1. The principles of classification of English 2. The principles of classification of English 3.

Word stress in English vowels consonants Word stress (WS) can be defined as the In phonetics, the noun "vowel" means: 1. a Consonants singling out of one or more syllables in a word, vowel sound; 2. a letter representing a vowel In phonetics, the noun "consonant" means: 1. a which is accompanied by the change of the force sound in writing. consonant sound; 2. a letter representing a of utterance, pitch of the voice, qualitative and Vowels are speech sounds produced without consonant sound in writing. Consonants are quantitative characteristics of the sound which is obstructing the flow of air from the lungs, so speech sounds produced by creating an usually a vowel. S-s is variable any syl-le of a polys-c word that the breath stream passes freely through the obstruction in the mouth for the air flow from the lungs. There are 20 consonant letters in the can carry the main stress. Signals: pitch of voice mouth. Vowels are classified: English alphabet. They represent 24 consonant (level), sonority of sound (vowel quality: strong, in the stability of articulation: (1.l) monothongs - sounds. Many of the consonants occur in voiced weak; stressed syl-s have strong v-s pot, Tom, are vowels the articulation of which doesnt - voiceless pairs: plosives / stops [b] - [p], [d] - office, odd, man, uns-ed weak: potato, official, change.The quality of such v-ls is relatively pare [t], [g] - [k]; fricatives [v] - [f], [z] - [s], [th] - [th], addition, woman), duration in time (length syl-s [i,e,a:, o:,);, u,3:, ?] ;(1.2) diphthongs in the [zh] - [sh] and unpaired voiceless [h]; affricates are extra long when they are prominant) pronunciation of diphthongs the organs of [j] - [ch]. The rest of the consonants are together they make syl-s sound louder. Degrees speech slide from one v-l position to another sonorants: [l], [r]; nasals [m], [n], [ng]; of s-s: primary, secondary (partial), weak. S-s is semivowels [w], [y]. the comb-n of factors. within one syllable. The nuclear of diphthongs is 1. Classification of English S-s may be semantically contrasted (verb strong distinct the glide is very weak [ei, i, au, ? consonants. noun: contrast, present). Modify of s-s: u, ?, u?]. (1.3) In the pronunciation of 1.voicing (work of the vocal cords & force of photogragh-photographer-photographic). diphthongs the articulation changes just a little exhalation): voiceless-fortis, voiced-lenis. Rules:1) front weight in nouns & adj-s 2.place of articulation (where the air is (have s-s on the 1-st syl-le); 2) 2 & 3-syl-le words bit. have a prefix (not stressed), majority are verbs; But the difference between the nuclear the end impeded): -bilabial(2 lips) p-b 3) w-s with suf-s (unstr-ed); 4) certain suf-s is not so distinct as it is in the case of -labiodental(upper teeth-lower lip) f-v cause the syl-le to be st-ed: -ive, -ient, -iant, -ial, diphthongs; [i:, u:]. The tongue position: -dental(teeth) , -ion, -ic, -ous, -ish, -ify, -ible; 5) able doesnt horizontal movement of the tongue. When the -alveolar t-d,s,n,z,l change the stress; 6) in polys-c w-ds certain suftongue is in the front part of the mouth and the -retroflex(tip of the tongue s cause the s-s to be placed on the 4-th syl-le fr. front part of it is raised up to the hard palate a curved&moved backwards) r the end - -ary, -ator, alimony, literacy, inventory; -palato-alveolar(middle tongue to the 7) in compound w-ds singlestressed readingfront v-1 is pronounced [i:, e]. room, music-hall; but adj-es & verbs 2-stressed When the front of the tongue is raised towards hard palate) ,,, -palatal(to the soft palate) j well-bred, give in. to the back part of the lard palate the vowel is -glottal h(1haryngeal) called -velar(back of the tongue) k,g, Types of English word stress according to its central (or mixed) [?:, ?]. When the tongue is in -labiovelar w degree. primary the strongest the back part of the mouth and raised up to the 3.manner of articulation(kind of construction secondary the second strongest, partial, soft palate a back vowel is pronounced [a:, , :, made by articulators): weak all the other degrees. The syllables -occlusive: plosives(pbtdkg)& sonorants bearing either primary or secondary stress are u:]. Vertical movement high (or closed) vowels: [i:, u, u:], open (low) vowels [a:, o;]. The lip -nasals termed stressed, while syllables with weak -constrictive: fricatives(fvszh)&semi- stress are called, somewhat inaccurately, position. When the lips are neutral or spread the vowels(approximants) jwr+lateral l unstressed. vowels are called unrounded. -occlusive-constrictive (affricates) When the lips more or less round they called

rounded [u;, u]. The character of vowel end. If a stressed v-l is followed by a strong voiceless consonant it is cut off by it. In this case the end of the vowel is strong and the vowel is called checked.

4. Assimilation. In the process of speech, that is in the process of transition from the articulatory work of one sound to the articulatory work of the neighbouring one, sounds are modified. These modifications can be conditioned: a) by the complementary distribution of phonemes, e. g. the fully back /u:/ becomes backadvanced under the influence of the preceding mediolingual sonorant /j/ in the words tune, nude. In the word keen /k/ is not so back as its principal variant, it is advanced under (be influence of the fully front /i;/ which follows it: b) by the contextual variations in which phonemes may occur at the junction of words, e. g. the alveolar phoneme /n/ in the combination in the is assimilated to the dental variant under the influence of // which follows it; c) by the style of speech: official or rapid colloquial. E. g. hot muffins may turn into Assimilation is a modification of a consonant under the influence of a neighbouring consonant. When a consonant is modified under the influence of an adjacent vowel or vice versa this phenomenon is called adaptation or accommodation, e. g. tune, keen, lea, cool. When one of the neighbouring sounds is not realized in rapid or careless speech this process is called elision, e. g. a box of matches may be pronounced without [v]. Assimilation which occurs in everyday speech in the present-day pronunciation is called living. Assimilation which took place at an earlier stage in the history of the language is called historical. Assimilation can be: 1progressive, when the first of the two sounds affected by assimilation makes the second sound similar to itself, e. g. in desks the sounds /k/ make the plural inflection s similar to the voiceless /k/. 2regressive, when the second of the two sounds affected by assimilation makes the first sound similar to itself, e. g. in the combination at the the

When the two neighbouring sounds arc affected by assimilation, it may influence: 1) the work of the vocal cords; 2) the active organ of speech; 3) the manner of noise production; 4) both: the place of articulation and the manner of noise production. l)Assimilation affecting the work of the vocal cords is observed when one of the two adjacent consonants; becomes voiced under the influence of the neighbouring voiced consonant, or voiceless under the influence of the neighbouring voiceless consonant. In the process of speech the sonorants /m, n, 1, r; j, w/ are partly devoiced before a vowel, preceded by the voiceless consonant phonemes /s, p, t, k/, e. g. plate, slowly, twice, ay. This assimilation is not observed in the most careful styles of speech. 2) The manner of noise production is affected by assimilation in cases of a) lateral plosion and b) loss of plosion or incomplete plosion. The lateral plosion takes place, when a plosive is followed by /1/. In this case the closure for the plosive is not released till the off-glide for the second [l]. Incomplete plosion takes place in the clusters a) of two similar plosives like /pp,pb, tt, td, kk, kg/, or b) of two plosives with different points of articulation like:/kt/,/dg/, /db/, /tb/. So there is only one explosion for the two plosives. 3) Assimilation affects the place of articulation and the manner of noise production when the plosive, alveolar /tl is followed by the postalveolar /r/. For example, in the word trip alveolar 1t1 becomes post-alveolar and has a fricative release.

5. The phoneme theory and its main trends The founder of the Phoneme Theory was the Russian scientist Boudoin-de-Courtenay who was the head of the Kazan Linguistic School. He defined the phoneme as a physical image of a sound. He also regarded phonemes as fictitious units and considered them to be only perceptions. This approach is called mentalistic/ physical. Ferdinand de Saussure viewed phonemes as the sum of acoustic impressions and articulatory movements. He also viewed phonemes as disembodied units of the language formed by the differences separating the acoustic image of one sound from the rest of the units. Language in his opinion contains nothing but differences. This approach is called abstractional/ abstract. Trubetskoy (the head of the Prague Linguistic School) defined the phoneme as a unity of phonologically relevant features. Relevant feature is the feature without which we cant distinguish one phoneme from another. This approach is called functional. Phonemes can be neutralized. In this case we receive an archi-phoneme. That is a unity of relevant features common to both phonemes (e.g. wetting wedding in AmE). In case of archiphoneme we cannot distinguish one phoneme from another. Thus the distinctive function of the phoneme is lost.] Another kind of approach to the nature of the phoneme was expressed by a British scholar, the head of the London School of Phonology, Daniel Jones. He defined the phoneme as a family of sounds. The American Linguistic School (Blumfield, Sapir, etc) defined the phoneme as a minimum unit of distinctive sound features

alveolar /t/ becomes dental, assimilated to the interdental / / which follows it; 3double, when the two adjacent sounds influence each other, e.g. twice /t/ is rounded under the influence of /w/ and /w/ is partly devoiced under (he influence of the voiceless /t/.

and as abstractional unit. The materialistic approach was expressed by Leo Tsherba. Academician Tsherba defined the phoneme as a real independent distinctive unit which manifests itself in the form of its allophones. This approach comprises the abstract, the functional.

6. Intonation and its linguistic function

Intonation is a complex unity of non-segmental, or prosodic features of speech: 1. melody, pitch of the voice; 2. sentence stress; 3. temporal characteristics; 4. rhythm; 5. tamber (voice quality). Intonation organizes a sentence, determines communicative types of sentences and clauses, divides sentences into intonation groups, gives prominence to words and phrases, expresses contrasts and attitudes. Functions of intonation. Emotional function's most obvious role is to express attitudinal meaning -sarcasm, surprise, shock, anger, interest, and thousands of other semantic nuances. Grammatical f-n helps to identify grammatical structure in speech, performing a role similar to punctuation. Informational f-n helps draw attention to what meaning is given and what is new in an utterance. The word carrying the most prominent tone in a contour signals the part of an utterance that the speaker is treating as new information. Textual f-n helps larger units of meaning than the sentence to contrast and cohere. In radio news-reading, paragraphs of information can be shaped through the use of pitch. In sports 7. commentary, changes in prosody reflect the progress of the action. Psychological f-n helps us to organize speech into units that are easier to perceive and memorize. Most people would find a sequence of numbers, for example, difficult to recall. The task is made easier by using intonation to chunk the sequence into two units. Indexical f-n, along with other prosodic features, is an important marker of personal or social identity. Lawyers, preachers, newscasters, sports commentators, army sergeants, and several other occupations are readily identified through their distinctive prosody.

to distinguish communicative types of sentences (the communicatively distinctive function) the actual meaning of a sentence (the semantically-distinctive function) the speakers attitude to the contents of the sentence, to the listener and to the topic of conversation (the attitudinallydistinctive function) the style of speech (the stylistically distinctive function) the syntactically distinctive function (one and the same syntactic unit may be divided into a different number of intonation groups. This division may be important for the meaning). the function of differentiating between the theme and the rheme of an utterance. The rheme is the communicative center of an utterance. The theme is the rest of an utterance. Each component of intonation has its distinctive function.

The functions of intonation: constitutive (it presupposes the

integrative function on the one hand when intonation arranges intonation groups into bigger syntactic units: sentences, syntactic wholes and texts) delimitative (it manifests itself when intonation divides texts, syntactic wholes and sentences units that is intonation groups). distinctive It is realized when intonation serves: