Well-bore reservoir evaluation technologies to optimize eld revitalization

I. D. Bryant
Schlumberger Oileld Services, 200 Gillingham Lane, Sugar Land, TX 77478, USA (e-mail: bryant11@slb.com)
ABSTRACT: The economic success of eld revitalization projects depends upon draining reservoir compartments that frequently contain smaller reserves volumes than those targeted by the initial eld development, in a cost-eective manner. Well-bore measurements can contribute to risk management of redevelopment by identifying and monitoring the drainage of remaining hydrocarbons. Applications of cased-hole and open-hole measurements to optimizing eld redevelopment are illustrated using case studies from the Brent Field, UK; Block IV, Venezuela and the T&J Ashworth Lease, USA. Cased-hole logging using nuclear tools has evolved from time-lapse monitoring to detect changes in saturation to also include through-casing formation evaluation. Where deep invasion prevents the use of these nuclear methods, through-casing resistivity tools can successfully detect hydrocarbons. Open-hole formation pressures can signicantly impact redevelopment strategies, as can evaluation of ltrate invasion using open-hole array resistivity tools. Emerging permanent sensor technologies enable continuous monitoring of both water saturation and formation pressure, thereby oering the potential to improve the performance of future eld revitalization projects. KEYWORDS: reservoir surveillance, mature elds, borehole measurements

INTRODUCTION Field development always takes place in an environment of uncertainty. We never know enough about the reservoir to unambiguously describe all of the processes that aect reservoir recovery. Uncertainty in reserves estimates usually decreases as the reservoir is produced, through increased knowledge derived from data collection, especially data concerning the dynamic performance of the reservoir (Dromgoole & Speers 1997). Field revitalization can take advantage of this dynamic information to identify pools of hydrocarbon that were untapped in the previous eld development cycle. These pools may result from structural or stratigraphic complexity that was not identied during earlier eld appraisal and development (Weber & van Geuns 1990; Dromgoole & Speers 1997; Weber 1999). Repeated seismic measurements (4D seismic) have been successfully used to locate bypassed oil, leading to the identication of inll-well targets through recognition of structural compartments (Landr et al. 1999; Verbeek et al. 1999). For some elds, however, either the project economics or the rock physics of the reservoir will mitigate against the use of seismic detection methods. In the present paper, discussion is focused on the use of well-bore measurements to identify and quantify revitalization opportunities using both open- and cased-hole modes of operation. Application of this technology is illustrated through case histories of revitalization projects. In the future, continuous monitoring will succeed these intermittent surveillance techniques in many elds. The scope for permanent monitoring systems to provide real-time surveillance of displacement eciency and hence optimize redevelopment of
Petroleum Geoscience, Vol. 8 2002, pp. 339348

reservoirs is also discussed and illustrated by the results of recent eld trials. Coring and traditional open-hole wireline logging of discovery and appraisal wells, combined with seismic data, provide the information necessary to devise static reservoir models that are used for initial eld development planning. Often these data are calibrated by limited dynamic data such as well tests or formation pressure proles in order to provide dynamic reservoir simulation models. However, models derived from these data sources often carry considerable uncertainty and require revision after eld production data become available (Dromgoole & Speers 1997). Field revitalization projects have both the benet and disadvantage that the eld has already been in production. The advantage is that dynamic data are available to provide information that can guide eld revitalization. The disadvantage for revitalization projects is that production has disturbed the original uid distributions and often redevelopment opportunities involve smaller pools. Ecient exploitation of these remaining hydrocarbons frequently requires quantication of dynamic properties such as the current reservoir pressure or the expected response of the reservoir to water-ooding, in addition to static reservoir properties such as porosity. Existing well bores oer the opportunity to use cased-hole logging techniques to evaluate the current distribution of uids in the reservoir. If inll drilling opportunities are identied, then selective application of appropriate open-hole logging measurements can provide valuable information to guide further redevelopment. The extent to which such single well measurements can be interpolated to represent reservoir volumes requires sound
1354-0793/02/$15.00  2002 EAGE/Geological Society of London

340

I. D. Bryant

Fig. 1. Cased-hole nuclear logging technology. Early time inelastic capture data are used as indicators of pulsed neutron capture (PNC) which indicates water saturation. Later time data, together with spectroscopy of the entire signal, are used as indicators of lithology.

geoscience judgement and is a function of the complexity of the reservoir and reservoir drive mechanism. We will use two previously published case studies of eld revitalization to illustrate how both cased-hole logging and open-hole logging of inll wells may be used to optimize eld redevelopment using commercially available technology. We will then use the results of recent eld tests to illustrate the potential for permanent monitoring systems to optimize eld redevelopment.

CURRENT MEASUREMENT TECHNOLOGIES Traditionally neutron logging tools have been employed in time-lapse logging mode using pulsed-neutron capture (PNC) measurements to determine producing gasoil and oilwater contacts behind pipe and to detect bypassed hydrocarbons in high porosity formations with low invasion. The method relies on bombarding the formation with neutrons and measuring both the carbonoxygen ratio and the decay rate of thermal neutrons as they are captured (Albertin et al. 1996). More recently these techniques have been extended and successfully used to monitor gas cap expansion in low porosity reservoirs (Bullion et al. 2000). First generation cased-hole surveillance tools relied on early time measurement of the decay rate of thermal neutrons to measure sigma values (Fig. 1). The decay rate is a function of the capture cross-section (sigma) of the near well-bore formation and uids. If the sigma values of the rock and reservoir uids are known, then it is possible to invert the log measurements to obtain an estimate of hydrocarbon saturation. However, more often than not, lack of knowledge of these properties or mixing of injected waters with connate waters of dierent salinity (and hence dierent sigma values) meant that interpretation was limited to time-lapse logging. In this modus operandi it is assumed that dierences between successive logging campaigns result from displacement of one uid by another and thus time-lapse changes in the measured signal may be used to distinguish those zones that have been swept from those that have not.

Case Study 1: Ness Formation, Brent Field, UK The Brent Field in the UK North Sea provides a good illustration of the application of this technology to recognize opportunities for eld revitalization. This giant eld contained over 3 109 BBL of oil initially in place (OIIP) in stacked reservoirs of Jurassic to Triassic age. Management of multiple stacked reservoirs on the west ank of the eld during the 1980s relied on continuous eld surveillance, including the use of PNC, or thermal-decay-time logging tools, in conjunction with production logging tools. The information provided by these reservoir monitoring campaigns has been summarized on panels that combine open- and cased-hole log information, together with surface production data and completion logs, in order to infer the pattern and timing of oil displacement at each well bore (Fig. 2). By combining information from many wells onto 2D panels (Fig. 3) an impression of how displacement has proceeded with time emerges (Bryant & Livera 1991). However, the displacement is a 4D process and, by the end of the 1980s, 3D reservoir models could be constructed and calibrated with the reservoir surveillance data (Fig. 4) to determine where volumes remained that oered recompletion opportunities (Bryant et al. 1991). This technology of coupling surveillance data to regular updates of 3D reservoir models is still used to detect bypassed oil opportunities during the current depressurization of the eld. Case Study 2: Lower Lagunillas Member, Block IV, Venezuela Since the early 1990s considerable progress has been made in carrying out cased-hole formation evaluation, rather than relying on time-lapse dierences, in order to recognize bypassed hydrocarbons. This technology relies on using not only the pulsed neutron capture data, but also spectroscopic analysis of the entire signal (Fig. 1). In favourable circumstances this enables the determination of lithology, porosity and saturation from slower passes of the next generation of nuclear logging tools. These tools are of narrower diameter, so that they can be

Well evaluation for eld revitalization

341

Fig. 2. A diagram summarizing open-hole and cased-hole log data from a Brent Field well over part of the Ness Formation. In the leftmost track cased-hole production logging (ow meter) data from dierent runs show how inow performance has varied with time. The central column shows the perforation history of the dierent ow units in the well. To the right, overlays of density and neutron porosity logs are used to dene the pay zones. The rightmost tracks show interpreted porosity and saturation at the time the well was drilled and inferred changes in saturation based on PNC (TDT*) and ow meter (PLT*) logs. (Modied from Bryant & Livera 1991; *mark of Schlumberger.)

Fig. 3. Summary of production history of part of the Ness Formation in the Bravo Platform area of the Brent Field between 1978 and 1988 based on projection of information from open-hole logging of new wells and surveillance logging of cased wells. Time is shown on the x-axis and reservoir ow units are shown on the y-axis. A well is plotted on the chart each time that it yields information on changing saturation within the reservoir. The data show how water broke through rst in the high permeability reservoir unit 3.2.1. (Modied from Bryant & Livera 1991.)

run through production tubing and may also be combined with ow meter logging tools. A good example of the application of this technology is provided by revitalization of the Lower Lagunillas reservoir of Block IV, Lake Maracaibo. This reservoir contained over 2 109 BBL OIIP but, unlike the Brent Field, has not been the subject of continuous cased-hole surveillance using PNC tools.

In the early 1990s, a study was carried out to investigate the possibility of redeveloping the eld using horizontal inll wells (Bryant et al. 1998). A revised geological model suggested that the reservoir comprised more ow units than assumed in the original eld development plan, as a consequence of partitioning by thin shales associated with ooding surfaces (Gamero et al. 1995; Bryant et al. 1997; Gomez et al. 1997). Whilst this

342

I. D. Bryant

Fig. 4. 3D geological model of part of the Ness Formation of the Brent Field showing progressive ooding of the major sand bodies by gas from the crest (right of the image) and water from down-dip water injection (left of image) after ten years of production. The reservoir is viewed from the south and actually dips at 8 to the west. Thin sands in the lower part of the model were unswept in 1989 and oered opportunities for recompletion to recover bypassed oil. (Modied from Bryant et al. 1991.)

model identies prospects that are geologically reasonable, it remains to appraise these prospects to minimize the risk in revitalization. Firstly, this was done by analysing the production data at each well, together with the completion histories, as was done in the Brent example, but this time without the benet of the cased-hole logging surveillance data (Fig. 5). Again these results could be compiled onto a 2D panel to give an indication of how gas and water had moved through the reservoir as a function of time (Fig. 6). On the basis of this analysis some layers do indeed look prospective, e.g. Layer VII. However, since this is a low resistivity contrast pay zone, very few wells were completed in this interval. Since no PNC data were available, we only have the negative evidence that the zone has apparently not produced water or gas in a very small number of commingled completions, rather than positive identication of bypassed oil. Consequently, two wells were selected for casedhole logging using a newer generation tool: the reservoir saturation tool (Adolph et al. 1994), that enables through-casing formation evaluation to further appraise the potential of these layers for redevelopment. The results in well VLD-0775 indicate that the thin shales, inferred by the geological model to be laterally extensive, have indeed acted as eective barriers to vertical communication such that oil overlies gas (Fig. 7). In the staged appraisal of the reservoir the next step was to drill a vertical inll well at a location identied by the eld study. Open-hole evaluation of this well, VLD-1112, conrms the uid distribution established by through-casing evaluation of the oset well (Fig. 7). Furthermore, a repeat formation tester tool was run in the well. This tool provided the critical information required to redevelop the reservoir. The elevated pressures recorded in the prospective zones conrmed the geological and petrophysical evaluations that these zones were under-depleted with respect to the

higher permeability zones and constituted viable targets for redevelopment (Fig. 7). Not only do the pressure data reduce risk in developing the zones, they can also be used in forward simulation of expected reservoir performance to rank potential inll targets and project expected recovery (Fig. 8). The value provided by these open-hole pressure measurements was clearly of great signicance in validating the geological model and minimizing risk in the redevelopment. The rst horizontal well to be drilled as a result of the study successfully produced dry oil from Layer VII, a zone largely overlooked in the preceding cycles of eld development (Bryant et al. 1998). Since pressure fronts propagate more rapidly through reservoir rocks than uid fronts, pressure data can provide indications of uneven depletion before water or gas breakthrough to production wells and, as such, are valuable indicators of whether displacement is proceeding as anticipated by a given exploitation plan. Unfortunately such data are usually only collected intermittently, in inll-wells or after problems have already become manifest. However, such measurements may now be made in cased holes followed by resealing the casing (Burgess et al. 2001), oering the opportunity to assess depletion using existing wells as part of the revitalization strategy. Summary of current measurement technologies We have seen how time-lapse saturation logging in the Brent Field and cased-hole formation evaluations in Block IV have yielded valuable information to guide eld redevelopment. However, in some instances, drilling uids may remain in the near well-bore area preventing evaluation of remaining hydrocarbons, due to the shallow depth of investigation of cased-hole

Well evaluation for eld revitalization

343

Fig. 5. Open-hole logs, reservoir layering and perforation history of a well logged over the Lower Lagunillas reservoir of Block IV. The graphs at the bottom of the gure show rates of gas, oil and water production. It is possible to bracket the timing of waterand gas-breakthrough only in the perforated zones by using these data.

Fig. 6. Summary of production history of part of the Lower Lagunillas reservoir in Block IV between 1968 and 1994 based on projection of information from open-hole logging of new wells and work-over records. (Modied from Bryant et al. 1998.) The data indicate gas has preferentially broken through in layer IX; whilst water and gas have broken through in layers II, III and V.

nuclear tools. In order to overcome some of these constraints a new tool has been developed that makes stationary measurements of resistivity through-casing. The tool injects current into the casing and detects the small quantities of current that leak into the formation. This electrical measurement overcomes some of the problems of the nuclear logging measurements and enables measurement of saturation further away from the borehole (Beguin et al. 2000). Thus, commercial logging technologies are able to monitor saturation changes both very close to the borehole (nuclear measurements) and deeper in the formation using resistivity techniques. Formation pressure testers are able to detect pressure that has changed as a consequence of production and inform us of changes much

further away from the borehole. All of these measurements suer from the disadvantage that they are intermittent and require either new wells or re-entry of existing wells. PERMANENT MONITORING Management of most hydrocarbon reservoirs is typically reactive. That is to say that after implementation of a given development plan, very little reservoir surveillance is carried out until deviations from the expected plan manifest themselves, such as earlier than expected breakthrough of water or gas. After breakthrough there may be limited options available to remedy the situation and such incidents explain why many

344

I. D. Bryant

Fig. 7. Results of cased-hole logging of well VLD-0775 and open-hole logging of well VLD-1112. Both wells are drilled within the original oil-leg of the eld. The rightmost track indicates the distribution of uids in 1994. Note that oil above gas indicates that some ooding surfaces (fs) are sealing. Repeat formation tester pressure (MDT*) indicate that some of the less permeable sands are under-depleted and represent viable targets for redevelopment with horizontal wells. (From Bryant et al. 1998; *mark of Schlumberger.)

elds carry lower recovery factors than expected prior to development. Continuous monitoring of the pressure changes and saturation changes in the reservoir oer the opportunity to detect non-uniform pressure support or uneven water advance and rectify the situation at an earlier stage, prior to breakthrough at producing wells. Permanent resistivity arrays

represent a continuation of the trend that we have seen in the evolution of cased-hole logging. Now the array is not logged slowly but is permanently emplaced and is no longer restricted to evaluation of properties a few inches away from the well bore but can see much deeper into the formation. We will illustrate the potential for permanent monitoring to improve eld surveillance and hence improve the eciency of eld revitalization using results from a recent eld trial conducted in Indiana. Case Study 3: Manseld Sandstone, Ashworth Lease, USA The Manseld Sandstone is a Pennsylvanian-age reservoir in Posey County, Indiana that has been in primary production since the early 1980s and more recently was subject to water ooding using injection wells drilled as inll wells in a ve-spot pattern (Fig. 9) (Bryant et al. 2000a). Sometimes eld revitalization involves changing the displacement mechanism, such as moving from primary depletion to water ooding. A key uncertainty is to how the eld will respond to water ooding. Recent developments in processing of open-hole log data enable this uncertainty to be addressed using the small-scale water ooding that takes place when a well is drilled with water-based mud that invades the formation. An array induction tool was used as part of a basic logging suite in the D-8 well. Array induction tools measure the resistivity of the formation at various depths of investigation by using dierent osets between source and receivers, such that the longer osets investigate deeper into the formation. Processing of the array data following the scheme outlined by Ramakrishnan & Wilkinson (1999) enabled the calculation of in situ estimates of residual oil saturation, connate water saturation, producible oil and expected water-cut (Fig. 10). These are key parameters that

Fig. 8. Projected incremental recovery in each of the prospective intervals in the Lower Lagunillas reservoir as a function of the number of horizontal wells drilled. It is clear that the most incremental oil can be won, for the fewest wells, by rst developing the most prospective well locations in Layer VII. (From Bryant et al. 1998.)

Well evaluation for eld revitalization

345

Fig. 9. Net pay map of the Manseld Sandstone in the T&J Ashworth Lease, Indiana. Contours are net pay in feet.

can assist in water-ood design. This information is conveyed by the colour-ll between the two curves in Figure 10. In this case the prediction is that, even at high water saturations, the mobile uid will be oil. However, this prediction is based on ooding of just the few inches away from the borehole. The permanent monitoring array has enabled us to see further into the formation. Reservoir saturation. By instrumenting both the injection well and the observation well we were able to monitor the eects of the water ood continuously over a period of 17 months (Bryant et al. 2000a, 2001). The arrays comprise at pack cables with 16 electrodes spanning 52 ft that were arranged symmetrically about the mid-point of the 22 ft thick sandstone reservoir interval (Fig. 11). Current is injected at each electrode in turn and induced voltages are then measured by all of the other electrodes. As with the array induction tool, short osets provide shallow depths of investigation, whilst the furthest oset provides the deepest depth of investigation. In Figure 11 we show the voltages recorded at the start of injection and after 14 days of continuous steady injection. It is clear that the voltages have increased most signicantly in the central, most porous and permeable, part of the reservoir thereby indicating that most of the injection has been into this central zone. In Figure 12 we display the data recorded by two pairs of electrodes in the observation well. It is clear that the eect of fracturing the injection well was to create at least one fracture that extended to the observation well, since voltages within the reservoir increase within 24 hours of the fracture stimulation: an observation not consistent with matrix ooding the 233 ft of sandstone between the two wells. By examining the data collected by all of the electrodes in well OB-1 it is possible to

Fig. 10. The Manseld Sandstone reservoir in the D-8 injection well. The left track shows a good match between measured core permeability (dots) and calculated log permeability. The right track shows a good match between measured core porosity (dots) and calculated log porosity. Colours indicate the log-derived estimates of pore-ll. The centre track shows a calculation of producible oil volumes as the coloured interval between the connate water saturation (rightmost) and residual oil saturation (leftmost) curves. The colour scheme indicates the expected fractional ow of oil and water at each depth in the reservoir. (From Bryant et al. 2000b.)

determine the depth at which the fracture intersected the observation well (Bryant et al. 2001). The results of this experiment demonstrate the potential for permanent resistivity arrays to monitor vertical conformance of water oods from injection wells and to detect the timing and location of water breakthrough to monitoring of production wells. More recently, a similar array has been deployed in a carbonate reservoir in Oman and successfully detected early water breakthrough to a monitoring well in a carbonate formation (van Kleef et al. 2001). Fibre optic permanent sensor systems have also recently been used to successfully detect water entry points into horizontal wells (Kluth et al. 2000). Reservoir pressure. Clearly pressure measurements have the potential not only to see deeper into the formation, but also to provide information on displacement prior to water breakthrough. Consequently, OB-1 was also instrumented with a permanent formation pressure gauge (Raghuraman & Ramakrishnan 2001). Like the resistivity array, this gauge is also cemented into the annulus of the well outside the casing. After the cement has cured, shaped charges are red to locally fracture the cement and reconnect the gauge to the formation. Figure 13 shows three months of data from surface measurements of injection pressure and injection rate at D-8, together with the pressures recorded from the cemented gauge, 233 ft away in OB-1. The OB-1 data are noisier than the surface data,

346

I. D. Bryant
CONCLUSIONS The case studies reported in this paper have illustrated how key well-bore measurements can be used to optimize redevelopment of mature elds. Even though cost is frequently a major concern in eld revitalization, due to the smaller pools developed, the value delivered by the measurements more than justies the incremental expense in obtaining them. Note that in each instance the acquisition strategy has been in the context of a geological model, so that measurements either validate or calibrate the model. This model-based approach to data acquisition also helps to ensure that only appropriate measurements are made. We have seen that, as wireline cased-hole saturation logging tools have evolved, we have moved from time-lapse logging to infer the distribution of remaining hydrocarbons to being able to directly detect hydrocarbons by through-casing formation evaluation. The latest through-casing resistivity measurements also overcome the constraints of earlier PNC tools concerning near well-bore drilling uids aecting the measurements. We have also seen how stationary measurements are able to obtain an increased depth of investigation. The logical extension of this trend is to use permanently installed monitoring devices that have a deep depth of investigation and do not require well intervention. Repeat formation tester measurements in inll wells can provide key information to conrm the presence of bypassed or under-depleted reservoir zones. This information can also be used to initialize simulation models that quantify the expected return for alternative redevelopment schemes and enable optimal sequencing of inll wells. The information can also provide evidence of uneven depletion of gas reservoirs, indicating the importance of heterogeneities that were not evident at the time of the initial development planning. We have demonstrated the viability of permanent formation pressure sensors that, in the future, will oer the opportunity to measure pressure evolution in real-time, thereby providing more timely input to reservoir management decisions.

Fig. 11. Illustration to show progressive voltage increases in the higher permeability central zone of the Manseld Sandstone as water injection proceeded at the D-8 injection well. These data indicate that most of the injected water has swept only this central zone prior to fracturing.

at least in part, as a result of interference from the oset production wells. However, comparison of derivative curves from the two data streams shows that the cemented gauge is responsive to pressure pulses at the injector well and provides continuous information on the eective properties between injection and monitoring well (Fig. 14). In the future, bre optic systems oer the potential for distributed pressure measurements using permanently installed arrays (Schroeder et al. 1999).

Fig. 12. Time series of voltages recorded by permanently installed electrodes in the OB-1 observation well. Electrode pairs #8 and 9 are the uppermost data points and indicate a signicant voltage increase associated with water breakthrough within a day of the fracture stimulation of the oset injection well D-8. The deeper electrodes show no response since they were adjacent to a shale beneath the reservoir.

Well evaluation for eld revitalization

347

Fig. 13. Time series of well head pressure (green) and injection rate (blue) data recorded at the injection well D-8, compared with the formation pressure response (magenta) recorded by the cemented formation pressure gauge at the observation well.
Bryant, I.D. & Livera, S.E. 1991. Identication of unswept oil volumes in a mature eld by using integrated data analysis: Ness Formation, Brent Field, UK North Sea. In: Spencer, A.M. (ed.) Generation, accumulation and production of Europes hydrocarbons. Special Publication European Association of Geoscientists, 1, 7588. Bryant, I.D., Paardekam, A.H.M., Davies, P. & Budding, M.C. 1991. Integrated reservoir characterisation of Cycle III, Brent Group, Brent eld, UK North Sea for reservoir management. In: Massell, W., Mathias, R., Loren, D. et al. (eds) The integration of geology, geophysics, petrophysics and petroleum engineering in reservoir delineation, description and management. AAPG, Tulsa, OK, 405422. Bryant, I.D., Herron, M.M. & Gamero de Villarroel, H. 1997. Application of sequence stratigraphic reinterpretation of Lower Lagunillas Member to further development of Bloque IV, Lake Maracaibo, Venezuela. SPE Formation Evaluation, 12, 271279. Bryant, I.D., Baygun, B. & Herron, M.M. et al. 1998. Integration of old and new measurements to optimize redevelopment of the Lower Lagunillas reservoir of Bloque IV, Lake Maracaibo, Venezuela. SPE Reservoir Evaluation and Engineering, 1, 180191. Bryant, I.D., Chen, M.-Y., Raghuraman, B. et al. 2000a. Use of a cemented resistivity array and pressure gauge to monitor water-ooding. Proceedings of SPE Advanced Technology Workshop Reservoir, drilling and production aspects of smart reservoirs and wells. Puerto La Cruz, June 1516. Bryant, I.D., Viloria, O., Peters, J.G. & Swager, D.R. 2000b. Integrated geological and petrophysical evaluation of the Manseld Sandstone, Illinois basin to optimize secondary recovery from mature elds. AAPG Annual Meeting Abstract, New Orleans, Louisiana, April 1619. Bryant, I. D., Chen, M.-Y., Raghuraman, B. et al. 2001. Utility and reliability of cemented resistivity arrays to monitoring waterood of the Manseld Sandstone, Indiana, USA. Paper SPE71710, presented at the SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, New Orleans, Louisiana, 30 September3 October. Bullion, D., Gonzalez, F. & Marley, M.E. 2000. Gas cap monitoring in high rate, low porosity clastic reservoirs in Columbia gives big economic returns. Paper SPE62940, presented at the SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Dallas, Texas, October 14. Burgess, K.A., MacDougall, T.D., Siegfried, R.W. & Fields, T.G. 2001. Wireline-conveyed through-casing formation tester preserves casing integrity. Paper SPE72371, presented at the Eastern Regional Meeting, Canton, Ohio, October 1719. Dromgoole, P. & Speers, R. 1997. Geoscore: a method for quantifying uncertainty in eld reserve estimates. Petroleum Geoscience, 3, 112. Gamero de Villarroel, H.G., Gmez, E., Bryant, I.D. & Coll, M.C. 1995. Nuevo modelo sedimentolgico del miembro Lagunillas Inferior, bloques III/IV, Lago de Maracaibo. Boletin de la Sociedad Venezolana de Gelogos, 20, 4168. Gomez, E., Ripple, R.A., Munoz, M.A., Bryant, I.D., Gamero de Villarroel, H. & Rondon, L. 1997. Application of sequence stratigraphy to improve reservoir management of the Miocene Lower Lagunillas and Laguna Members, Lagunillas Formation, Blocks III and IV, Lake Maracaibo, Venezuela. In: Shanley, K.W. & Perkins, B.F. (eds) Shallow marine and nonmarine reservoirs sequence stratigraphy, reservoir architecture and production characteristics. Gulf Coast Section Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists Foundation 18th Annual Research Conference, 117125. Kleef, R., van Hakvoort, R., Bhushan, V. et al. 2001. Water ooding monitoring in an Oman carbonate reservoir using a downhole permanent electrode array. Paper SPE68078, presented at the Middle East Oil Show and Conference, Bahrain, March 1720.

Fig. 14. The derivative of well head pressure (green) data recorded at the injection well D-8 compared with the derivative of pressure recorded by the cemented gauge at the observation well (magenta). Despite the noise in the cemented gauge data the pressure response to pulsing the injector is clearly seen.

New, through-casing resistivity tools oer the potential to detect bypassed hydrocarbons in elds that have not been routinely monitored by repeated cased-hole logging using pulsed-neutron capture tools. At the same time, the use of the pulse-neutron capture tools has been expanded to enable monitoring of gasoil contacts in low porosity formations. Processing of array induction data can yield useful predictions of the expected performance of reservoirs to water ooding by exploiting the small-scale water ooding of the near well-bore region that takes place during drilling. In the future, continuous monitoring of saturation will be possible using resistivity arrays that sense saturation changes up to several tens of metres away from the well bore. These measurements may be used to determine vertical conformance of sweep proles at injection wells and to detect potential thief zones prior to premature water breakthrough at production wells.
Austin Boyd, Min-Yi Chen, Bhavani Raghuraman and Brad Roscoe of SDR are thanked for their assistance in preparation of this review.

REFERENCES
Adolph, B., Brady, J., Flaum, C., Melcher, C., Roscoe, B., Vittachi, A. & Schnorr, W. 1994. Saturation monitoring with the RST Reservoir Saturation Tool. Oileld Review, 6, 2939. Albertin, I., Darling, H. & Plasek, R. et al. 1996. The many facets of pulsed neutron cased-hole logging. Oileld Review, 8, 2841. Beguin, P., Benimeli, D., Boyd, A. et al. 2000. Recent progress on formation resistivity measurement through casing. Proceedings SPWLA 41st Annual Logging Symposium, June 47, Paper CC.

348

I. D. Bryant
Schroeder, R.J., Ramos, R.T. & Yamate, T. 1999. Fiber optics sensors for oileld services. SPIE, 3860, 1222. Verbeek, J., Hartung, M. & Van der Zee, G. 1999. Time-lapse seismic in Shell Expro some examples and economic aspects. First Break, 17, 155158. Weber, K.J. 1999. The prize whats possible?. Petroleum Geoscience, 5, 135144. Weber, K.J. & van Geuns, L.C. 1990. Framework for constructing clastic reservoir simulation models. Journal of Petroleum Technology, 42, 12481253.

Kluth, E.L.E., Varnham, M.P., Clowes, J.R., Kutlik, R.L., Crawley, C.M. & Heming, R.F. 2000. Advanced sensor infrastructure for real time reservoir monitoring. Paper SPE65152, presented at the European Petroleum Conference, Paris, October 2425. Landr, M., Solheim, O.A., Hilde, E., Ekren, B.O. & Strnen, L.K. 1999. The Gullfaks 4D seismic study. Petroleum Geoscience, 5, 213226. Raghuraman, B. & Ramakrishnan, T.S. 2001. Interference analysis of cemented-permanent-sensor data from a eld experiment. Abstract M019 Proceedings of 63rd EAGE Conference, Amsterdam, June 1115. Ramakrishnan, T.S. & Wilkinson, D.J. 1999. Water-cut and fractional-ow logs from array-induction measurements. SPE Reservoir Evaluation and Engineering, 2, 8594.

Received 23 March 2002; revised typescript accepted 26 March 2002.