, however, are dealt with by the program - see
next section.
2.4 Gain or loss in a passive repeater, antenna back-to-back
In formula [30] the free-space basic attenuation A
o
is replaced by:
oB oA
A A +
where:
A
oA
... free-space basic attenuation between station A and the repeater site
A
oB
... free-space basic attenuation between station B and the repeater site
and G
R
by:

B A
G G +
where:
G
A
... antenna gain in the passive repeater for the antenna directed towards site A
G
B
... antenna gain in the passive repeater for the antenna directed towards site B

17
2.5 Gain or loss in a passive repeater, plane reflector
2.5.1 Check of far-/near-field operation:
[32]
2
cos
75
*

=
Y f
d
s
s
Z

d*
s
... the shorter one of the two partial paths (legs) in km
Y... reflector area in m
2
... angle in space at repeater in degrees

For s
Z
> 2.5 far-field condition
For s
Z
< 2.5 near-field condition
2.5.2 Angle in space
[33]
( ) ( )( )
[ ] ( ) [ ] ( )
2 ' 6 2 2 ' 6 2
' ' '
1
6 2 '
10 10
cos 10
cos
B R B A R A
A B A R B A A R
h h d h h d
h h h h d d h h
+ +
+
=
[34] = cos a
h
A
... height above sea level for the antenna at station A in m (= h
A
+h
GA
)
h
B
... height above sea level for the antenna at station B in m (= h
B
+h
GB
)
h
R
... height above sea level for passive repeater
1
in m
d
A
... distance station A to passive repeater in km (in plane projection)
d
B
... distance station B to passive repeater in km (in plane projection)
1
... angle at repeater point in plane projection in degrees
... angle in space at repeater point in degrees
Y... reflector area (physical area) in m
2
b
max
... largest side dimension (width or height) of the reflector in m
2.5.3 Repeater gain in far field
o
is replaced by:
oB oA
A A +
where:
A
oA
... free-space basic attenuation between station A and the repeater site
A
oB
... free-space basic attenuation between station B and the repeater site
and G
R
is calculated according to:

1
This height is the sum of ground level and reflector height

18
k&k engineering
[35]

=
2
cos 5 . 139 lg 20
2
Y f G
R

2.5.3.1 Repeater loss in near field
o
is replaced by:
ol
A
where:
A
ol
... free-space basic attenuation for the longer of the two legs
The repeater loss is obtained from the below, computerized diagram. The help parameters are as
per formulae [32] and [36]
[36]
2
cos 4

=
Y
D
a s

Read A
A
from the above diagram and insert it in formula [30].

19
2.5.4 Half-power (3 dB) beam width
[37]
2
cos
3 . 15
2
max
3

b f
dB

2
3dB
... half-power or 3 dB beam width in degrees
b
max
... largest side of reflector in m
2.6 Losses due to atmospheric gases
[38]
*
d A
g g
=
A
g
... attenuation in dB due to absorption by oxygen and water vapour
g
... specific attenuation in dB/km
d*... length of the radio beam between transmitter and receiver antenna in km
and:
[39]
w o g
+ =
o
... specific attenuation in dB/km for dry air
w
... specific attenuation in dB/km for water vapour
For f = radio frequency < 57 GHz:
[40]
[ ]
3 2 2 2
5 2 2 2 2 2
57
10
44 . 2 57
5 . 7
351 . 0
27 . 7

+
+
+
=
t p
t p t p
t
o
r r f
r r f r r f
r

For 57 < f < 63 GHz:
[41]
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )( )
63
5 . 8 2
57 60
18
63 60
63 57 66 . 1
18
63 60

+

=
o
t p o o
f f
f f r r
f f

For 63 < f < 350 GHz
[42]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
2 2 2
2 2 2
2
5 2 2
5 . 1 5 5 . 1 4
63
84 . 2 75 . 118
28 . 0
5 . 1 63
4
10 2 . 1 1 10 2

+
+
+
=
t p
t p
t
t p
t
o
r r f
r r f
r
r r f
f r

where:
[43]
t
r
t
+
=
273
288

20
k&k engineering
[44]
1013
p
r
p
=
t... average lowest temperature in C
p... air pressure in hPa

45]

where:
... water vapour density in g/m
3
. (If no measured data are available for the water
vapour density, approximate values can be obtained from the charts in Appendix I.)
2.7 Receiver input level during fading-free time
[46]
L Tx Rx
A L L =
L
Rx
... receiver input level in dBm during fading-free time
L
Tx
... transmitter output level in dBm
A
L
... total path attenuation in dB during fading-free time acc. to formula [30]
[ ]
[ ] [ ]
4 2
2 2 2 2
2 2
5 . 0 4
7
10
44 . 10 153 . 325
01 . 4
85 . 11 31 . 183
73 . 11
81 . 9 235 . 22
79 . 3
10 7 . 7
00167 . 0
0327 . 0
+
+
+
+
+
+ +
+
=
t p
t p
t
t p
t
t p
p
t
t
w
r r f
r r f
r
r r f
r
r r f
f
r
r
r

21
3 Overall performance of a digital radio-relay link
during fading-free time and time of shallow fading
During fading-free time, the performance is determined by the background bit-error ratio,
BBER. This is also valid for the time of shallow fading.
4 Overall performance of a digital radio-relay link
during fading - Performance calculation
4.1 General
The calculation with respect to the small-time-percentage objective is carried out indi-
vidually for each path.
The small-time-percentage objectives only take account of multipath fading through the
troposphere, of precipitation and of the influence of interfering signals. Other fading
types, such as two-way propagation by ground-reflected waves, ducting etc are assumed
to be compensated for by appropriate engineering, such as the selection of suitable an-
tenna heights and/or sites, diversity reception, etc.
For the SESR objective - rain attenuation is assumed to exceed the available fading
margin for at least 10 consecutive seconds. It is thus considered as unavailability. For
the ESR and BBER performance objective, however, all rain fading, irrespective its du-
ration, has to be treated as a performance influencing parameter.
Multipath propagation and precipitation appear uncorrelated. The total time percentage
during which the planning objectives are not met is the sum of two independent contri-
butions.
4.2 The multipath occurrence factor
4.2.1 Prediction formula
For detailed planning:
[47] ( )
L
h f
oi
d K P
+
+ =
00085 . 0 032 . 0 2 97 . 0
2 . 3 *
10 1
For approximate planning:
[48] ( )
L
h f
oi
d K P
+
+ =
001 . 0 033 . 0 2 2 . 1
0 . 3 *
10 1
P
oi
... multipath occurrence factor for the individual radio hop
h
L
... the lower of the two antenna altitudes in m above sea level, i.e. h
A
+h
GA
or
h
B
+h
GB

K... geoclimatic factor
f... frequency in GHz
d
*
... length of the radio beam between transmitter and receiver antenna in km
... hop inclination in milliradians
i... serial number of the individual hop (i = 1...n)
4.2.2 Path inclination
The path inclination, , is the angle between the line-of-sight and the horizontal. Its absolute
value, calculated according to equation [49], is used in formulae [47] and [48].

22
k&k engineering
[49]
( ) ( )
d
h h h h
GB B GA A
+

... inclination in milliradians
d... path length in km
h
A
... elevation in m above sea level for the left-hand site
h
B
... elevation in m above sea level for the right-hand site
h
GA
... antenna height in m above the ground for the left-hand site
h
GB
... antenna height in m above the ground for the right-hand site
4.2.3 Geoclimatic factor K
If no fading data are available for the area concerned, the factor K can be estimated following
the below procedure:
For detailed planning (formula [47]):
[50]
1
003 . 0 9 . 3 42 . 0
10
dN
a
K

=
For approximate planning (formula [48]):
[51]
1
0029 . 0 2 . 4
10
dN
K

=
The parameters have the following significance:
dN1... The point refractivity gradient in the lowest 65 m of the atmosphere not exceeded
for 1% of an average year. The figure can be obtained on a 1.5
o
grid resolution in
latitude and longitude from a database
2
available from ITU-R (see also ITU-R
Rec. 453-8).
a
... The area terrain roughness, defined as the standard deviation in m of the terrain
heights (in m) within a 110 km x 110 km area with a 30 resolution. The area
should be aligned with the longitude, such that two equal halves of the area are on
each side of the longitude going through the hops midpoint. Terrain data are
available from Internet, eg the Globe gtopo30 data.
The standard deviation can be calculated applying the following formula:
[52]
( ) 1
2
1 1
2

=

=
= j
j
j
j
a
h h

For
a
< 1, set
a
= 1.
h
j
... altitude a.s.l. in m for the individual height sample
... total number of samples
j... ordinal number of the individual sample (j = 1...)
For the calculation of a hops midpoint, and for the bilinear interpolation in order to obtain the
correct figure for dN
1
, reference should be made to the Annex of this booklet, page 48.

2
The corresponding data files, DNDZ_01.txt, DNDZ_LAT.txt and DNDZ_LON.txt can be downloaded
from ITU-Rs website. A table - dN_1.xls - showing dN
1
versus longitude and latitude can be downloaded
from K&K Engineerings website (see page 2).

23
4.3 Performance prediction considering multipath fading and re-
lated mechanisms
4.3.1 Prediction formulae
From the multipath occurrence factor, P
o
, calculated according to either formula [47] or [48], a
fading depth M (dB) is calculated:
[53]
o
P M lg 2 . 1 4 . 27 + =
If M is less or equal than the available fading margin, M
F
, i.e.
[54]
F
M M
the probability, that the available fading margin is exceeded is calculated according to the below
formula
[55]
10
10
F
M
o Fi
P P

=
P
Fi
... probability rate for exceeding the planning objective, defined by the available fad-
ing margin, M
F
, for one radio hop during the average worst month
P
o
... multipath occurrence factor for the respective radio hop as per
formula [47] or [48]
M
F
... fading margin in dB
i... serial number of the individual hop (i = 1...n)
For fade depths, M, larger than the available fading margin, M
F
, the following method is rec-
ommended:
(i) Use formula [55] above, calculate P
FiM
for the fade margin M as obtained by
formula [53].
(ii) Calculate parameter q
a
for the same fade margin, M, and the associated value for
P
FiM
from:
[56] ( ) [ ]
FiM a
P
M
q
= 1 ln lg
20

(iii) If P
Fi
is very small, your calculator may round:
1 - P
FiM

to become ln 1 = 0. To avoid that, set the quotient to the highest value for 0.999..., which still is
considered by your calculator as an
ln 0.999... 0
(iv) Calculate parameter q
t
for the same fade margin, M, from:
[57]
( )

+
+
=

800
10 3 . 4
10 10 3 . 0 1
2
20
16 . 0 20
M q
q
M
M M
a
t

(v) Finally, calculate the probability, P
Fi
, that the planned fading margin, M
F
, is ex-
ceeded:
[58] ( )
S
Fi
e P

= 1
where:

24
k&k engineering
[59]
20
10
F
M q
S

=
and:
[60] [ ]
1
]
1
\
|
+ + + + =

800
10 3 . 4 10 10 3 . 0 1 2
20 016 . 0 20 F M
t
M M
M
q q
F F F

The parameters P
Fi
and M
F
have their previous significance.
4.3.2 Fading margin
[61] D L L L L M
Te Rx TeI Rx F
= =
M
F
... flat-fading margin in dB
L
Rx
... receiver input level in dBm during fading-free time
L
Tr
... receiver threshold level in dBm for the planning criterion and for an undisturbed
receiver (CIR = )
L
TrI
... receiver threshold level in dBm for the planning criterion and for a disturbed re-
ceiver (CIR )
D... receiver threshold degradation in dB due to interfering signals
4.3.3 Paths going via passive repeaters
The total probability rate for exceeding the fading margin, M
F
, is the sum of the percentage of
time that the fading margin, M
F
, is exceeded for each leg:
[62]
2 1 leg Fi leg Fi Fi
P P P

+ =
4.4 Performance prediction considering distortions due to propaga-
tion effects (selective fading)
4.4.1 Prediction formulae
[63]
3
2
20
10 10 3 . 4

=
ref
m B
Si
W P
with:
[64]
3 . 1
50
7 . 0

d
m

and:
[65]
75 . 0
2 . 0
1
o
P
e

=
P
Si
... probability that one radio hop exceeds the planning criterion due to distortions
during the average worst month
... multipath activity factor
P
o
. multipath occurrence factor acc. to formula [47] or [48]
W... mean value of the width of the signature in MHz
B... mean value of the signature (or notch) depth in dB
ref
... reference delay in ns used to obtain the signature (W and B)

25
d
*
... beam path length in km
In case the manufacturer submits its equipment data separately for minimum phase (MPh) and
non-minimum phase (NMPh) fading, the mean value can be calculated as
[66]
2
NMPh MPh
W W
W
+
=
for the signature width, and
[67]
+
=
2
10 10
lg 20
20 20
NMPh MPh
B B
B
for the notch depth, and
[68]
2
, , NMPh ref MPh ref
ref
+
=
for the reference delay.
4.4.2 Prediction procedure for path going via a passive repeater
The statement given in section 4.3.3 is also valid here, i.e. the fading contribution due to selec-
tive multipath propagation will be calculated individually for each leg, applying formulae [63] to
[65]. The fading margin, M
F
, is, again, that for the total path length, and will thus be the same
for both legs.
The total percentage of time for selective fading is thus:
[69]
2 1 leg Si leg Si Si
P P P

+ =
4.5 Small-time-percentage for exceeding the planning objectives due
to attenuation caused by precipitation
The influence of rain is predicted by calculating the rain attenuation for 0.01% of the time. Re-
lating the rain attenuation to the available flat-fading margin, the percentage of time during
which the fading margin is exceeded is calculated.
4.5.1 Attenuation caused by rain
The attenuation caused by rain is:
[70]
eff R R
d A =
01 . 0

A
R0.01
... attenuation due to rainfall in dB during 0.01% of time
R
... rain attenuation coefficient in dB/km
d
eff
... the path length in km influenced by rain - the effective path length
4.5.2 Attenuation coefficient
The attenuation coefficient,
R
, versus radio frequency, f, for various clock-minute rainfall rates
during 0.01% of time, J
0.01
, is calculated from formula [71]:
[71]
=
01 . 0
J
R

J
0.01
... clock-minute average annual rainfall rate (or rainfall intensity) in mm/h exceeded
for 0.01% of the time, see section 4.5.3

26
k&k engineering
and are frequency- and polarization-dependent parameters, which are to be obtained from
the table in Appendix III
4.5.3 Rainfall intensity
If no measured data are available, the rainfall intensity can be estimated from 3 parameters, P
r6
,
M
s
and M
c
. Their data can be found in the corresponding data files esarainPR6.txt,
esarain_Mc.txt and esarain_Ms.txt
3
. The data are extracted the following way:
For each of the 3 parameters, P
r6
, M
s
and M
c
, the figures for the 4 grid points surrounding the
hops midpoint are used in order to calculate the corresponding figures for the midpoint applying
bilinear calculation - see formula [169] on page 49.
The midpoints rainfall intensity, J
0,01
, is then calculated with the help of the midpoint figures
for P
r6
, M
s
and M
c
:
[72]
( )
+
+
+

=

A
M M C
B B
M M
A
J
c s
c s
4
2
4
01 . 0
10 936 . 1 10 033 . 1

[73] ( )
6
0117 . 0
6
1
r s
P M
r
e P A

=
[74] C
A
M M
B
c s
+
+ =
3
10 3736 . 1 11 . 1
[75]
=
A
C
01 . 0
ln
Appendix II at the end of this handbook shows rainfall intensity charts based on the above data.
4.5.4 Effective path length
[76]
o
eff
d d
d
d
+
=
1

[77]
01 . 0
015 . 0
35
J
o
e d

=
d... geodetic path length in km
d
eff
... effective path length in km
Note: For J
0.01
> 100 mm/h, use J
0.01
= 100 mm/h in formula [77].
4.5.5 Fading probability due to rain for one path
The percentage of time during which the rain attenuation exceeds the available flat-fading mar-
gin, M
F
, is estimated to be:

e corresponding data files, ESARAINPR6.txt, ESARAIN_Mc.txt and ESARAIN_Ms.txt can be downloaded from
U-Rs website. Tables - P-Pr6.xls, P-MC.xls and P-MS.xls - showing the csorresponding parameters versus longitude and
tude can be downloaded from K&K Engineerings website (see page 2).

27
[78]
[ ] ( )
=
+ +
154023 . 0 10
01 . 0
12 . 0 lg 172 . 0 29812 . 0 546 . 0 628 . 11
01 . 0
F
R
M A
Ri
M
A
p
F R

p
Ri
... fading probability in % of time for a radio hop due to rain
M
F
... fading margin in dB
Equation [78] converges quickly to % as the factor decreases and approaches 0.154. For values
<0.154024, a figure of 0.155 is used for A
R0.01
/M
F
in the above equation, giving a p
Ri
of
810
-7
%.
4.5.6 Prediction procedure for path going via a passive repeater
Plane reflector type
The rain fading probability is calculated applying the same calculation method as described in
sections 4.5.1-4.5.5, but using
[79]
2 1 leg leg
d d d + =
in formula [76]
Antenna back-to-back type
If both legs utilise the same polarisation, the calculations is as described for the plane
reflector type
If both legs operate at different polarisations, proceed as follows:

apply the formulae in sections 4.5.1-4.5.5 plus formula [79] for vertical polarisa-
tion and obtain p
R-V

perform the same for horizontal polarisation and obtain p
R-H
obtain the final rain fading probability, p
R
:
[80]
d
d p d p
p
H leg H R V leg V R
Ri

+
=
4.5.7 Worst-month concept and average annual probability
4.5.7.1 Average annual probability:
[81]
Ri Rai
p P = 01 . 0
p
Ri
... fading probability according to formula [78]
P
Rai
... average annual probability, during which the rain attenuation exceeds the avail-
able fading margin.
When the fading margin, M
F
, in formula [78] refers to the BER
SES
threshold level of the re-
ceiver, the above formula [81] changes to
[82]
100
01 . 0
UP
p P
SES Rai SES Rai
=

p
Rai-SES
... fading probability in % according to formula [78], with fading margin, M
F
, re-
ferred to the BER
SES
threshold level of the receiver
P
Rai-SES
... resulting average annual probability rate, during which the rain attenuation ex-
ceeds the available fading margin

28
k&k engineering
UP... portion in percentage of the average annual probability rate, which lasts longer
than 10 consecutive seconds and, thus, has to be treated as unavailability
4.5.7.2 Worst month probability
[83] ( )
87 . 0
33 . 3 01 . 0
Ri Rwmi
p P =
P
Rwmi
... average worst month probability, during which the rain attenuation exceeds the
available fading margin
Consequently, that part, UP, of the average annual probability rate, which lasts shorter than 10
consecutive seconds, has also to be converted to an average worst month probability rate, ap-
plying formula [83]:
[84]
87 . 0
100
100
33 . 3 01 . 0

=

UP
p P
SES Rai UP Rwmi

P
Rwmi-UP
... average worst month probability, during which the portion (100-UP) of the rain
attenuation exceeds the available fading margin to the BER
SES
threshold level of
the receiver
p
Rai-SES
and UP as above
4.6 Improvement of the performance by diversity reception
4.6.1 Improvement by frequency diversity
4.6.1.1 For flat fading
[85]
10
2
10
80
F
M
fi
d f
f
I

I
fi
... improvement factor due to frequency diversity for the individual hop
f... band centre frequency in GHz
f... frequency separation between the two diversity paths, r.f.1 r.f.2, in GHz
d
*
... beam path length in km
M
F
... flat fading margin according to section 4.3.2. In case the main and the diversity
path have different fading margins (due to different Tx output levels, etc.), the
lower of the two fading margins has to be used.
The above formula is verified by measurements for the following data ranges:
2 < f < 13 GHz
30 < d
*
< 75 km
f / f < 0.05
If f > 0.5 GHz, use f = 0.5
The validity of formula [85] outside these ranges is not yet sufficiently proved.
Calculate the improved fading probability by applying:
[86]
fi
Fi
dfFi
I
P
P =
P
dfFi
... probability for the worst month for exceeding the planning criterion due to fading
for a 1+1 frequency-diversity configuration for the individual hop

29
P
F
... probability in for the worst month for exceeding the planning criterion due to fad-
ing for an unprotected configuration according to equations [55] or [58] for the in-
dividual hop
4.6.1.2 For distortions
[87]
( )
2
2
1
fSi
Si
dfSi
k
P
P

=
P
dfSi
... probability for the worst month for exceeding the planning criterion due to distor-
tions for a 1+1 frequency-diversity configuration for the individual hop
P
Si
tions fading for an unprotected configuration according to equation [63] for the
individual hop
... multipath activity factor, see equation [65] for the individual hop
[88] 8238 . 0
2
=
fSi
k for r
wi
< 0.5
[89] ( )
( )
wi
r
wi
fSi
r k

=
1 lg 13 . 0 109 . 0 2
1 195 . 0 1 for 0.5 < r
wi
< 0.9628
[90] ( )
5136 . 0 2
1 3957 . 0 1
wi
fSi
r k = for r
wi
> 0.9628
[91] ( )
17 . 2
2
1 9746 . 0 1
fFi
wi
k r = for k
2
fFi
< 0.26
[92] ( )
034 . 1
2
1 6921 . 0 1
fFi
wi
k r = for k
2
fFi
> 0.26
[93]
=
Fi fi
fFi
P I
k 1
2

4.6.2 Improvement by space diversity
4.6.2.1 For flat fading:
With f and d* having their previous significance, the equation for the space-diversity improve-
ment factor can be written as follows:
[94]
10 10 34 . 3
10 1
04 . 1 48 . 0 12 . 0 87 . 0 4
F o
M P d f h
si
e I
=

I
si
... improvement factor due to space diversity for the individual hop
h... vertical spacing of receiving antennas, centre-to-centre, in m
M
F
... flat fading margin in dB according to section 4.3.2. In case the main and the diver-
sity path have different fading margins (due to different antenna sizes, waveguide
length, etc.), the fading margin has to be corrected accordingly:
[95] G M M
m F F
=

30
k&k engineering
[96]
d W m W d m
A A G G G

+ =
If G < 0 G = 0
M
F-m
... flat fading margin in dB for the main-antenna path
P
o
... multipath occurrence factor according to formula [47] or [48]
G
m
... gain in dB for the main antenna
G
d
... gain in dB for the diversity antenna
A
W-m
... waveguide attenuation dB for the main-antenna path
A
W-d
... waveguide attenuation dB for the diversity-antenna path
The above formula is verified by measurements for the following data ranges:
2 < f < 11 GHz
43 < d< 240 km
3 < h < 23 m
The validity of the formula outside these ranges is not yet sufficiently proved.
Calculate the improved flat-fading probability by applying:
[97]
si
Fi
dsFi
I
P
P =
P
dsFi
... probability rate for the worst month for exceeding the planning criterion due to
fading for a space-diversity configuration for the individual hop
P
Fi
fading for an unprotected configuration according to equations [55] or [58] for the
individual hop
4.6.2.2 For distortions
[98]
( )
2
2
1
sSi
Si
dsSi
k
P
P

=
P
dsSi
tions for a frequency-diversity configuration for the individual hop
P
Si
tions for an unprotected configuration according to equation [63] for the individ-
ual hop
... multipath activity factor, see equation [65] for the individual hop
[99] 8238 . 0
2
=
sSi
k for r
wi
< 0.5
[100] ( )
( )
wi
r
wi sSi
r k

=
1 lg 13 . 0 109 . 0 2
1 195 . 0 1 for 0.5 < r
wi
< 0.9628
[101] ( )
5136 . 0 2
1 3957 . 0 1
wi sSi
r k = for r
wi
> 0.9628
[102] ( )
17 . 2
2
1 9746 . 0 1
sFi wi
k r = for k
2
sFi
< 0.26
[103] ( )
034 . 1
2
1 6921 . 0 1
sFi wi
k r = for k
2
sFi
> 0.26

31
[104]
=
Fi si
sFi
P I
k 1
2

4.6.3 Improvement by combined frequency and space diversity - 2 Rx
The flat fading improvement, I
s,f-2,
and the improved probability, p
ds,fF-2
, is obtained by using
the same formulae [94]-[97] as for space diversity.
The limitations apply also here
4.6.3.2 For selective fading:
Also here, the same formulae as for space diversity are valid, i.e. formulae [98]-[104]. The flat-
fading correlation coefficient, k
sFi
, in formulae [102] and [104], however, has to be replaced by:
[105]
sFi fFi sFi f
k k k =
,

with k
sFi
according to formula [104], and k
fFi
according to formula [93].
4.6.4 Improvement by combined frequency and space diversity - 4Rx
[106]
D
Fi
i sF df
m
P
P
4
4 ,
=

[107] ( )( )
2 2 3
1 1
sFi
fFi
D
k k m =
P
df,sFi
fading for a combined frequency/space-diversity configuration with 4 Rx
P
Fi
fading for an unprotected configuration according to equations [55] or [56]
... multipath activity factor acc. to equation [65]
k
sFi
... flat fading correlation coefficient for space diversity configuration according to
formula [104]
k
fFi
...

flat fading correlation coefficient for frequency diversity configuration according
to formula [93]
4.6.4.2 For distortions:
[108]
( ) [ ]
2
2
4
4 ,
1
sSi
Si
i sS df
k
P
P

=

P
df,sS-4i
distortions for a combined frequency/space-diversity configuration with 4 Rx
P
Si
distortions for an unprotected configuration according to equation [63]
k
sS
... selective fading correlation coefficient for space diversity configuration according
to formulae [99] to [104]

32
k&k engineering

4.7 Total performance with respect to the G.826 objectives.
Table 1 BER
SES
and block sizes...
Path type Bit rate

(Mbit/s)
BER
SES
(Note ii)
Blocks/s
(Note ii)
n
Bits/block
(Note ii)
N
B
...for various PDH systems
Note i
E1
2 4x10
-4
2 000 1 120
2xE1
2x2 2x10
-4
2 000 2 000
E2
8 1.1x10
-4
2 000 4 224
8xE1
8x2 8.8x10
-5
4 000 5 170
E3
34 6.5x10
-5
8 000 6 120
...for various SDH paths and sections
VC-11
1.5 5.4x10
-4
2 000 832
VC-12
2 4.0x10
-4
2 000 1 120
VC-2
6 1.3x10
-4
2 000 3 424
VC-3
34 6.5x10
-5
8 000 6 120
VC-4
140 2.1x10
-5
8 000 18 792
STM-1
155
2.3x10
-5
2.33x10
-4
8 000
192 000
19 940
801
i No figures are stated so far for PDH systems. P.530 advises to select the BER
SES
closest to the SDH
transmission rate. This applies for 2 and 34 Mbit/s systems. For the other PDH capacities, the author
proposes the above figures.
ii The BER
SES
is the bit-error ratio for which the number of errored blocks within 1 second exceeds
30%. The figures stated assume a Poisson distribution of errors.

33
The Block/s is defined in Rec. G.826 for SDH paths, and in G.829 for SDH sections. Some STM-1 equipment might be
designed with 8000 blocks/s (19 940 bits/block), but Rec. G.829 defines the block rate and size to be
192 000 block/s and 801 bits/block respectively.
4.7.1 Calculation of the block-based severely errored seconds ratio (SESR)...
4.7.1.1 ... for an unprotected hop
The total fading probability rate for the individual, unprotected hop is:
[109]
SES Si SES Fi SES Mi
P P P

+ =
P
Mi-SES
... probability rate for the worst month for exceeding BER
SES

on an unprotected hop

due to multipath propagation
P
Fi-SES
SES
due to multipath fading; calculated acc. to formulae [55] or [58], applying the
relevant fading margin to BER
SES
BER
SES
... the bit-error ratio for which the number of errored blocks within one second ex-
ceeds 30% (Table 1)
P
Si-SES
SES
due to distortions; calculated acc. to formula [63], applying the relevant signature
data for BER
SES
i... ordinal No for the individual hop
4.7.1.2 ...for a diversity-protected hop
The total fading probability for the individual, protected hop is:
[110] ( )
3 4 75 . 0 75 . 0
SES sSi SES dFi SES Mi
P P P

+ =
P
Mi-SES
SES

on a diversity-
protected hop

P
dFi-SES
SES
on a diversity-
protected hop due to multipath fading; calculated acc. to formulae [55] or [58],
applying the relevant fading margin to BER
SES
BER
SES
ceeds 30% (Table 1)
P
Si-SES
SES
on a diversity-
protected hop due to distortions; calculated acc. to formula [63], applying the rele-
vant signature data for BER
SES
4.7.1.3 Distribution between performance and unavailability
Performance part
A part of the above excess probability - UM% - (formulae [109] and [110]) may last longer than
10 consecutive seconds and have to be treated as unavailability. The above figure for P
Mi-SES

has, thus, to be reduced to:
[111]
100
100
'
UM
P P
SES Mi SES Mi
=

P
Mi-SES-1
... resulting probability rate for the worst month for exceeding BER
SES

on a hop

due
to multipath propagation

34
k&k engineering
P
Mi-SES
SES

on a hop

due to mul-
tipath propagation as per formulae [109] or [110]
UM... part in percentage of the probability rate, which has to be treated as unavailability

Unavailability part
[112]
10
10
100
G
SES Mi u Mi
UM
P P

=
[113] ( ) ( ) + + =

1 lg 7 . 1 lg 7 . 2 2 cos 1 . 1 lg 6 . 5 5 . 10
7 . 0
d G
For G > 10,8: use 10,8
P
Mi-u
... average annual unavailability rate on a hop

P
Mi-SES
and UM as above
... latitude in degrees + 1 decimal
... + for 45
for >45
o
N or S of the Equator
d
*
... hop length in km
... path inclination in mrad (formula [49])
4.7.1.4 Resulting block-based severely errored seconds ratio (SESR)
[114]
UP Rwmi SES Mi SES Mi
P P P

+ =
' "

P
Mi-SES
... final probability rate for the worst month for exceeding BER
SES

on a hop

due to
multipath propagation
P
Mi-SES
.. resulting probability rate for the worst month for exceeding BER
SES

on a hop

due
to multipath propagation acc to formula [111] above
P
Rwmi-UP
SES

on a hop

due rain fad-
ing acc to formula [84]
4.7.2 Fading exceeding the background block error ratio (BBER) objective
This fading event is caused both by multipath propagation and rain
4.7.2.1 Prediction of BBER due to multipath propagation
The following prediction model is recommended:
[115]
( ) 1 8 . 2
1 2
1

=

m
P P
SES Mi BBE Mi

[116]
SES Mi RBER Mi
SES
P P
BER RBER
m

=
lg lg
lg lg
1

P
Mi-BBE
... BBER probability rate for the worst month due to multipath propagation
P
Mi-SES
SES
due to multipath
propagation acc. to formula [109], [110] or [111]
RBER... residual bit-error ratio

35
BER
SES
ceeds 30% (Table 1)
P
Mi-RBER
... from the next formula:
[117]
RBER Si RBER Fi RBER Mi
P P P

+ =
P
Fi-RBER
... probability rate for the worst month for exceeding RBER on a hop due to fading;
calculated acc. to formulae [55] or [58], applying the relevant fading margin to
RBER
P
Si-RBER
... probability rate for the worst month for exceeding RBER on a hop due to distor-
tions; calculated acc. to formula [63], applying the relevant signature data for
RBER

1
... number of error/burst for the BER in the range between BER = 10
-3
and BER
SES
;
normally between 10 and 30
2
... number of error/burst for the BER in the range between BER
SES
; and RBER; nor-
mally between 1 and 10
4.7.2.2 Prediction of BBER due to rain fading
Use again formula [115] to obtain P
Rwmi-BBER
, but written as:
[118]
( ) 1 8 . 2
2 2
1

=

m
P P
SES Rwmi BBE Rwmi

P
Rwmi-BBE
...BBER probability rate for the worst month due to rain
P
Rwmi-SES
SES
due to rain, calculated
acc. to formula [78], applying the relevant fading margin to BER
SES
, and trans-
ferred to the worst-month value by formula [83]
BER
SES
ceeds 30% (Table 1)
1
... number of error/burst for the BER in the range between BER = 10
-3
and BER
SES
;
normally between 10and 30
2
... number of error/burst for the BER in the range between BER
SES
; and RBER; nor-
mally between 1and 20
whereby:
[119] 2
2
1

and:
[120]
SES Rwmi RBER Rwmi
SES
P P
BER RBER
m

=
lg lg
lg lg
2

P
Rwmi-RBER
...probability rate for the worst month for exceeding RBER due to rain, calculated
acc. to formula [78], applying the relevant fading margin to BER
RBER
, and trans-
ferred to the worst-month value by formula [83]

36
k&k engineering
4.7.2.3 Prediction of BBER due to equipment contribution
[121] RBER N P
B BBE Ei
=

P
Ei-BBE
... BBER probability rate due to equipment contribution
N
B
... number of bits/block - see Table 1
4.7.3 Fading exceeding the errored second ratio (ESR) objective
This fading event is caused both by multipath propagation and rain.
4.7.3.1 Prediction of ESR due to multipath propagation
[122]
1
m
SES Mi ES Mi
n P P =

P
Mi-ES
... ESR probability rate for the worst month due to multipath fading
n... number of block/s - see Table 1
m
1
... according to formula [116]
The other parameters have their previous significance
4.7.3.2 Prediction of ESR due to rain fading
[123]
2
m
SES Rwmi ES Rwmi
n P P =

P
Rwmi-ES
... ESR probability for the worst month due to rain
m
2
... according to formula [120]
The other parameters have their previous significance
4.7.3.3 Prediction of ESR due to equipment contribution
[124] RBER N n P
B ES Ei
=

P
Mi-ES
... ESR probability rate due to equipment contribution
N
B
... number of bits/block - see Table 1
n... number of block/s - see Table 1
4.7.4 Total performance for the circuit
The total rate of time, P
c
, during which the planning objectives are not met for the circuit is the
sum of the cumulated rates, i.e.:
[125] ( )
=

+ + =
10
1
i
i
x Ei x Rwmi x Mi x c
P P P P
P
c-x
... fading probability rate for exceeding SESR, ESR or BBER respectively for the ra-
dio circuit
P
Mi-x
... fading probability rates for exceeding SESR, ESR or BBER respectively for the
individual hop due to multipath propagation
P
Rwmi-x
... fading probability rates for exceeding ESR or BBER respectively for the individual
hop due to rain fading

37
P
Ei-x
... fading probability rates for exceeding ESR or BBER respectively for the individual
hop due equipment contribution
Remember: Concerning the SESR, it should be observed, that:

P
Rwmi-SES
= P
Ei-SES
= 0
x... either SESR, ESR or BBER
The values for P
c-x
should not exceed the planning objectives, i.e.:
[126]
x pl x c
P P

P
c-x
... predicted total probability rate during which the planning objective is not met for a
radio-relay circuit
P
p-xl
... allowed probability rate for exceeding the planning objective for a radio-relay cir-
cuit, i.e. the planning objective
x... either SESR, ESR or BBER
Formula [125] can be expressed in time:
[127]
x c UN x
P h s

=
12
3600
10 628 . 2
6

s
x
... total time for exceeding the corresponding planning objective in sec / average
month
h
UN
... from formula [135]

38
k&k engineering
5 Unavailability calculations for radio-relay systems
5.1 Unavailability and reliability of hardware
5.1.1 Single (unprotected) structures
[128]
S rS
S rS
uS
M
M
P
+

=
1

P
uS
... unavailability rate for the single structure
S
... failure rate (failures per time unit) - the sum of the failure rates for the individual
units,
i
, connected in tandem:
[129]
=
=
n
i
i S
1

M
rS
... mean-time-to-repair (MTTR) for the single structure, in same time unit as the fail-
ure rate.
The mean-time-to-repair figures do no include any waiting time for spare parts. It is thus as-
sumed that there is always access to spare parts when a fault occurs.
The failure rate, , can also be expressed in terms of mean-time-between-failure (MTBF):
[130]
=
1
MTBF
MTBF... mean-time-between-failure for the single structure, in same time unit as the failure
rate
5.1.2 Duplicated (protected) structures

The unavailability of a this type of duplicated structure, including the protection switching facili-
ties, is calculated according to the following formula:

39
[131]
+

+ =
rND
rS
ND rND
S rS S rS uD
M
M
M
M M P
1

P
uD
... unavailability rate for the duplicated structure as per above figure
S
... failure rate (failures per time unit) for one of the duplicated equipment (= single
structure as per above figure
ND
... failure rate (failures per time unit) for the (non-duplicated) splitting and switching
device proper - see also below
M
rS
... mean-time-to-repair for one of the duplicated equipment, in same time unit as the
failure rate
M
rND
... mean-time-to-repair for the (non-duplicated) splitting and switching device
proper, in same time unit as the failure rate
Formula [131] is only valid for systems using optional switching. This type of switching means
that a failure in the switch element will not cause system failure unless switching is required.
Consequently, the failure rate,
ND
, includes only the values for the splitting and switching ele-
ments themselves, together with those for the switchs logic and control unit (L in the above
figure), while the level and impedance interfacing elements of the splitting and switching units
are a part of the failure rate of the duplicated equipment,
S
, and of the single (i.e. non-
protected) interface units (I), respectively, as they cause interruption of the traffic. The MTTR
figures for these traffic-interrupting parts are the same as for the duplicated equipment, or = M
rS
.
For the complete path, including the non-protected interface units (I), equation [132] is extended
to:
[132]
2 1 uI uI uD uP
P P P P + + =
where P
uI(1,2)
are calculated according to equation [128], using the same value for M
rS
as in for-
mula [131], and the failure rate,
I(1,2)
, instead of
S
.
5.2 Unavailability due to propagation disturbances
The unavailability due to propagation disturbances, P
Ra
, consists of contributions from rain and
from multipath fading:
[133]
u Mi SES ai Rai
P R P

+ =
P
Rai
... probability rate for a radio hop due to rain for the average annual year
P
Ri-SES
... average annual probability rate, during which the rain attenuation exceeds the
available fading margin acc to formula [82]
P
Mi-u
... average annual unavailability rate on a hop

due to fading and distortions acc to
formula [112]
i... ordinal No for the radio hop
5.3 Total unavailability
The total unavailability of a radio circuit, UR
t
, is the sum of the contributions from the hardware
and the rain. It should be observed, however, that the unavailability of the hardware has to be
considered for both the go and the return direction of transmission, i.e. twice, while that for rain
is counted only once:

40
k&k engineering
[134]
=
+ =
n
i
Rai u t
P P UR
1
2
UR
t
... total unavailability rate of a radio circuit
P
u
... unavailability rate of the total hardware, according to section 5.1
P
Rai
... unavailability due to precipitations, see above
n... number of radio hops included in the circuit
Formula [135] expressed in time:
[135] 8760 =
t UN
UR h
h
UN
... total unavailability in hours / average year

41
6 Frequency planning
6.1 The number of disturbing signals reaching a receiver
[136] y x N
n
=

1

N... number of disturbing signals at each receiver
n... number of hops in the area concerned
x... number of parallel r.f. channels on the individual hop
y... number of parallel r.f. channels on the own hop
and the number of total interferences possible is
[137] n N K =
K... number of interference connections
6.2 General formula for the calculation of interfering signal levels
[138]
G A Rx Tx BRx BTx WRx WTx o Tx Ii
G A A A A A A A A L I + =
L
Ii
... level of a single interfering signal in dBm
L
Tx
... output level of the disturbing transmitter in dBm
A
o
... free-space attenuation in dB between disturbing transmitter and disturbed receiver
A
WTx,Rx
.. waveguide attenuation in dB in the transmitting alt. receiving station
A
BTx,Rx
branching attenuation in dB in the transmitting alt. receiving station
A
WTx,Rx
r.f. attenuators in dB in the transmitting alt. receiving station
A
A
... additional attenuation in dB due to non-clearance of the interference path and/or
other attenuations in the interference path
G
G
... total antenna gain in dB(i) for angles 1 and 2, according to the following for-
mula [139]:
[139] ( ) ( )
GRx GTx Rx Tx GRx GTx G
A A G G G G G + + = + =
Note: In case the transmitter and the receiver antenna operate at different polarization planes, the
two possible H/V combinations have to be considered. In this case, the next equations apply in
stead:
[140] ( )

+ + + =
+ =

10 10
10
10
10 lg 10 10 10 lg 10
A A
Rx Tx
G
G
G
A G G G

[141]

+ =
Rx Tx
G G G
[142]
Rx Tx
G G G + =

[143]

+ =
Rx Tx
A A A
[144]
Rx Tx
A A A + =

42
k&k engineering
G
Tx
... antenna gain for the main direction in dB(i) of the transmitting antenna, referred to
an isotropic radiator
G
Rx
... ditto for the receiving antenna
G
Tx||
... antenna gain in dB(i) of the transmitting antenna for angle 2 and parallel polari-
sation, referred to an isotropic radiator
G
Rx
... ditto for the receiving antenna for angle 1 and cross polarisation
G
Tx
... ditto for the transmitting antenna cross polarisation,
G
Rx||
... ditto for the receiving antenna and parallel polarisation
A
Tx||
... antenna discrimination in dB of the transmitting antenna for angle 2 and parallel
polarisation, referred to the antenna gain in the direction of transmission
A
Rx
... ditto for the receiving antenna for angle 1 and cross polarisation
A
Tx
... ditto for the transmitting antenna cross polarisation
A
Rx||
... ditto for the receiving antenna and parallel polarisation
6.3 Formulae for triangular network configuration
6.3.1 Nodal station disturbs outstation
(Tx
A1
_
Rx
C
)
[145]
WTx BTx Tx Tx A G C Rx C Ii
A A A L G A L L + + =
1

[146]
2 1 A A
G G G =
[147]
2 1 A Tx A Tx Tx
L L L

=
[148]
2 1 A Tx A Tx Tx
A A A

=
[149]
2 1 A BTx A BTx BTx
A A A

=
[150]
2 1 A WTx A WTx WTx
A A A

=
L
Ii
... level of a single interfering signal in dBm
i ... ordinal number of the interfering signal
L
Rx-C
... received level of the wanted carrier signal in dBm during fading-free time at dis-
turbed receiver C
G .. antenna discrimination or side- and back lobe attenuation for angle in dB, for an-
tenna A1 in the nodal station, considering the polarisation for the disturbed and
disturbing signal
G
A1
... antenna gain in dB for the disturbing transmitter A1 in the nodal station

43
G
A2
... antenna gain in dB for the transmitter A2 in the nodal station
L
Tx-A1
... output level in dBm for the disturbing transmitter A1
L
Tx-A2
... output level in dBm for the transmitter A2
A
Tx-A1
... RF attenuator in dB in the disturbing transmitter A1
A
Tx-A2
... RF attenuator in dB in the transmitter A2
A
BTx-A1
.. branching attenuator in dB in the disturbing transmitter A1
A
BTx-A2
.. branching attenuator in dB in the transmitter A2
A
WTx-A1
..waveguide attenuation in dB in the disturbing transmitter A1
A
WTx-A2
.. waveguide attenuation in dB in the transmitter A2
If there is only one interference path to receiver C, equation [145] can be used to select the an-
tenna A1 by writing:
[151]
WTx BTx Tx Tx Fi I TrI G
A A A L G M L L A + + + =
1

Applying the definition of CIR, this equation can be expressed as:
[152]
WTx BTx Tx Tx Fi G
A A A L G M CIR A + + + =
This equation shows, that the higher the CIR, and the higher the flat fading margin, M
Fi
, the
higher the antenna discrimination necessary.
6.3.2 Outstation disturbs nodal point
(Tx
C

_
Rx
A1
)

[153]
WRx BRx Rx Rx A G A Rx A Ii
A A A L G A L L + + =
1 1 1

[154]
1 2 A Rx A Rx Rx
L L L

=
[155]
2 1 A Rx A Rx Rx
A A A

=
[156]
2 1 A BRx A BRx BRx
A A A

=
[157]
2 1 A WRx A WRx WRx
A A A

=
L
Rx-A1
... receiver input level of the wanted signal in dBm during fading-free time at dis-
turbed receiver A1
L
Rx-A2
... receiver input level of the wanted signal in dBm during fading-free time at re-
ceiver A2

44
k&k engineering
A
Rx-A1
... RF attenuator in dB in the disturbed receiver A1
A
Rx-A2
... RF attenuator in dB in the receiver A2
A
BRx-A1
.. branching attenuation in dB in the disturbed receiver A1
A
BRx-A2
.. branching attenuation in dB in the receiver A2
A
WRx-A1
.. waveguide attenuation in dB in the disturbed receiver A1
A
WRx-A2
.. waveguide attenuation in dB in the receiver A2
Also equation [153] can be expressed with the antenna discrimination as the unknown param-
eter:
[158]
WRx BRx Rx Rx Fi G
A A A L G M CIR A + + + =
6.4 Interference via passive repeater
6.4.1 Passive repeater as first-source transmitter
[159]
S G A WRx WTx o o Tx Ii
G G A A A A A L L + + =
2 2 1

For G
G
, equation [139] is valid.
A
o1
... free-space attenuation in dB between PR and its associated transmitter, Tx
A
o2
... free-space attenuation in dB for the interference path between PR and the dis-
turbed receiver, Rx
A
A2
... (eventual) additional attenuation in dB due to obstacle in the interference path to
Rx
G
S
... passive repeater gain in dB for the interfering signal at angle
S
- for antenna back-to-back:
[160]
2 2 1 G S S S
A G G G + =
- for plane reflector:
[161]
S
S
b
f Y
G

+ =
sin
lg 20 5 . 22

45
[162]
If :
R S R S
G G Y f G G =

=
2
cos 5 . 139 lg 20
2

G
R
.... gain in passive repeater, plane reflector type, in dB for the wanted signal, and an-
gle
G
S1
... passive repeater - antenna back-to-back type - gain in dB for the parabolic antenna
towards Tx (main direction)
G
S2
... ditto for the parabolic antenna towards Rx'
A
G2
... antenna discrimination in dB for angle
S
for the passive repeater antenna to-
wards Rx'
f..... radio frequency in GHz
Y..... physical area of the plane reflector in m
2
b..... largest side dimension of the reflector in m
Rx
... angle in degrees between the wanted and the interfering signal paths for receiver
Rx
S
.... angle in degrees between the reflected ray and the interfering signal path
..... angle in space, in degrees, between the incident and reflected ray
The significance of the remaining parameters is according to formula [138].
Formula [161] is valid for:

2
90

<
S
, if
S
is outside the reflection angle

2

S
, if
S
is inside the reflection angle .
If
2
90

S
, and outside :
[163]

+ =
2
cos lg 10 25 . 21
2
f Y G
S

6.4.2 Passive repeater as receiver of interfering signals
The level of the interfering signal, L
Ii
is calculated according to the same formula [159] as
above, but with changed Tx-Rx co-ordination.
Formulae [160] to [163] are also valid here, including the conditions for their application, as
well as their limitations.

46
k&k engineering
6.5 Total interference
If more than one interfering signal has to be considered at a receivers input, the various con-
tributions are added together on a power law basis:
[164]
( )
=
n
i
A L
I
j Ii
L
1
10
10 lg 10
L
I
. combined level in dBm of all interfering signals
L
Ii
... level in dBm of an individual interfering signal
A
j
... adjacent-channel attenuation in dB of the interfering signal in the receiver, see
above. For co-channel interference (f = 0): A
j
= 0.
7 Bibliography
{1} Heinz Karl, Performance and availability as applied to digital radio-relay sys-
tems, K&K Engineering
{2} Heinz Karl, Planning and engineering of radio-relay networks, K&K Engineering

47
@ Heinz Karl, 2003

48
k&k engineering
Annex
1. The co-ordinates for the hops midpoint are calculated as follows:
- for the longitude:
[165]
2
2 1
x x
x
o
+
=
- for the latitude:
[166]
2
2 1
y y
y
o
+
=
x
o
... longitude for the midpoint in degrees
x
1
... longitude for site A in degrees negative figures for
x
2
... longitude for site B in degrees W of Greenwich
y
o
... latitude for the midpoint in degrees
y
1
... latitude for site A in degrees negative figures for
y
2
... latitude for site B in degrees S of the equator
2. The co-ordinates for the corners of the 110x110 km area
around a hops midpoint:
[167] ( )
o C
y y a y sin 999925 . 0 cos 0122165 . 0 cos sin
1 1
+ =
[168]
C o
C o
o C
y y
y y
a x x
cos cos
sin sin 999925 . 0
cos

+ =
x
o
and y
o
are the co-ordinates in degree of the hops midpoint as calculated above.
NE corner:
1
= 45
o
cos
1
= 0.707107 acos = +
SE corner:
1
= 135
o
cos
1
= - 0.707107 acos = +
SW corner
1
= 225
o
cos
1
= - 0.707107 acos = -
NW corner
1
= 315
o
cos
1
= 0.707107 acos = -

49
3. Bilinear interpolation
The co-ordinates of a hops midpoint, x
o
and y
o
, have been calculated according to section 1
above. This midpoint is located between 4 grid points of a digital map, points I, II, III and IV, eg
those with a mutual distance of 1.5
o
- see the below figure.
x and y are the longitudes and latitudes in degree, z
11-22
are the co-ordinated third parameters, eg
the refractivity gradient, dN
1
- section 4.2.3 - or the rainfall intensity, J
0.01
- section 4.5.1. The
unknown parameter, z
o
, is obtained by the following calculation:
[169]
( )( ) ( )( )
( )
11 21 12 22
11 12 11 21
11
z z z z
y y
y y
x x
x x
y y
z z y y
x x
z z x x
z z
b b
a o
a b
a o
a b
a o
a b
a o
o
+

+ =

1.5
o
1.5
o

50
k&k engineering
Appendix I
Water vapour density - a World atlas
The data below are an extract from ITU-R Rec. P.836 and show the water vapour density in
g/m
3
for two months of the year for the various regions of the world. These charts should be
used the following way:
for the small time-percentage calculation, use the higher of the two values for the loca-
tion concerned,
for the fading-free time calculation, use the lower of the two values.

51

52
k&k engineering
Appendix II
Rain intensity data - a World atlas
The data below are an extract from ITU-R Rec.P.837-3 and refer to the annual average clock-
minute rainfall rates in mm/h for 0.01% of the time. The figures in the below chart have been
derived from the data and equations shown in chapter 4.5.3. For the charts of other regions of the
World, reference should be made to bibliography {1} or to ITU-R Rec.P.837-3.

53
Appendix III
Rain attenuation coefficient, parameters and

Regression coefficients for estimating specific attenuations in equation [71]
Frequency
(GHz)
V
7
8
10
12
15
20
25
30
35
40
35
50
0.00301
0.00454
0.0101
0.0188
0.0367
0.0751
0.124
0.187
0.263
0.350
0.442
0.536
1.332
1.327
1.276
1.217
1.154
1.099
1.061
1.021
0.979
0.939
0.903
0.873
0.00265
0.00395
0.00887
0.0168
0.0335
0.0691
0.113
0.167
0.233
0.310
0.393
0.479
0.00265
0.00395
0.00887
0.0168
0.0335
0.0691
0.113
0.167
0.233
0.310
0.393
0.479
Raindrop size distribution according to Laws and Parsons, [1943]
Terminal velocity of raindrops according to Gunn and Kinzer, [1949]
Index of refraction of water at 20C, see Ray, [1972]
Values of
H
,
V
,
H
and
V
for spheroidal drops [Fedi, 1979; Maggiori, 1981] based on re-
gression for the range 1 to 150 mm/h.

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