Bleeding in Concrete -Causes, effects, and how to control bleed water

Make similar Hubs Introduction

Bleeding of concrete is always not bad. It helps to lower the w/c ratio and helps to densify the concrete. But the bleeding concrete can cause a number of problems like pumpline jams, sand streaks in walls, weak horizontal construction joints, and voids beneath rebars and aggregate particles. Even if bleeding isnt excessive, finishing concrete at the wrong time causes a different set of bleeding-related problems: blistering, scaling, and dusting surfaces. A thorough knowledge of why concrete bleeds and how mix proportions affect it, is required to preventing the harmful effects of bleeding. Adoption of right finishing methods also helps to ensure that the bleeding problems wont ruin a slab surface.

Concrete bleeding-Causes, effects, and control

The bleeding process

Almost all freshly placed concrete bleeds. As aggregate and cement particles settle, they force excess mixing water upward. The process continues until settlement stops, either because of solids bridging or because the concrete has set. The total amount of bleeding or settlement depends on mix properties, primarily water content and amount of fines (cement, fly ash, fine sand). Increasing water content increases bleeding, and increasing the amount of fines reduces bleeding. Amount of bleeding is also proportional to the depth of concrete placed. More bleedwater rises in deep sections than in thin ones. Bleeding usually occurs gradually by uniform seepage over the whole surface, but sometimes vertical channels form. Water flows fast enough in these channels to carry fine particles of cement and sand, leaving wormholes in the interior or sand streaks at the form face. Channels are more likely to form when concrete bleeds excessively. Channels that reach the surface are open paths for deicing solutions to penetrate the concrete. This leads to freezing and thawing damage and rebar corrosion.

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Figure 1. Rising bleed water sometimes forms channels at coarse aggregate surfaces, reducing pasteaggregate bond.

Figure 2. Sand streaks are caused by water rising rapidly enough to wash out cement and fine sand. They are mostly a cosmetic problem.

Effects of excessive bleeding in deep sections

Concrete weathers and disintegrates most severely at the tops of walls, piers, and parapets. One reason for this is water gain thats caused by bleeding. Sometimes bleedwater cant entirely evaporate because it has been trapped near the top surface by setting. This raises the water-cement ratio, increases permeability, and lowers strength. The effect has been noted in laboratory load tests of full-sized columns where failure almost always was near the column top. Excessive bleeding also causes some other problems in deep sections:

Heavy laitance accumulation at horizontal construction joints. This plus the higher water- cement ratio near the surface can cause a plane of weakness at the joint. Bond loss at aggregate and rebar surfaces. Channels form at the surface of coarse aggregate particles (Figure 1) or water collects beneath rebars. Unsightly sand streaks (Figure 2) caused by bleedwater rising at the form face. Concretes that bleed excessively can cause problems even before theyre placed. When these mixes are pumped, pressure in the pumpline forces water and cement in front of the concrete. With less paste to lubricate the line, rock jams form and the line plugs.

Bleeding problems in flatwork

Never float or trowel concrete while theres bleedwater on the surface. Thats the cardinal rule of finishing. Strike off and bull float the concrete before bleeding begins, then wait for bleeding to end and bleedwater to evaporate before finishing. Excessive bleeding causes excessive waiting by the finishers. Unless the bleedwater is removed, delays increase finishing costs. But getting on the concrete too soon reduces surface quality. Finishing before bleedwater has evaporated can cause dusting, craze cracking, scaling, and low wear resistance. Working bleed-water into the surface also increases permeability; water, deicing salts, and other harmful chemicals can enter the concrete more easily. Highly permeable concrete increases the possibility of rebar corrosion too. Floating or troweling concrete prematurely can cause surface defects even if theres no bleedwater on the surface. Sealing the surface before bleeding stops traps bleedwater beneath the surface. Blisters may form (Figure 3), or the whole surface may peel off later because of a weak, very porous concrete layer beneath the sealed surface. Be particularly careful to control mix variables that affect bleeding when concrete slabs will be placed on a nonabsorbent base or during cold weather. Plastic vapor barriers or tightly compacted clay soils beneath the slab aggravate bleeding problems (Figure 4). Because the base absorbs no water, more excess water comes to the surface. Low temperatures prolong the bleeding period. A combination of cool concrete and rapidly drying surface in a heated enclosure can cause blistering or surface scaling. If the concrete is already in place and bleeding too much, fans may speed evaporation and permit earlier finishing. Another solution is dragging a rubber hose slowly over the entire surface; concrete should be stiff enough so that only water is removed. In small areas, a single pass with the tilted edge of a trowel removes the excess water.

Figure 4. Plastic vapor barriers aggravate bleeding problems. Concrete on the left part of the slab is placed on a vapor barrier, concrete on the right on a granular base. Note the water sheen still present over the vapor barrier.

How to control bleeding

Excessive bleeding can be avoided. Dont add too much water to the concrete. Most of the water added to make placing easier bleeds out of the concrete. Any time saved during placement will be lost while waiting for the bleedwater to evaporate. Place concrete at the lowest possible slump. If you need a higher slump to speed placement, consider using a superplasticizer. Add additional concrete fines to reduce bleeding. The fines may come from a number of sources:

Use a more finely ground cement. Concretes made with high early strength (Type III) cement bleed less because the cement is ground finer than normal (Type I) cement. Use more cement. At the same water content, rich mixes bleed less than lean mixes. Use fly ash or other pozzolans in the concrete. If concrete sands dont have much material passing the No. 50 and 100 sieves, blend in a fine blow sand at the batch plant. For air- entrained concrete, use the maximum allowable amount of entrained air. Consider using an air- entraining agent whenever excessive bleeding is a problem. Entrained air bubbles act as additional fines. Air entrainment also lowers the amount of water needed to reach a desired slump.

Types of Concrete Cracks

By Lon Quist, eHow Contributor

Concrete will crack. Despite the best efforts of the contractor or homeowner who pours concrete, cracks do develop. Crack-free concrete is rare. In the day-to-day world of the average homeowner there will be cracks in driveways, concrete floors or even foundations. The cracks can appear soon after the concrete was poured or may not appear for a year or more. What kind of crack and what kind of concrete was used will help determine what kind of repairs can be made. Does this Spark an idea?

Types of Concrete Cracks

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1. Causes of Cracks in Concrete

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Concrete will crack under a variety of circumstances. One of the main reasons cracks appear is the use of excessive amounts of water in the original mix. Water is added to make the concrete easier to pour when installing. Shrinkage that occurs when the concrete hardens and dries out causes cracks to appear. Cracks in concrete are given a variety of names but many have a similar appearance.

2. Random Crack

The crack that spreads slowly in more than one direction is commonly called a random crack. It could be caused by normal shrinkage of the concrete when hardening and drying or by settlement of the undercourse on which the concrete was poured. This type of crack may expand as moisture seeps in and under the concrete and freezes. Flaking of the concrete around the crack may also appear. This crack may appear if adequate stress lines were not cut into the newly laid concrete.

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3. Settlement Cracking

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Settlement cracks may appear when the underlying ground has not been compacted or prepared properly or if the subsoil was not of the proper consistency. The settlement crack may also appear as a random crack over areas where the soil of the subgrade was not level or where it settled unevenly after the concrete was poured. In some instances it may be necessary to excavate the area and prepare it for a course of sand to prevent settlement and future cracking.

4. Heaving Cracks

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Heaving cracks may appear during a hard freeze in cold northern climates. Frost heaves may be caused by pouring concrete on soil that holds water instead of draining it away. Alternating freezing and thawing through the winter months may also produce frost-heave cracks. These often appear similar to settlement cracks. The frost heave may settle down with the advent of warmer weather, but the resulting cracks may allow even more moisture to seep into the underlying soil which may cause future problems.

5. Evaluating Cracks in Concrete

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Evaluating the crack in your concrete driveway, garage floor, foundation or other concrete slab is important and will help determine what type of repair is needed. A shrinking crack in a driveway or concrete slab is not likely to cause a structural problem. However it may allow water to seep in under the slab which would cause future problems. The settlement crack may indicate that preparation of the underlaying soil was not adequate. Soil may not have been compacted or the sub soil may have needed a course of sand over it before the concrete was laid. Substantial damage may occur with frost-heave cracks. Care and attention to proper soil drainage prior to pouring the concrete floor or slab is very important in cold, damp climates.
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Focus on Floors
Concrete Technology Home > Concrete Design & Construction >Concrete Shrinkage

Concrete Cracks: A Shrinking Problem?

By Scott M. Tarr While often overlooked, the shrinkage potential of a concrete mixture is perhaps the most important consideration for concrete used to construct industrial floors on ground. All concrete, even shrinkage-compensating concrete, shrinks. Because of a loss in volume, concrete shrinkage can lead to cracking when base friction or other restraint occurs. Shrinkage also causes curling/warping which can lead to a variety of slab issues including decreased load-carrying capacity (structural cracking) and joint stability problems such as spalling. Shrinkage-induced cracking and curling/warping can also contribute to decreased vehicle ride (a potential health and safety issue) and floor covering failures (buckling caused by reverse warping). In short, shrinkage is a factor in most concrete slab-on-ground performance issues. To increase the performance of concrete floors, shrinkage must be better understood and addressed.

Material Handling Equipment has Changed Concrete shrinkage has become an increasingly important design issue with industrial floors. One of the main reasons for this is the evolution of the material distribution industry. As the industry has evolved and the market has become increasingly competitive, the efficiency of the operation has become an important consideration. Material handling equipment has been developed to move more product at a faster, yet still safe, pace. Racking equipment can safely hold more load and is increasing in height. However, the size of baseplates has not increased substantially, which results in greater contact pressures and flexural stresses. Another feature related to the evolution in material handling which influences concrete floors is the wheel design for lift truck vehicles. Wheels have evolved from large pneumatic tires to small solid castors which increase the vehicle stability. However, these wheels apply significantly greater contact pressures on smaller footprints which increases the importance of joint stability in order to maintain the effectiveness of joint fillers to resist joint deterioration. Industrial slab design must become more sophisticated in order to service these modern efficient operations.

Concrete Mixtures have Changed In addition to the changes in the material handling equipment, the shrinkage of concrete mixtures typically used for slabs on ground has increased over the past couple decades. There are many factors which contribute to this increase such as high paste content and the increasing use of admixtures. Also, the availability of good quality aggregates is diminishing which has forced the use of aggregates with properties which promote higher shrinkage concrete mixtures. Another significant factor is the increasing demand for fast-track construction. Many mixtures with rapid setting and strength gain performance have an increased shrinkage potential.

Causes of Concretes Volume Changes The shortening of concrete slabs can be caused by temperature decreases or moisture loss. These two causes are also related to curling and warping of slabs, respectively. Curling is the deformation of the slab due to a difference in temperature between the surface and the bottom of the slab (temperature gradient). Like most materials, concrete expands and contracts with a change in temperature. If the slab surface is cooler than the slab bottom, the surface contracts causing the slab edges to curl upward. Slab warping is the deformation of the slab surface profile due to a difference in moisture between the surface and bottom of the slab (moisture gradient). As with a sponge, if the slab surface is allowed to dry and the bottom is kept moist, the edges will tend to warp upward. Exterior pavement slabs typically have a permanent upward edge warp and experience curling on a daily basis due to surface warming and cooling cycles related to exposure to the sun. In general, the edges of interior concrete floor slab panels warp upward due to a moisture gradient through the slab depth.

Temperature Contraction. Concrete has a coefficient of thermal expansion and contraction of about 0.0000010 mm/mm/C (0.0000055 in./in./F). After hardening, concrete will contract as a result of cooling after the peak heat of hydration (typically coinciding with drop in ambient temperature at night). A 22C (40F) drop in temperature between day and night can cause about 0.8 mm (1/32 in.) of contraction in a 3 m (10 ft) length of concrete. This magnitude of shortening is sufficient to cause cracking, especially at early ages when the strength of the concrete is low. Therefore, it important to consider the potential for early age temperature drops and install contraction joints properly to control the location of cracking. Keeping concrete placement temperatures as low as possible and close to the ultimate operating temperature of the facility [target 26C (80F)] helps to decrease the magnitude of the temperature drop. Drying Shrinkage. After hardening, concrete begins to shrink as water not consumed by cement hydration leaves the system. This is known as drying shrinkage. Water above that necessary to hydrate cement is required for proper workability and finishability the water is called water of convenience. In general, the higher the additional water content, the higher the shrinkage potential. For small, unrestrained concrete specimens (prisms), a low ultimate shrinkage (strain) is considered to be less than 520 millionths (at 50% relative humidity and 23C [73F]). Typical concrete shrinkage has been measured at 520 to 780 millionths. However, for some mixtures, shrinkage exceeding 1100 millionths has been documented. Using concrete with a higher drying shrinkage increases the risk of problems with the floor performance. Testing. Concrete drying shrinkage can be measured in the laboratory. The American Concrete Institute (ACI) 302 Guide for Concrete Floor and Slab Construction recommends following ASTM C 157Standard Test Method for Length Change of Hardened Hydraulic-Cement Mortar and Concrete. However, as drying shrinkage requires a period of time to complete (typically over 6 months for lab specimens and 12 to 18 months for field slabs), it is unlikely that the testing can be completed within typical pre-construction schedules. ACI 360 Design of Slabs-on-Groundsuggests following the procedure in ACI 209 Prediction of Creep, Shrinkage, and Temperature Effects in Concrete Structures which includes a method of predicting the ultimate drying shrinkage from early-age data measured at, for example, 14 or 28 days. While the accuracy of the prediction improves with later-age test data, the test can be used to compare potential mixtures as well as confirm that the design of the slab and joint spacing are appropriate for the concrete available. The design may need to include mechanical load transfer devices in joints, steel reinforcement, or, in cases where only high shrinkage concrete is available, the use of post-tensioning or shrinkagecompensating concrete. As with any comparative test, the procedure for measuring shrinkage in the laboratory must be duplicated exactly in order to compare the results. Exact mixture proportions and resulting slump should be reported for the batch used to fabricate test specimens. For instance, if the project specifications allow a 125 mm (5 in.) maximum slump, the test specimens should not be fabricated using concrete with a 75 mm (3 in.) slump. The specimens should also be the appropriate size as dictated by the maximum size of the coarse aggregate. Some additional items to consider when analyzing lab results include:

method of batching and mixing concrete

method of consolidation

method of curing

length of curing (0, 7, 28 days)

storage conditions subsequent to curing

method of measuring beams

point of zero measurement (length of mold, initial beam length, length after soak).

Considering the potential differences between laboratories, it is an obvious advantage to have the same lab perform all testing on the trial mixtures being considered. That way, even if the standard test method is modified, the same procedure is still followed for comparative mixtures. For slabs on ground, reasonable modifications to ASTM C 157 test may include altering the curing conditions from a 28-day lime bath soak to a 7-day soak or moist cure since this may better reflect actual construction conditions. However, since the specimens have a relatively large surface area in comparison to their size, care should be taken to prevent drying during the curing period to accurately simulate anticipated construction conditions. After curing, the specimens should be stored in air in a strictly controlled drying environment as required by the standard procedure. Laboratory shrinkage test results can be used to consider the potential for joint/crack widening of the floor. However, concrete in a slab on ground shrinks less than that measured in the laboratory. There are several reasons why this occurs. First, unlike the laboratory samples, a slab is restrained by the subgrade. Subgrade drag coefficients are well-documented for different types of subbase material. Another reason slabs shrink less than lab samples is because a floor in contact with the ground does not dry the same amount as small beams exposed to 50% RH on all surfaces. Typically, slab moisture is very high (95% RH or greater) at the bottom. Even when ambient air conditions are substantially below 50% RH, the slab interior remains at a significantly higher moisture condition, especially when a vapor retarder is not located immediately beneath the slab. The surface may dry but the bottom remains moist which is why warping occurs. Joint/crack widening is related to this moisture gradient as well. Therefore, joints and cracks are typically much wider at the floor surface than at the bottom. As a result, predicting, or even measuring joint width at the slab surface is an ineffective method of determining joint load transfer capability. In general, considering sub-slab frictional restraint and actual in-place moisture condition, the shrinkage of typical concrete (520 to 780 millionths) is actually closer to 100 to 300 millionths (or even less at the slab bottom). Experience with the performance of locally-available concrete mixtures in floor slabs can provide good information to consider anticipated joint performance. Effect of Concrete Ingredients on Shrinkage Many researchers1 have studied the factors associated with the shrinkage of concrete mixtures. The most influential factor is the type of coarse aggregate used. Hard, dense aggregate is able to restrain the shrinkage of the cement paste. In contrast, using aggregate with a higher compressibility can increase the shrinkage of the concrete mixture by about 120 to 150 percent. Therefore, locally-available materials play a critical role in the shrinkage behavior of the concrete. The properties of aggregate from various quarries should be considered if shrinkage is to be minimized. Some recommendations include using a large topsize aggregate and optimizing the gradation of the aggregate and combining aggregate sources to minimize gap-grading and corresponding paste content of the concrete. However, the overall benefit of these suggestions is dependent on the aggregate properties used. If the aggregate is of poor inherent quality, maximizing the size, gradation, and content may have little effect on the concrete shrinkage. Likewise, blending a large aggregate with poor qualities to a mid-size aggregate with good properties may increase the resulting shrinkage behavior of the concrete mixture. Other factors that have been found to have a significant impact on the shrinkage of concrete mixtures includes the use of shrinkage-promoting admixtures (such as accelerators), the use of dirty aggregate which increases water demand and using a cement with high shrinkage characteristics. The cumulative effect of these factors has been found to be multiplicative and not additive. So, combined factors can easily increase concrete shrinkage by several hundred percent. Therefore, the specific impact of any set of materials should be determined by laboratory testing. The shrinkage of a concrete mixture can have a significant impact on the performance of floors on ground. With the increasing demand for structural load-carrying capability and corresponding floor performance, shrinkage has become a growing issue. As repairs and maintenance can be costly, good joint performance is essential for industrial concrete floors. Therefore, it is important for slabs to remain in contact with the supporting base (minimal warping) and the joints to have minimal widening. The shrinkage potential of the concrete mixture must be well-understood so proper design and construction methods can result in the expected long-term serviceability for the owner. Even for commercial floors where heavy loading does not occur, concrete shrinkage can result in warping relaxation subsequent to installation of floor coverings or coatings. When surfaces are reprofiled in preparation for installation of floor finishes, slab distortion can result in delamination and buckling of the flooring. Knowledge of potential concrete shrinkage can help minimize such problems.

Durability

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Stands up to natures forces

Durability is the ability to last a long time without significant deterioration. A durable material helps the environment by conserving resources and reducing wastes and the environmental impacts of repair and replacement. Construction and demolition waste contribute to solid waste going to landfills. The production of new building materials depletes natural resources and can produce air and water pollution.

Cast in Place Controlled Density Fill Decorative flatwork

The design service life of most buildings is often 30 years, although buildings often last 50 to 100 years or longer. Most concrete and masonry buildings are demolished due to obsolescence rather than deterioration. A concrete shell can be left in place if a building use or function changes or when a building interior is renovated. Concrete, as a structural material and as the building exterior skin, has the ability to withstand natures normal deteriorating mechanisms as well as natural disasters. Durability of concrete may be defined as the ability of concrete to resist weathering action, chemical attack, and abrasion while maintaining its The heavily traveled Wacker Drive desired engineering properties. Different concretes require different replacement in downtown Chicago was degrees of durability depending on the exposure environment and designed for a 75 to 100-year life. (PCA properties desired. For example, concrete exposed to tidal seawater will No. 16263) have different requirements than an indoor concrete floor. Concrete ingredients, their proportioning, interactions between them, placing and curing practices, and the service environment determine the ultimate durability and life of concrete.

Fiber cement siding High Performance Admixtures ICF (Insulating Concrete Forms) Paving Precast Stucco Water Infrastructure Effect of Pavement Type on Fuel Consumption and Emissions in City Driving

High Humidity and Wind-Driven Rain: Concrete is resistant to winddriven rain and moist outdoor air in hot and humid climates because it is impermeable to air infiltration and wind-driven rain. Moisture that enters a building must come through joints between concrete elements. Annual inspection and repair of joints will minimize this potential. More importantly, if moisture does enter through joints, it will not damage the concrete. Good practice for all types of wall construction is to have permeable materials that breathe (are allowed to dry) on at least one surface and to not encapsulate concrete between two impermeable surfaces. Concrete will dry out if not covered by impermeable treatments. Portland cement plaster (stucco) should not be confused with the exterior insulation finish systems (EIFS) or synthetic stucco systems that have become popular but may have performance problems, including moisture damage and low impact-resistance. Synthetic stucco is generally a fraction of the thickness of portland cement stucco, offering less impact resistance. Due to its composition, it does not allow the inside of a wall to dry when moisture gets trapped inside. Trapped moisture eventually rots insulation, sheathing, and wood framing. It also corrodes metal framing and metal attachments. There have been fewer problems with EIFS used over solid bases such as concrete or masonry because these substrates are very stable and are not subject to rot or corrosion. These 3x5-ft concrete panels with decorative finishes were displayed outdoors in the relatively severe weather in the Skokie, Illinois, area (near Chicago). With only a few exceptions, their appearance changed very little after more than 40 years of exposure to bright sun-light, wind, snow, acid rain, freezing and thawing, hot summers, and cold winters (PCA No. 2101)

Bethel Commercial Center Light shelves and sunlight shafts that reduce energy use and air conditioning load. City of Highland Constructs New Library with ICF Wall Systems for Maximum Efficiency and Durability Concrete "Envelope" Sets Alliant Energy's PowerHouse Example Home Apart From Others Patent-pending Technology Reduces Heat Loss in Winter and Heat Gain in Summer Concrete Helps Achieve First 5-Star Built Green Rating Sensible House is Smart, Affordable, & Neighborly Concrete Rebuilds High School Destroyed By Katrina Concrete Shrinks EUI at US DOE NREL RSF in Golden, CO Durable Development on the Chesapeake Concrete condominiums will stand the test of weather, time Earth Rangers Centre Earth Rangers Centre Achieves Multiple Green Objectives with Concrete East Parkside Using ICFs to Rebuild Homes and Make Their Community Strong King County LEEDs with Emergency Services Building Certification sought for New Regional Communication and Emergency Coordination Center Napa Valley Home Exemplifies Sustainable Design in Hot, Fire-prone Region NextGen Home is Bigger, Greener, Stronger and Smarter NYC's Helena Conveys Strength in Design A Learning Curve With Slag Cement Paterson Near-Zero Model Home Near-Zero Energy Home Features Building Envelope Technologies The New American Home Incorporates Cement-Based Solutions for Efficiency, Durability Concrete Builds a Strong Case for Sustainability in New Model Home Wade King Student Recreation Center: Focusing on The Natural Environment Facility Valued as First of Its Kind in the Country to Receive LEED Certification

Ultraviolet Resistance: The ultraviolet portion of solar radiation does not harm concrete. Using colored pigments in concrete retains the color in concrete long after paints have faded due to the suns effects. Inedible: Vermin and insects cannot destroy concrete because it is inedible. Some softer materials are inedible but still provide pathways for insects. Due to its hardness, vermin and insects will not bore through concrete. Gaps in exterior insulation to expose the concrete can provide access for termite inspectors. Moderate to Severe Exposure Conditions for Concrete: The following are important exposure conditions and deterioration mechanisms in concrete. Concrete can withstand these effects when properly designed. The Specifiers Guide for Durable Concrete is intended to provide sufficient information to allow the practitioner to select materials and mix design parameters to achieve durable concrete in a variety of environments. Resistance to Freezing and Thawing: The most potentially destructive weathering factor is freezing and thawing while the concrete is wet, particularly in the presence of deicing chemicals. Deterioration is caused by the freezing of water and subsequent expansion in the paste, the aggregate particles, or both. With the addition of an air entrainment admixture, concrete is highly resistant to freezing and thawing. During freezing, the water displaced by ice formation in the paste is accommodated so that it is not disruptive; the microscopic air bubbles in the paste provide chambers for the water to enter and thus relieve the hydraullic pressure generated. Concrete with a low water-cementitious ratio (0.40 or lower) is more durable than concrete with a high water-cementitious ratio (0.50 or higher). Airentrained concrete with a low water-cementitious ratio and an air content of 5 to 8% will withstand a great number of cycles of freezing and Resistance to weathering, including thawing without distress. freezing and thawing (fromwww.cement.org) Chemical Resistance: Concrete is resistant to most natural environments and many chemicals. Concrete is virtually the only material used for the construction of wastewater transportation and treatment facilities because of its ability to resist corrosion caused by the highly aggressive contaminants in the wastewater stream as well as the chemicals added to treat these waste products. However concrete is sometimes Chemical resistance exposed to substances that can attack (fromwww.cement.org) and cause deterioration. Concrete in chemical manufacturing and storage facilities is specially prone to chemical attack. The effect of sulfates and chlorides is discussed below. Acids attack concrete by dissolving the cement paste and calcareous aggregates. In addition to using concrete with a low permeability, surface treatments can be used to keep aggressive substances from coming in contact with concrete. Effects of Substances on Concrete and Guide to Protective Treatments discusses the effects of hundreds of chemicals on concrete and provides a list of treatments to help control chemical attack. Resistance to Sulfate Attack: Excessive amounts of sulfates in soil or water can attack and destroy a concrete that is not properly designed. Sulfates (for example calcium sulfate, sodium sulfate, and magnesium sulfate) can attack concrete by reacting with hydrated compounds in the hardened cement paste. These reactions can induce sufficient pressure to cause disintegration of the concrete. Like natural rock such as limestone, porous concrete (generally with a high water-cementitious ratio) is susceptible to weathering caused by salt crystallization. Examples of salts known to cause weathering of concrete include sodium carbonate and sodium sulfate.

Confederation Bridge, spanning the Northumberland Strait between Prince Edward Island and New Brunswick, was specifically designed for high durability in a severe environment and a 100year life. The bridge has to resist freezing and thawing, seawater

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Sulfate attack and salt crystallization are more severe at locations where exposure, and abrasion from floating the concrete is exposed to wetting and drying cycles, than continuously ice. (PCA No. IMG15714) wet cycles. For the best defense against external sulfate attack, design concrete with a low water to cementitious material ratio (around 0.40) and use cements specially formulated for sulfate environments. Seawater Exposure: Concrete has been used in seawater exposures for decades with excellent performance. However, special care in mix design and material selection is necessary for these severe environments. A structure exposed to seawater or seawater spray is most vulnerable in the tidal or splash zone where there are repeated cycles of wetting and drying and/or freezing and thawing. Sulfates and chlorides in seawater require the use of low permeability concrete to minimize steel corrosion and sulfate attack. A cement resistant to sulfate exposure is helpful. Proper concrete cover over reinforcing steel must be provided, and the water-cementitious ratio should not exceed 0.40. Chloride Resistance and Steel Corrosion: Chloride present in plain concrete that does not contain steel is generally not a durability concern. Concrete protects embedded steel from corrosion through its highly alkaline nature. The high pH environment in concrete (usually greater than 12.5) causes a passive and noncorroding protective oxide film to form on steel. However, the presence of chloride ions from deicers or seawater can destroy or penetrate the film. Once the chloride corrosion threshold is reached, an electric cell is formed along the steel or between steel bars and the electrochemical process of carrions begins. The resistance of concrete to chloride is good; however, for severe environments such as bridge decks, it can be increase by using a low water-cementitious ratio (about 0.40), at least seven days of moist curing, and supplementary cementitious materials such as silica fume, to reduce permeability. Increasing the concrete cover over the steel also helps slow down the migration of chlorides. Other methods of reducing steel corrosion include the use of corrosion inhibiting admixtures, epoxycoated reinforcing steel, surface treatments, concrete overlays, and cathodic protection. Resistance to Alkali-Silica Reaction (ASR): ASR is an expansive reaction between reactive forms of silica in aggregates and potassium and sodium alkalis, mostly from cement, but also from aggregates, pozzolans, admixtures, and mixing water. The reactivity is potentially harmful only when it produces significant expansion. Indications of the presence of alkali-aggregate reactivity may be a network of cracks, closed or spalling joints, or movement of portions of a structure. ASR can be controlled through proper aggregate selection and/or the use of supplementary cementitious materials (such as fly ash or slag cement) or blended cements proven by testing to control the reaction. Abrasion Resistance: Concrete is resistant to the abrasive affects of ordinary weather. Examples of severe abrasion and erosion are particles in rapidly moving water, floating ice, or areas where steel studs are allowed related to the strength of the studies show that concrete with Abrasion resistance 19,000 psi work well. (fromwww.cement.org/) Why does concrete crack? Concrete, like most materials, will shrink slightly when it dries out. Common shrinkage is about 1/16 th of an inch in a 10-foot length of concrete. The reason contractors place joints in concrete pavements and floors is to allow the concrete to crack in a neat, straight line at the joint, where concrete cracks due to shrinkage are expected to occur. Control or construction joints are also placed in concrete walls and other structures. Why do concrete surfaces spall? Concrete spalling (or flaking) can be prevented. It occurs due to one or more of the following reasons. 1.) In cold climates subjected to freezing and thawing, concrete surfaces have the potential to spall if the concrete is not air-entrained. 2.)Too much water in the concrete mix will produce a weaker, more permeable and less durable concrete. The water-cementitious ratio should be as low as possible (0.45 or less). 3.) Concrete finishing operations should not begin until the water sheen on the surface is gone and the excess bleed water on the surface has had a chance to evaporate. If this excess water is worked into the concrete because finishing operations have begun too soon, the concrete on the surface will have too high of a water content and this surface will be weaker and less durable.

Fiber Cement Siding Green Specification Guidelines Annotations based on MASTERSPEC 07460

Green in Practice 105 Whole Building Design Building Green With Gray Concrete

Additional Resources

Corrosion resistance (fromwww.cement.org/)

Resistance to alkali-silica reaction (ASR) (fromwww.cement.org/) on tires. Abrasion resistance is directly concrete. For areas with severe abrasion, compressive strengths of 12,000 to