Deductive reasoning is the process of reasoning from one or more general statements to reach a certain conclusion.

An example of a deductive argument: 1. All men are mortal. 2. Aristotle is a man. 3. Therefore, Aristotle is mortal.

Induction is the process of reasoning from one or more specific to general conclusion.
Deduction From general to specific Induction from specific to general What Is Longitudinal Research? Longitudinal research is a type of research method used to discover relationships between variables. This observational research technique involves studying the same group of individuals over an extended period of time. Data is first collected at the start of the study, and may then be gathered repeatedly throughout the duration of the study. In some cases, longitudinal studies can last several decades. Benefits of Longitudinal Research: The benefit of this type of research is that it allows researchers to look at changes over time. Because of this, longitudinal methods are particularly useful when studying development and lifespan issues. Drawbacks of Longitudinal Research: However, longitudinal studies require enormous amounts of time and are often quite expensive. Because of this, these studies often have only a small group of subjects, which makes it difficult to apply the results to a larger population. Another problem is that participants sometimes drop out of the study, shrinking the sample size and decreasing the amount of data collected. What Is a Cross-Sectional Study? Definition: Cross-sectional research is a research method often used in developmental psychology, but also utilized in many other areas including social science and education. This type of study utilizes different groups of people who differ in the variable of interest, but share other characteristics such as socioeconomic status, educational background, and ethnicity.

For example, researchers studying developmental psychology might select groups of people who are remarkably similar in most areas, but differ only in age. By doing this, any differences between groups can presumably be attributed to age differences rather than to other variables. What Is Reliability? Reliability refers to the consistency of a measure. A test is considered reliable if we get the same result repeatedly. For example, if a test is designed to measure a trait (such as introversion), then each time the test is administered to a subject, the results should be approximately the same. Unfortunately, it is impossible to calculate reliability exactly, but it can be estimated in a number of different ways. What is Validity? Validity is the extent to which a test measures what it claims to measure. It is vital for a test to be valid in order for the results to be accurately applied and interpreted. Validity isnt determined by a single statistic, but by a body of research that demonstrates the relationship between the test and the behavior it is intended to measure. What Is a Case Study? Definition: A case study is an in-depth study of one person. In a case study, nearly every aspect of the subject's life and history is analyzed to seek patterns and causes for behavior. The hope is that learning gained from studying one case can be generalized to many others. Unfortunately, case studies tend to be highly subjective and it is difficult to generalize results to a larger population. What are Correlational Studies Correlational studies are used to look for relationships between variables. There are three possible results of a correlational study: a positive correlation, a negative correlation, and no correlation. The correlation coefficient is a measure of correlation strength and can range from 1.00 to +1.00.

Positive Correlations: Both variables increase or decrease at the same time. A correlation coefficient close to +1.00 indicates a strong positive correlation. Negative Correlations: Indicates that as the amount of one variable increases, the other decreases (and vice versa). A correlation coefficient close to -1.00 indicates a strong negative correlation. No Correlation: Indicates no relationship between the two variables. A correlation coefficient of 0 indicates no correlation.

While correlational studies can suggest that there is a relationship between two variables, they cannot prove that one variable causes a change in another variable. What Is the Experimental Method? Definition: The experimental method involves manipulating one variable to determine if changes in one variable cause changes in another variable. This method relies on controlled methods, random assignment and the manipulation of variables to test a hypothesis What is Replication? A term referring to the repetition of a research study, generally with different situations and different subjects, to determine if the basic findings of the original study can be generalized to other participants and circumstances What is theory? A theory is a well-established principle that has been developed to explain some aspect of the natural world. A theory arises from repeated observation and testing and incorporates facts, laws, predictions, and tested hypotheses that are widely accepted. What is causal relationship? A causal relationship is when one variable causes a change in another variable. These types of relationships are investigated by experimental research in order to determine if changes in one variable actually result in changes in another variable. Probability sampling Now that weve narrowed our population of interest, we must decide how to select the sample. Probability sampling is one of two primary strategies we might consider. In probability sampling, every member of the sampling frame has the potential to be selected for the study. Selection is random, and the probability of a member being chosen can be calculated. Knowing the probability of selection allows us to generalize to the population. Non-probability sampling In non-probability sampling, some members will have a greater chance of being selected than others, while some will have no chance of being selected at all. The probability of a member being chosen cannot be calculated, making it hard for researchers to know how well they have represented the theoretical population. Often researchers will turn to non-probability sampling only when other data collection methods are not possible.

Convenience sampling is a type of non-probability sampling, and it illustrates both the benefits and drawbacks of this approach. In convenience sampling, the most accessible members from the sampling frame are selected. For example, we might find that certain patients completed positive satisfaction surveys one year ago. It would be convenient to survey only those patients who already had a positive hospital experience. Probably they would be more willing to complete our survey. But in choosing only these patients, we must also ask whether its reasonable to generalize from their experiences. Bias A study often begins with a simple question. Researchers are motivated to find answers to the question and add to the overall knowledge on a topic. However, once they publish their findings, you might hear other researchers say that they are disbelieving of the results because they may be biased. In a research sense, bias does not refer to an intentional attempt to mislead. Rather, it refers to flaws in the design, conduct and analysis that creep into the study that result in a systematic shift in the findings. Bias can be introduced at any stage of research from the initial stages when researchers are collecting data, to the analysis of results, to the publication of studies. Bias can also refer to things that happen before the study has started (for example, the construction of questions to include is often biased by previous research); or things that happen (or don't) when the study ends such as publication bias (see below). Hypothesis: A testable prediction about the relationship between at least two events, characteristics, or variables.