Journal Article: An Examination of Adult Learning

Running head: AN EXAMINATION OF ADULT LEARNING

Journal Article: An Examination of Adult Learning Timothy Stafford MA MS

Journal Article: An Examination of Adult Learning

Application of Adult Development and Andragogy When teaching and designing coursework for adults, it becomes inextricably clear early in the process that adult learning is paradigmically different in many different aspect than teaching for children, teenaged students, or even young adults. The adult learning populace operates from a holistic worldview that must be considered when teaching and certainly when designing coursework. Teaching adults and teenagers for instance, have many similarities. Often, difficult concepts have to be taught in multiple learning methods for adults much like for teenagers as an example (Reigeluth, 1999, pp. 2-3). Collaborative learning is also difficult for adults in some cases as it is for teenagers. Helping adults understand the reasoning behind learning and the objectives of a course is critical. Those who have taught teenagers know of the "when will we ever use this" question, but truthfully adults ask it as well. Having made these comparisons, there are a large number of contrasts between the two groups. First, adults are much more often intrinsically motivated than teenagers. Adults also have many differing distractions than teenagers. Children, careers, job expectations, all of these things are possible for the teenager, but most of the time they are well defined distractions for the adult learner. Global economy, changing demographics, and changing technological trends and expectations are also issues for the adult where the teenager views these as part of normal living (Mirriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007, p. 7). If it is true that all teachers teach to change the world (Brookfield, 1995, p. 1), then the potential for teaching teenagers and adults is the same; the only difference being that in teaching teenagers there is a sense of delayed satisfaction and for the instructor of adults, changes in the world can be seen almost immediately. This comparison and contrast yields to the conversation of note and that is how do adults learn and what about their learning modes and methods should one consider when

Journal Article: An Examination of Adult Learning

approaching the education of adults on any level. A comparison and contrast of four learning theories will be the approach with an emphasis on looking at applicable means within the context of corporate training and furthering the education of adults in a corporate business model.

The Aging Mind Adult learning does not occur in a vacuum (Mirriam et al., 2007, p. 25) and so there must be a set of critically reflective tools that one must use when appealing to the adult learner and the adult learning mind from a cognitive and intellectual framework. Even memory can be a factor for the mind as it is aging. This is not to say that all aging mind necessarily forgets things, but the aging mind remembers in a certain context that must be understood when teaching adults. For instance, recently a lecture was given on the application of technology in the modern classroom and how the developing technologies of today will impact the educational atmospheres of tomorrow. During the lecture, the presenter asked how the computer has affected your career path. Many shared that the computer has completely changed the way that they work by making their workflow more synchronous and the data they need readily available. Many told stories of the past that gave the rest of the listeners a real sense of the framework that these learners worked and a history of their career path. Many of them expressed a learning model that seemed to be informal in its nature and many used the term on the job training, but a few expressed that their formal education fueled a real dependency on technology in a way that their parents did not espouse. However, there were those detractors that talked of the good ol days where slide rules and apothecaries ruled and everything was so much simpler. Life was easy going and learning was an indigenous reality,

Journal Article: An Examination of Adult Learning

you learned what you needed to survive (Mirriam et al., 2007, p. 33). Technology has now forced out of relationships and into a more pixel driven approach to life. Almost all of these detractors reflected a distain with the fact that a Hand shake is not contractual anymore and that corporate business has changed. Here one can see that the aspects of cognitive, intellectual and even domains in memory are all reflective in a learning scenario that is unique to adults and it seems to be a true gauge even among adult learners who are thirty-five and forty years old. In this scenario, the attendees of the lecture were of all ages and the comments came from a wide range of age groups. So when one considers learning theory, these are items that should be kept in mind. Learning Theories Many have sought to define a holistic framework by which instruction and design can be developed that will address the core concepts surrounding the adult learner and thus the study of andragogy was born. Malcolm Knowles found that there were some intriguing realities behind the educating of adult learners and sought to form causal minks to some of the realities of the adult learner. Thus the following realities were developed and, in a sense become the basis by which many others have developed their theories of adult learning: (1) Self-concept in an adult shifts from dependency ton independency. (2) Experience acts as a reservoir that enhances the adult learning scenario. (3) Sociability plays an important role for adult learners. (4) Adults are often motivated by urgency to learn for their own sense of self-preservation which leads to a greater motivation to learn (Mirriam et al., 2007, p. 84). In addition to these, Morrison, Ross, and Kamp add that adult learners: (5) are eager to be a part of the decision making process making learning a truly cooperative effort. (6) Tend to be less flexible than

Journal Article: An Examination of Adult Learning

younger students due to the habitual and routine nature of adulthood (Mirriam et al., 2007, p. 61). McCluskys Theory of Margin In an attempt to marginalize adult learning into a more formulaic approach, McClusky postulates that the adult learner desires to strike a balance between what he calls the (L) load of life which expends energy and the (P) power of life which enables the learner to deal with load. The ratio, then of P:L determines the margin by which one can participate in learning (Mirriam et al., 2007, p. 93). This idea is refectory of Knowles idea that there are external mitigating factors that play into the ability of the adult to learn. Families, career, job responsibilities, and the like are all real issues for the adult learner and thus must be a consideration. The difference here is the McClusky puts a strong weight on this issue as a real mitigating factor of success for the adult learner. Illeriss Three Dimensions of Learning Model While McCluskys model focuses on the marginal ration between the weight of the life responsibility of the learner and his/her ability to mitigate those responsibilities in light of taking on new learning, Illeris is solely interested in the process of learning itself. He uses an inverted triangle to sow the relationships between cognition, emotion, and society and then looks at these three dimensions individually and as a whole and gives examples of how this model might play out in a real word scenario like a chemistry lesson (Mirriam et al., 2007, pp. 97-100). This comprehensive, yet simple model provides strength to Knowles idea that the question s of why are as important to the adult as the what, who, or hows that are associated with traditional learning models. The adult needs to find a balance between his/her cognitive ability to understand how something works, but also emotionally and socially, the

Journal Article: An Examination of Adult Learning

reasons for why and for what purpose are equally important. In fact, the this theory could be used t explain young adult learning as well and, for the most part this need of equilibrium is even found in Middle and high school students as well as children who have a tendency to e more inquisitive. Jarviss Learning Process Jarvis attempts to bring a synergy between the cognitive, emotional and social aspects of the learner by beginning with adult experience as the catalyst of understanding learning. Jarvis begins with the overarching philosophy that all learning begins with experience and thus he determines that there can be a disjuncture between what he calls biography and experience (Mirriam et al., 2007, p. 101). He believes that all learning begins through the biological five senses and through their intense functionality, one can begin to discern things that are different and learn the nuances of many different experiences that the human has within his/her environment on a moment by moment basis. What makes Jarvis theory even more specific to the learner, is that each persons lives within a flow of time within a life world and within that life world the learner experiences and learns things differently than perhaps another learner in context of his./her own flow of time and life world (Mirriam et al., 2007, p. 101-102). This is a significant addition to the study of learning because of its intense personal aspect that would make each learner independent of other learners, however to capture the essence and nuances of this type of model may be difficult when designing instruction for large groups of learners. However, even in this scenario, it would behoove any instructional designer or course instructor to consider the demographics of his/her classroom and to utilize these demographics to help craft design concepts that would resonate in a greater way with each group of students.

Journal Article: An Examination of Adult Learning

Studying the Jarvis model brings to the forefront a measure by which a model could be constructed that used a persons worldview as the catalyst or understanding how the individual learner will embrace the materials being presented and by what capacity they can and will learn new ideas and ways of thinking. A world view has been defined as the set of beliefs about fundamental aspects of Reality that ground and influence all one's perceiving, thinking, knowing, and doing. It includes but is not limited to beliefs about: (1) epistemology: beliefs about the nature and sources of knowledge. (2) Metaphysics: beliefs about the ultimate nature of Reality. (3) Cosmology: beliefs about the origins and nature of the universe, life, and especially Man. (4) teleology: beliefs about the meaning and purpose of the universe, its inanimate elements, and its inhabitants. (5) Theology: beliefs about the existence and nature of God (6) anthropology: beliefs about the nature and purpose of Man in general and, oneself in particular. (7) Axiology: beliefs about the nature of value, what is good and bad, what is right and wrong (Hartshorne, 1984). These elements would make up an interesting model of understanding learning through the filter of these areas. If it is true that all thinking is connected in the sense that how one believes has an effect on how other ideas are formed and shaped about anything and everything else that he/she may or may not believe, then it would be surprising to see how significant these noetic structures would play a role in the learning process (Plantinga & Wolterstorff, 1984). This would especially be true in light of the corporate world and the knowledge industries. Many of the adult learners in knowledge industries are being continually educated so as to remain ahead of the curve of learning for the sake of their careers, yet many of them bring a wide variety of beliefs to the table about epistemology as an example. Could it be that in the future, corporations will have to help shape the world view of stakeholders, manager, and employees for the sake of the company staying current in the

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marketplace? What about corporations like Disney? Are they not already shaping the worldviews of their employees? These are interesting questions that have a real place in the future of learning theory. Brookfield contends that there are four critical lenses of the reflective teacher, (1) autobiography, (2) The lens of the student, (3) the lens of experience in relation to colleagues, and (4) theoretical literature (Brookfield, 1995, pp. 29-30). These lenses must be in place in addition to the model that one uses to teach or design from so that all aspects of the learning experience and all factors of the learning environment are considered and acknowledged for the security of the learning within these structures.

Adult Learning Theory Analysis

Gary Marx in his book, Sixteen Trends: Their Profound Impact on the Future (2006) outlines sixteen different shifts in trend that will not only profoundly impact education, but the whole of society. These sixteen trends have very real implications for the next generation of learners, instructors and institutions of elementary, secondary, and especially higher learning. The current Millennial Generation is insistent on solutions to the many issues that have accumulated within the context of education as well as a litany of social issues. Very soon the old will outnumber the young and ongoing challenges continue to assert themselves in the area of diversification and social cohesion (Marx, 2006). These issues coupled with the rising cost of doing business in America are quickly creating a pandemic scenario for higher learning institutions. Without sufficient funding, students cannot attend the local university. Without higher

Journal Article: An Examination of Adult Learning education, we will quickly lose our edge in the world economy and that will in turn exponentially alienate those who are uneducated (Gamoran, 2001). There is now and continually needs to be an understanding that sustained poverty in the country will only continue to grow in expense, social debilitation, and leave a long lasting lack of security for the members of our country and society (Yankelovish, 2005). So it is really up to the higher education institution to reach out beyond the ivy covered walls and embrace them where they are and give them the educational tools for the 21 st century in a 21st century classroom environment..

Application of Adult Learning Theory to Future Trends

To enhance these ideas, it would be helpful to look at a few of these forecasted trends and consider how they might impact Liberty Building Forensics Group (LBFG) as an institution:

#1 - Technology will continue to increase the speed of communication and the pace of advancement or decline Distance is already an important component in the educational mix of the United States and is quickly becoming a global reality. Those who move now have a chance to be a part of the largest educational paradigm shift since the creation of the public education system and LBFG is poised to make this a reality for our training facilities especially in the area of offering continuing education units (CEUs) for professionals in the areas building, architectural and construction forensics (Lundt, 2006). This empowering of distance learning will, undoubtedly lead to more emphasis on self directed learning than ever before. The goals

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of self directed learning are 1) to enhance the ability of adult learners and to be self directed, 2) to foster a new form of transformational learning and 3) to promote the ideas of emancipatory learning and learning and social action the learner will have new tools by which to successfully make an impact on his/her social context and culture (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007). This instructional model seeks to take learners from a dependency on an authority figure like a classroom teacher or lecturer and shift that paradigm to a learner with a greater selfdirection who is willing and able to plan, execute and evaluate their own learning with or without the help of an subject matter expert (SME) (Merriam et al., 2007). For LBFG, this will prove to be a critical step for a variety of reasons. First, many of the firms employees are remote and are unable to attend courses that may be offered in the onsite facilities without the adaptation of a fairly resource intensive technological scenario that the firm does not currently deploy. Second, within the remote nature of the employees there is a time sensitivity to most projects that demands provision of tie for the employees that may not allow for a particular time frame to attend training, therefore a more self-directed asynchronous approach must be taken. Finally, there is a great deal of pressure for the professional engineers, contractors and architects to keep their licenses current and this pressure brings into view the idea of these continuing distance learners to form a community that is cooperative in nature for a common goal among a set of professional standards. Each professional knows how competency is defined within their specific discipline and the firm continues to put pressure on these professionals to stay on the cutting edge of what learning needs are prudent to stay in the forefront of their respective fields, (LEED certified buildings and their forensic issues as an example).

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#2 - Release of human ingenuity will become a primary responsibility of education and society. In her article, ee-Learning: The Best Road to Adulthood? Linda Chisholm discusses the potential of ee-learning to address some of the inherent problems of college campuses. In an era of large campuses and large classes, students are removed from the positive examples once provided by faculty who lived in the campus community (Chisholm, 2007). By putting students in contact with positive adult role models in professional settings, Chisholm goes on to suggest that a new paradigm, ee-learning, can counteract these detrimental developments, giving students the flexibility to continue their studies as they pursue the professional, social, and ethical development the college experience should provide. Not to say that there is not a need for morality on the campus, but that our primary responsibility is to promote an environment for development of human ingenuity and whatever comes with this set of priorities and foci (Chisholm, 2007). Here is the very nature of the ideas that surround transformational learning. By engaging a learner in an environment that brings him/her to a point of not only knowing information but understanding their place in the world, this kind of transformation will ultimately lead to a greater understanding of self on a holistic level as well as self on a sociocultural level (Merriam et al. 2007). For the first time, a new and fully believable mantra among learners of all ages will be that one person can make an impact on their community and world in a way that has never been understood or accomplished before. In the spirit of a more transformational approach to learning, LBFG has partnered with a local high school to offer fully paid internships that provide a more hands-on approach to learning in a variety of disciplines

Journal Article: An Examination of Adult Learning that surround the professional goals of the firm. These internships offer experience to the learner in a real world environment where learners are a part of actual projects where the work of building forensics, technology, and marketing practices for such a firm can be seen

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from outside of the test tube world of the classroom. This allows for students who return to the classroom, then, to critically reflect on the work that is being performed within these field experiences and the goal is to provide a lasting connectivity between what the students are learning and how these concepts play themselves out in the field. This being said, we see that individual development then is exponential because of mentoring of these professionals in the lives of these learners. As an example, one of the vice presidents of the firm recently sat in a training session with four high school learners between the ages of fifteen and eighteen years of age and offered a two hour session on how a set of moisture sensors were deployed, activated, and then read for data about the inner forensics of building walls in severely humid climates. This SME has over twenty-five year and has won numerous awards for his work in the building forensics world. He has published hundreds of articles and even co-authored a mold and moisture manual that has become one of the standards for the industry. In his blue jeans and safety glasses working along with high school students to show them how geometry and algebra play a significant role in understanding how to analyze this data, then students were engaged and transformed by the event. They then were sent out on an actual job to watch the sensors being deployed by professionals and then took part in the data analysis. The young adults have now had experiences that will set the standard for what education should look like for them in the future and they will seek out these types of experiences to continue them on this type of development and critical thinking.

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#4 - The Millennial Generation will insist on solutions to accumulated problems while the emerging Generation E will call for equilibrium. Marx summarizes the generation situation in America in this way. By 2030 the Boomers will be between the ages of 66 and 84 and they will be competing for services and attention alongside the then 90 million Generation Xers and more than 75 Million Millennials. The Millennial will be focused on the solvency of accumulated issues and creating a sense of civic order. The equilibrium or E generation will begin Kindergarten in 2008-2010 and in college in 2022. Their given name indicates what they will be in search of and they will be looking for resources and opportunities to create scenarios that not only speak of equilibrium but provide it (Chisholm, 2007). Experience will be the encapsulant of such equilibrium in the sense that when adaptation and autonomy are understood in light of application, both critical and vocational, and expression then social practice rapidly changes and therefore a greater impact can be made (Merriam, et al 2007). In an experiential learning model, the adult learner couples the ideas of autonomy and adaptation to real application and expression so that a well-rounded understanding of the learning is achieved (Merriam, et al 2007). For LBFG, there are many situations that lend themselves to this type of learning model. Many times, the firm will hire workers that may or may not be trained in the specifics of the business types of the firm but nevertheless their experience make them an excellent candidate for the position and then they will learn based on the experiences of the position itself. As an example, the firm recently hired an accountant who had all of the qualifications for managing a complicated accounting scenario, but the world of the firm being billable through time and materials is a new set of realities for this particular

Journal Article: An Examination of Adult Learning person. However, she was up to the challenge and is learning how to do the things that she knows in a new way every day. Here, the firm more or less becomes the educator, in that it

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was able to assess the prior experience of the applicant and then provide opportunities for her to earn by solving a specific set of problems and by overseeing a certain type of dilemma. Opportunities to see best practices modeled, providing the scaffolding needed for the new employees to make approximations and ultimately move into a place where that scaffolding is no longer need are all apart of how these new employees are trained by virtue of the nature of the business itself. The firm relies on employees having a sense of self-direction already a part of their person and practice to help guide them to a self directed and generalized stage of working within the firm (Merriam et al., 2007). For this new employee, all of these areas have helped her to become the specific team member that the firm needed even though at first she was not a perfect fit. Her ability to learn from experience has shaped her into the employee that is an asset to the firm. Form a professional standpoint, the firm in its need to evaluate the employees, will help to direct this employee as well as any of the others through the four phases of the described cognitive apprenticeship above, and, in fact is also doing this for its student interns as well.

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Ways of Knowing Harry Blamires wrote, It is commonplace that the mind of man has been secularized. For instance, it has been deprived of any orientation towards the supernatural (Blamires, 1963). Dr. Blamires hits on a reality that often academia tends to try to dismiss as it wrestles with the philosophy of epistemology. In a Western sense, the mind has become synonymous with personal achievement and a focus on the human as defined by his/her doings and leaves any real reference to the human as a being to those who are thought to be more esoteric and metaphysical in their approach to life as a general rule. However, the reality of the work place, classroom, and communities in every corner of America is that spirituality plays a very real role in the lives of those who are now being educated especially in the adult world. So the question of how this will impact the training that Liberty Building Forensics Group (LBFG) employs for its professional learners is critical and the goal here will be to try to find an approach to understanding these way of knowing and how to understand the modeling behind trying to design instruction to embrace some of the epistemic core values that each way of understanding knowledge presents.

The Issue of Epistemology In Michael Williams acclaimed book on the study of epistemology, he lists five prominent problems with the philosophy of epistemology and how it impacts a philosophy of any kind (Williams, 2001): (1) Defining knowledge as a whole is difficult. (2) What can be absolutely known and what can only be understood given rational opinion? (3) How is knowledge obtained? (4) What is the role of skepticism in truly knowing or not knowing? (5) How is knowledge valuable? These five issues are at the heart of the epistemic conversation

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that ultimately will impact an educational philosophy at its very core. In a spirit of diversity and trying to understand the needs of those who have differing faiths, it must be generally assumed that these differing ideas stem from a platform of differing epistemologies and once this has been embraced and there is an understanding of the differing worldviews of others, it becomes easier to see through the quagmire of perceived needs of a diverse people and get to the root of what must be taught so that most everyone arrives to the same understanding or at very least a frame of reference of how to think through a set of given learning objectives. The danger here is to leave epistemology and the study of worldview to the throes of merely an esoteric or metaphysical pursuit without realizing the real value of understanding these ideas can be to designing instruction or teaching designed instruction to a diverse group of people. This has been the goal at LBFG as a training facility and that is to bridge the gap of these cultural dividers and try to approach training through a well planned and executed learning system. Case Study: Three Non-western Perspective of Knowing and their Impact at LBFG.

Confucius and Learning for Enlightenment In the Confucian view of knowledge, there is a purposed emphasis on learning for the enlightenment for the soul and mind. The eightfold path of becoming enlightened is synonymous with the eight-fold path that we find in other eastern religions like Buddhism that are used to demonstrate a journey of the human being to become more enlightened. Whether it is the renewing f the mind, or the elimination of suffering, these journeys are epistemically the key to greater understanding and even more far reaching learning (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007). John Maxwell encapsulates this idea well when he writes, each person that we meet has the potential to teach us something (Maxwell, 2006). At LBFG this has

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greatly impacted us in a number of ways as we design instruction for our professional staff members. First we must recognize that often we learn best when we allow others to give feedback on what we have presented. Many times questions and reflections often bring out ideas and additional areas that were missed in the design. It also helps us to consider this view of knowing is determining what needs to be offered as learning modules to our staff. Often the question is not, what do our staff members need to know? But rather the question is better when asked, What will better move our staff members towards a greater knowing and understanding the areas that they work within in the firm? This focus on enlightenment and movement has proven to be a better platform to empower our staff towards excellence and peer-learning in a way that simply imparting facts and figures does not.

The Islamic View of Teaching and Learning Islam is a comprehensive way of life and within that comprehensive view comes an understanding of learning that is unique for an epistemic standpoint because the learner and the teacher are of equal value (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007). To the Muslim it is as important what is completed through knowledge as it is to complete the track of knowing. By this it is meant that the impact of the learning to the community o the learner is an absolute indicator of the value of that knowledge and the depth of learning that takes place. This greatly affects the overall philosophy of instructional design at LBFG because although at this present stage of the firms existence we do not have Islamic staff members, we do recognize that giving back to the community is, in a sense not just a justification of knowledge but as a firm we recognize that all learning should fundamentally spill out to the community. The way that we have embraced this is to commit significant time and resources to the engineering,

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construction, and architectural communities by publishing papers, giving seminars, webinars, and podcasts, all for the sake of helping the evolution of the community a reality and helping that evolution to not merely be mutation but ultimately for the industry to be better and perform at a higher level. This creates an environment of inspiration that is far better than merely an environment of aspiration where everyones goals may or may not be different. As a firm, we want to help inspire movement, excellence, and preparedness in our communities both professional and local and so for that sake philanthropy of resource and knowledge has become a solid platform within the philosophy and purpose of the firm.

African Oral Traditions One of the maintenance crew is a seventy-two year old Nigerian man who has lived in the immediate community surrounding the firms locations for more than fifty years. As a young man he came from Nigeria to an America that would segregate him, force him into stereotypes, give him little place in societies elite thinking and all but banish him back to the life that he left. However, he remembered the words of his father who said to him, No matter how bad it becomes over there (America) just remember that you have an opportunity to do something that we could only hope for and that is hope for freedom. At the firm, we invite him to sit at the head table at every function and our desire is to honor the man who never gave up hope on hope and freedom. This story illustrates an African oral tradition of learning that is becoming more and more popular among many differing people groups in America. As more and more Africans impact American culture, this rich heritage of oral learning and teaching can have a great impact on our educational philosophy and style (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007).

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This maintenance worker has had a great impact on each member of the staff as he/she sits and listens to the stories that he tells and we learn of the days that many of us will never truly know in the same way that he did, but his ability to impart this knowledge in his unique way is nothing short of inspirational. LBFG has embraced this type of learning especially in the field where the best method of learning takes place as one teaches another physically and orally and then allows that person to train others. This creates a system of learning that can be very effective especially in training certain skill sets that include building testing and other areas that are done with technicians. Ultimately, all epistemology stems from the discussion of the value of knowledge (Williams, 2001). If knowledge is not valuable to the learner then the imparting of that knowledge will never be as effective a knowledge that is at even the lowest level perceived as valuable. At LBFG, we must always remain cognizant of the value of what we are teaching to those that we are teaching it to. Realizing this value will ultimately help battle skepticism, and evolve towards a more inspirational model that will affect the surrounding community both locally and professionally leaving a legacy of knowledge behind.

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References

Brookfield, S. D. (1995). Becoming a critically reflective teacher. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, Inc. Chisholm, L. (2007). ee-Learning: The best road to adulthood? Innovate Journal of Online Education, 3(6), 1-13. Retrieved August 18, 2007, from Innovate Journal of Online Education Web site: http://www.innovateonline.info Gamoran, A. (2001). American schooling and educational inequality: A forecast for the 21st century. Retrieved July 24, 2008, from Sociology of Education: Currents of Thought: Sociology of Education at the Dawn Web site: http:// proquest.umi.com.library.capella.edu/ Hartshorne, C. (1984). Creativity in American Philosophy. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. Lundt, J. C. (2006). Learning for ourselves: A new paradigm for education. The Futurist, 38(6), 18-22. Marx, G. (2006). Sixteen trends, their profound impact on our future: Implications for students, education, communities, countries, and the whole of society. Alexandria, VA: Gary Marx and Educational Research Service. Maxwell, J. (2006). The difference maker: Making your attitude your greatest asset. Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson Publishers, Inc. Merriam, S. B., Caffarella, R. S., & Baumgartner, R. M. (2007). Learning in adulthood: A comprehensive guide (Third ed.). San Francisco: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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Morrison, G. R., Ross, S. M., Kemp, J. E., & Kalman, H. K. (2007). Designing effective instruction (5th edition). Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Plantinga, A., & Wolterstorff, N. (1984). Faith and rationality: Reason and belief in God. Notre Dame, Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press Reigeluth, C. M. (1999). What is instructional design theory? In C. M. Reigeluth (Ed.), Instructional-design theories and models (Vol. II, pp. 5-29). Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. Williams, M. (2001). Problems with knowledge: A critical introduction to epistemology. New York: Oxford University Press, Inc. Yankelovish, D. (2005). Ferment and change: Higher education in 2015. Chronicle of Higher Education, 52(14), B6-B9.