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Q.1.a. Distinguish between Doubles sampling and multiphase sampling. b. What is replicated or interpenetrating sampling? Answer: a. Distinguish between Doubles sampling and multiphase sampling. Definition: A standard form of sample design for industrial inspection purposes. In accordance with the characteristics of a particular plan, two samples are drawn, n1 and n2, and the first sample inspected. The batch can then be accepted or rejected upon the results of this inspection or the second sample be inspected and the decision made upon the combined result. Double sampling plans were invented to give a questionable lot another chance. For example, if in double sampling the results of the first sample are not conclusive with regard to accepting or rejecting, a second sample is taken. Application of double sampling requires that a first sample of size n1 is taken at random from the (large) lot. The number of defectives is then counted and compared to the first sample's acceptance number a1 and rejection number r1. Denote the number of defectives in sample 1 by d1 and in sample 2 by d2, then: If d1 a1, the lot is accepted. If d1 r1, the lot is rejected. If a1 < d1 < r1, a second sample is taken. If a second sample of size n2 is taken, the number of defectives, d2, is counted. The total number of defectives is D2 = d1 + d2. Now this is compared to the acceptance number a2 and the rejection number r2 of sample 2. In double sampling, r2 = a2 + 1 to ensure a decision on the sample. If D2 a2, the lot is accepted. If D2 r2, the lot is rejected. MULTI-PHASE SAMPLING Definition: It is sometimes convenient and economical to collect certain items of information from the whole of the units of a sample and other items of usually more detailed information from a sub-sample of the units constituting the original sample. This may be termed two-phase sampling, e.g. if the collection of information concerning variate, y, is relatively expensive, and there exists some other variate, x, correlated with it, which is relatively cheap to investigate, it may be profitable to carry out sampling in two phases. At the first phase, x is investigated, and the information thus obtained is used either (a) to stratify the population at the second phase, when y is investigated, or (b) as supplementary information at the second phase, a ratio or regression estimate being used.

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Two-phase sampling is sometimes called "double sampling". Multistage sampling is a complex form of cluster sampling. Advantages

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cost and speed that the survey can be done in convenience of finding the survey sample normally more accurate than cluster sampling for the same size sample

Disadvantages Is not as accurate as SRS if the sample is the same size More testing is difficult to do

Using all the sample elements in all the selected clusters may be prohibitively expensive or not necessary. Under these circumstances, multistage cluster sampling becomes useful. Instead of using all the elements contained in the selected clusters, the researcher randomly selects elements from each cluster. Constructing the clusters is the first stage. Deciding what elements within the cluster to use is the second stage. The technique is used frequently when a complete list of all members of the population does not exist and is inappropriate. b. What is replicated or interpenetrating sampling? Replication is not the same as repeated measurements of the same item: they are dealt with differently in statistical experimental design and data analysis. For proper sampling, a process or batch of products should be in reasonable statistical control; inherent random variation is present but variation due to assignable (special) causes is not. Evaluation or testing of a single item does not allow for item-to-item variation and may not represent the batch or process. Replication is needed to account for this variation among items and treatments. Example: As an example, consider a continuous process which produces items. Batches of items are then processed or treated. Finally, tests or measurements are conducted. Several options might be available to obtain ten test values. Some possibilities are:

One finished and treated item might be measured repeatedly to obtain ten test results. Only one item was measured so there is no replication. The repeated measurements help identify observational error. Ten finished and treated items might be taken from a batch and each measured once. This is not full replication because the ten samples are not random and not representative of the continuous nor batch processing. Five items are taken from the continuous process based on sound statistical sampling. These are processed in a batch and tested twice each. This includes replication of initial

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samples but does not allow for batch-to-batch variation in processing. The repeated tests on each provide some measure and control of testing error. Five items are taken from the continuous process based on sound statistical sampling. These are processed in five different batches and tested twice each. This plan includes proper replication of initial samples and also includes batch-to-batch variation. The repeated tests on each provide some measure and control of testing error.

Each option would call for different data analysis methods and yield different conclusions

Q2. What are the differences between observation and interviewing as methods of data collection? Give two specific examples of situations where either observation or interviewing would be more. Answer: Observation means viewing or seeing. Observation may be defined as a systematic viewing of a specific phenomenon in its proper setting for the specific purpose of gathering data for a particular study. Observation is classical method of scientific study. I. Observation as a method of data collection has certain characteristics. 1. It is both a physical and a mental activity: The observing eye catches many things that are present. But attention is focused on data that are pertinent to the given study. 2. Observation is selective: A researcher does not observe anything and everything, but selects the range of things to be observed on the basis of the nature, scope and objectives of his study. For example, suppose a researcher desires to study the causes of city road accidents and also formulated a tentative hypothesis that accidents are caused by violation of traffic rules and over speeding. When he observed the movements of vehicles on the road, many things are before his eyes; the type, make, size and colour of the vehicles, the persons sitting in them, their hair style, etc. All such things which are not relevant to his study are ignored and only over speeding and traffic violations are keenly observed by him. 3. Observation is purposive and not casual: It is made for the specific purpose of noting things relevant to the study. It captures the natural social context in which persons behavior occur. It grasps the significant events and occurrences that affect social relations of the participants. 4. Observation should be exact and be based on standardized tools of research and such as observation schedule, social metric scale etc., and precision instruments, if any.

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II. Interviewing is one of the prominent methods of data collection. It may be defined as a two way systematic conversation between an investigator and an informant, initiated for obtaining information relevant to a specific study. It involves not only conversation, but also learning from the respondents gesture, facial expressions and pauses, and his environment. Interviewing requires face to face contact or contact over telephone and calls for interviewing skills. It is done by using a structured schedule or an unstructured guide. Interviewing may be used either as a main method or as a supplementary one in studies of persons. Interviewing is the only suitable method for gathering information from illiterate or less educated respondents. It is useful for collecting a wide range of data from factual demographic data to highly personal and intimate information relating to a persons opinions, attitudes, values, beliefs past experience and future intentions. When qualitative information is required or probing is necessary to draw out fully, and then interviewing is required. Where the area covered for the survey is a compact, or when a sufficient number of qualified interviewers are available, personal interview is feasible. Interview is often superior to other data-gathering methods. People are usually more willing to talk than to write. Once report is established, even confidential information may be obtained. It permits probing into the context and reasons for answers to questions. Interview can add flesh to statistical information. It enables the investigator to grasp the behavioral context of the data furnished by the respondents. There are several advantages to personal interviewing. First the greatest value of this method is the depth and detail of information that can be secured. When used with well conceived schedules, an interview can obtain a great deal of information. It far exceeds mail survey in amount and quality of data that can be secured. Second, the interviewer can do more to improve the percentage of responses and the quality of information received than other method. He can note the conditions of the interview situation, and adopt appropriate approaches to overcome such problems as the respondents unwillingness, incorrect understanding of questions, suspicion, etc. Third, the interviewer can gather other supplemental information like economic level, living conditions etc. through observation of the respondents environment. Fourth, the interviewer can use special scoring devices, visual materials and the like in order to improve the quality of interviewing. Fifth, the accuracy and dependability of the answers given by the respondent can be checked by observation and probing. Last, interview is flexible and adaptable to individual situations. Even more, control can be exercised over the interview situation. Situation where observation is appropriate: Observations make it possible to capture the whole event as it occurs. For example only observation can provide an insight into all the aspects of the process of negotiation between union and management representatives.

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To study the Reading habits of newspaper/magazines readers etc. Observation is suitable for a variety of research purposes. It may be used for studying (a) The behavior of human beings in purchasing goods and services.: life style, customs, and manner, interpersonal relations, group dynamics, crowd behavior, leadership styles, managerial style, other behaviors and actions; (b) The behavior of other living creatures like birds, animals etc. (c) Physical characteristics of inanimate things like stores, factories, residences etc. (d) Flow of traffic and parking problems (e) movement of materials and products through a plant. Situation where interview method is appropriate: The interview method is more appropriate when a direct conversation with the respondents is preferred. When interviewer wishes to have a direct rapport with the interviewee and collect first hand information from the original source without using any mediatory. For example, in case of a job interview, the HR manager (selector) wishes to interview the candidate directly to assess the candidate keenly and personally. The aim is to get answers to the interview questions directly and instantly from the job seeker. In this method, the interviewer can assess the capabilities of the candidate in terms of subject knowledge, intelligence, area of expertise or experience, communication skills, level of understanding etc. Another example, when a new product/service or a brand is introduced in the market, the company which introduced the product adopt various methods like survey method, questionnaire etc. But the direct interview with the distributors, more importantly, with the customers is much preferred and considered as reliable source of information. The sales personnel or the surveyors directly get into touch with the customers in shopping malls and market place to check their comments and opinions about the newly introduced products. The consumers views and comments from the basis of information highlighting the pros and cons of the product or service. During the trade shows of products, say car exhibition, the media people or the company representatives approach the visitors directly to know their interest and opinion about the products. We also watch on TV quite often, when the media people interviewing the celebraties from different field to have first hand information directly from the concerned person. So in situations where the interviewer wishes to have direct and unbiased information, comments and views from the interviewer, the interview method is preferred.

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Q3. How is the Case Study method useful in Business Research? Answer: Case Study as a Method of Business Research In-depth analysis of selected cases is of particular value to business research when a complex set of variables may be at work in generating observed results and intensive study is needed to unravel the complexities. For instance, an in-depth study of a firms top sales people and comparison with the worst sales people might reveal characteristics common to stellar performers. The exploratory investigator is best served by the active curiosity and willingness to deviate from the initial plan, when the finding suggests new courses of enquiry, might prove more productive Case study of particular value when a complex set of variables may be at work in generating observed results and intensive study is needed to unravel the complexities. For example, an indepth study of a firms top sales people and comparison with worst salespeople might reveal characteristics common to stellar performers. Here again, the exploratory investigation is best served by an active curiosity and willingness to deviate from the initial plan when findings suggest new courses of inquiry might prove more productive. It is easy to see how the exploratory research objectives of generating insights and hypothesis would be well served by use of this technique. Making Case Study Effective John Dollard has proposed seven criteria for evaluating such adequacy as follows: i) The subject must be viewed as a specimen in a cultural series. That is, the case drawn out from its total context for the purposes of study must be considered a member of the particular cultural group or community. The scrutiny of the life histories of persons must be done with a view to identify the community values, standards and their shared way of life. ii) The organic motto of action must be socially relevant. That is, the action of the individual cases must be viewed as a series of reactions to social stimuli or situation. In other words, the social meaning of behaviour must be taken into consideration. iii) The strategic role of the family group in transmitting the culture must be recognized. That is, in case of an individual being the member of a family, the role of family in shaping his behaviour must never be overlooked. iv) The specific method of elaboration of organic material onto social behaviour must be clearly shown. That is case histories that portray in detail how basically a biological organism, the man, gradually blossoms forth into a social person, are especially fruitful. v) The continuous related character of experience for childhood through adulthood must be stressed. In other words, the life history must be a configuration depicting the inter-relationships between the peoples various experiences. vi) Social situation must be carefully and continuously specified as a factor. One of the important criteria for the life history is that a persons life must be shown as unfolding itself in the context of and partly owing to specific social situations.

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vii) The life history material itself must be organized according to some conceptual framework; this in turn would facilitate generalizations at a higher level. Q4. Would case studies be considered as scientific research? Why or why not? Answer: Case studies are a tool for discussing scientific integrity. Although one of the most frequently used tools for encouraging discussion, cases are only one of many possible tools. Many of the principles discussed below for discussing case studies can be generalized to other approaches to encouraging discussion about research ethics. Cases are designed to confront readers with specific real-life problems that do not lend themselves to easy answers. Case discussion demands critical and analytical skills and, when implemented in small groups, also fosters collaboration (Pimple, 2002). By providing a focus for discussion, cases help trainees to define or refine their own standards, to appreciate alternative approaches to identifying and resolving ethical problems, and to develop skills for analyzing and dealing with hard problems on their own. The effective use of case studies is comprised of many factors, including: appropriate selection of case(s) (topic, relevance, length, complexity)method of case presentation (verbal, printed, before or during discussion)format for case discussion (Email or Internet-based, small group, large group)leadership of case discussion (choice of discussion leader, roles and responsibilities for discussion leader)outcomes for case discussion (answers to specific questions, answers to general questions, written or verbal summaries) Research methods don't seem so intimidating when you're familiar with the terminology. This is important whether you're conducting evaluation or merely reading articles about other studies to incorporate in your program. To help with understanding, here are some basic definitions used. Variable: Characteristics by which people or things can be described. Must have more than one level; in other words, to be able to change over time for the same person/object, or from person to person, or object to object. Some variables, called attributes, cannot be manipulated by the researcher (e.g., socioeconomic status, IQ score, race, gender, etc.). Some variables can be manipulated but are not in a particular study. This occurs when subjects self-select the level of the independent variable, or the level is naturally occurring (as with ex post facto research). Manipulation: Random assignment of subjects to levels of the independent variable (treatment groups). Independent variable: The treatment, factor, or presumed cause that will produce a change in the dependent variable. This is what the experimenter tries to manipulate. It is denoted as "X" on the horizontal axis of a graph. Dependent variable: The presumed effect or consequence resulting from changes in the independent variable. This is the observation made and is denoted by "Y" on the vertical axis of a graph. The score of "Y" depends on the score of "X."

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Population: The complete set of subjects that can be studied: people, objects, animals, plants, etc. Sample: A subset of subjects that can be studied to make the research project more manageable. There are variety of ways samples can be taken. If a large enough random samples are taken, the results can be statistically similar to taking a census of an entire population--with reduced effort and cost. Case Study: A case study is conducted for similar purpose as the above but is usually done with a smaller sample size for more in-depth study. A case study often involves direct observation or interviews with single Subjects or single small social units such as a family, club, school classroom, etc. This is typically considered qualitative research. Purpose: Explain or Predict Type of Research to Use: Relational Study In a relational study you start with a research hypothesis, that is, is what you're trying to "prove." Examples of research hypotheses for a relational study: The older the person, the more health problems he or she encounters.

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Q5. What are the contents of research reports? Answer: Contents of the Research Report The outline of a research report is given below: I. Prefatory Items Title page Declaration Certificates Preface/acknowledgements Table of contents List of tables List of graphs/figures/charts Abstract or synopsis II. Body of the Report Introduction Theoretical background of the topic Statement of the problem Review of literature The scope of the study The objectives of the study Hypothesis to be tested Definition of the concepts Models if any Design of the study Methodology

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RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Method of data collection

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Sources of data Sampling plan Data collection instruments Field work Data processing and analysis plan Overview of the report Limitation of the study Results: findings and discussions Summary, conclusions and recommendations III. Reference Material Bibliography Appendix Copies of data collection instruments Technical details on sampling plan Complex tables Glossary of new terms used.

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Q6. Write short notes on the following: a. Median b. Standard Deviation Answer: One problem with using the mean, is that it often does not depict the typical outcome. If there is one outcome that is very far from the rest of the data, then the mean will be strongly affected by this outcome. Such an outcome is called and outlier. An alternative measure is the median. The median is the middle score. If we have an even number of events we take the average of the two middles. The median is better for describing the typical value. It is often used for income and home prices. Example Suppose you randomly selected 10 house prices in the South Lake Tahoe area. You are interested in the typical house price. In $100,000 the prices were 2.7, 2.9, 3.1, 3.4, 3.7, 4.1, 4.3, 4.7, 4.7, 40.8 If we computed the mean, we would say that the average house price is 744,000. Although this number is true, it does not reflect the price for available housing in South Lake Tahoe. A closer look at the data shows that the house valued at 40.8 x $100,000 = $4.08 million skews the data. Instead, we use the median. Since there is an even number of outcomes, we take the average of the middle two 3.7 + 4.1 = 3.9 2 The median house price is $390,000. This better reflects what house shoppers should expect to spend.

There is an alternative value that also is resistant to outliers. This is called the trimmed mean which is the mean after getting rid of the outliers or 5% on the top and5% on the bottom. We can also use the trimmed mean if we are concerned with outliers skewing the data; however the median is used more often since more people understand it. Example: At a ski rental shop data was collected on the number of rentals on each of ten consecutive Saturdays: 44, 50, 38, 96, 42, 47, 40, 39, 46, 50.

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To find the sample mean, add them and divide by 10: 44 + 50 + 38 + 96 + 42 + 47 + 40 + 39 + 46 + 50 = 49.2 10 Notice that the mean value is not a value of the sample. To find the median, first sort the data: 38, 39, 40, 42, 44, 46, 47, 50, 50, 96 Notice that there are two middle numbers 44 and 46. To find the median we take the average of the two. 44 + 46 Median = 2 Notice also that the mean is larger than all but three of the data points. The mean is influenced by outliers while the median is robust. = 45

Standard Deviation The mean, mode, median, and trimmed mean do a nice job in telling where the center of the data set is, but often we are interested in more. For example, a pharmaceutical engineer develops a new drug that regulates iron in the blood. Suppose she finds out that the average sugar content after taking the medication is the optimal level. This does not mean that the drug is effective. There is a possibility that half of the patients have dangerously low sugar content while the other half have dangerously high content. Instead of the drug being an effective regulator, it is a deadly poison. What the pharmacist needs is a measure of how far the data is spread apart. This is what the variance and standard deviation do. First we show the formulas for these measurements. Then we will go through the steps on how to use the formulas.

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We define the variance to be

and the standard deviation to be

Variance and Standard Deviation: Step by Step 1. 2. 3. 4. Calculate the mean, x. Write a table that subtracts the mean from each observed value. Square each of the differences. Add this column. 5. Divide by n -1 where n is the number of items in the sample This is the variance. 6. To get the standard deviation we take the square root of the variance.

Example The owner of the Ches Tahoe restaurant is interested in how much people spend at the restaurant. He examines 10 randomly selected receipts for parties of four and writes down the following data. 44, 50, 38, 96, 42, 47, 40, 39, 46, 50 He calculated the mean by adding and dividing by 10 to get x = 49.2

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Below is the table for getting the standard deviation: x 44 50 38 96 42 47 40 39 46 50 Total Now 2600.4 = 288.7 10 - 1 Hence the variance is 289 and the standard deviation is the square root of 289 = 17. Since the standard deviation can be thought of measuring how far the data values lie from the mean, we take the mean and move one standard deviation in either direction. The mean for this example was about 49.2 and the standard deviation was 17. We have: 49.2 - 17 = 32.2 and 49.2 + 17 = 66.2 What this means is that most of the patrons probably spend between $32.20 and $66.20. The sample standard deviation will be denoted by s and the population standard deviation will be denoted by the Greek letter. x - 49.2 -5.2 0.8 11.2 46.8 -7.2 -2.2 -9.2 -10.2 -3.2 0.8 (x - 49.2 )2 27.04 0.64 125.44 2190.24 51.84 4.84 84.64 104.04 10.24 0.64 2600.4

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The sample variance will be denoted by s2 and the population variance will be denoted by 2. The variance and standard deviation describe how spread out the data is. If the data all lies close to the mean, then the standard deviation will be small, while if the data is spread out over a large range of values, s will be large. Having outliers will increase the standard deviation. One of the flaws involved with the standard deviation, is that it depends on the units that are used. One way of handling this difficulty, is called the coefficient of variation which is the standard deviation divided by the mean times 100% CV = 100%

In the above example, it is 17 100% = 34.6% 49.2

This tells us that the standard deviation of the restaurant bills is 34.6% of the mean.

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