I.b Limits and Continuity First recall the 1-d case. Def.

Let y = f (x), then lim f (x) = L i as x approaches x0 , in any way except

xx0

we do not ever allow x = x0 , then f (x) approaches L. If, furthermore f (x0 ) = L, i.e., lim f (x) = f (x0 ), then f is continuous at x0 .
xx0

The following simple examples illustrate the situation. Example.

(a) y y=2 y=1 x 1 2 1 2 (b) y y=2 (c) y y=2

y=1 2 x x

Answer. (a)
x1/2

lim f (x) does not exist. We get dierent possible values for L depending

on whether x approaches 1/2 from the left hand side or the right hand side. (b)
x1/2

lim f (x) = 2, but f (1/2) = 1/2. f is not continuous at x = 1/2 (but the

limit exists). (c)

x1/2

lim f (x) = 2 = f (1/2), f is continuous at x = 1/2. Case (b) is a favorite mathematical example. I have personally never

Remark.

seen it arise in a practical problem. In practice, the points where the functions are not continuous usually involve actual jumps on both sides of x0 , as in example (a),
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so that there also are no limits. These cases actually do arise in applications: for example, a semiconductor or a composite beam involve materials with dierent electrical/mechanical properties, so that important functions such as electrical/thermal conductivity and/or mechanical stiness have surfaces of discontinuity. As you will likely see in more advanced courses, these may be the source of diculties! The denition of limit is not constructive, i.e., given f (x), it is not
xx0

Remark.

possible to calculate easily lim f (x), or even to show that a limit exists. To overcome this diculty, limit rules are obtained. We shall mention such rules (for the multi-variable case) below. We now pass to consider our case: Def. Suppose w = f (x, y). We say lim f (x, y) = L if regardless of how (x x0 )2 + (y y0 )2

(x,y)(x0 ,y0 )

(x, y) approaches (x0 , y0 )i.e., the distance of (x, y) to (x0 , y0 ) =

tends to zerowe have f (x, y) approach L. If f (x0 , y0 ) = L, then f is continuous at (x0 , y0 ). We do not allow (x, y) = (x0 , y0 ), but require (x, y) in the Domain of f during the approach. We note two immediate observations. 1) As was the case for y = f (x), the denition is not constructive. 2) In the 1-d case y = f (x), x can approach x0 basically from only two directions: from the left or from the right. However, (x, y) can approach (x0 , y0 ) along innitely many dierent curves! These two observations yield the following. Consequences: 1) Let (x, y) approach (x0 , y0 ) along two dierent curves for which
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f (x, y) tends to two dierent values. Then

(x,y)(x0 ,y0 )

lim

f (x, y) does not exist.

Caution:

You cannot conclude that if the limit of f is the same for (x, y) moving

to (x0 , y0 ) along many dierent curves, then the limit exists! Consequence 1) is thus only useful in showing that the limit does not exist. See examples below. 2) Since the limit denition is not constructive, to show that a limit exists and/or that a function is continuous the following rules are critical: (a) polynomials in (x, y) are continuous; (b) rational functions in (x, y) (i.e., polynomial/polynomial) are continuous except where the denominator = 0; (c) if y = f (t) is a continuous function of t and w = g(x, y) is a continuous function of (x, y), then f (g(x, y)) is a continuous function; (d) sums, dierences, products, quotients (except when the bottom= 0) of continuous functions are continuous functions.

We illustrate all of these rules by example below. We rst note however that the same denitionwith obvious changesapplies to functions of three or more variables. Eg: (x
(x,y,z)(x0 ,y0 ,z0 ) x0 )2 + (y y0 )2 + (z

lim

f (x, y, z) = L i as (x, y, z) approaches (x0 , y0 , z0 ) (i.e., z0 )2 approaches 0, then f (x, y, z) approaches L. Again

we require that (x, y, z) = (x0 , y0 , z0 ) and (x, y, z) in the Domain of f during the approach. y exist and if so, what is it? y2

Example 1.

Does

(x,y)(0,1) x2

lim

Answer.

This is a rational function, and by our rules (a) and (b), as (x, y) (0, 1),
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y 1 and x2 y 2 1.
(x,y)(0,1)

lim

x2

y y2

1 = 1. 1

Note that the function is continuous at (0, 1)! Example 2. Answer. Same as (1), except lim y . y2

(x,y)(0,0) x2

If we try rules (a) and (b) again we get y 0, x2 y 2 0 as (x, y)

y x2 y 2

(0, 0). Thus

0 0

and the rules fail! There may or may not be a limit.

Suppose we let (x, y) (0, 0) along the x-axis (i.e., along y = 0), then along this line f =
0 x2

= 0 0 as x 0. On the other hand, along the

y y 2

1 2

line: x = 0, y > 0,

we have f =

1 = y as y 0. Since the limits along two dierent curves y are dierent, there is not limit. I.e., lim does not exist. 2 y2 (x,y)(0,0) x

Example 3. Answer.

Same as (1) except f (x, y) =

x2 y 2 xy

and (x0 , y0 ) = (0, 0).

Again we start with the rules: by continuity of polynomials, xy x2 y 2 00=0 0 2 02 = 0

as (x, y) (0, 0). So once again we are in the situation 0/0 and the rules fail! We must nd another way. In this case, we note x2 y 2 (x + y)(x y) = = xy xy x+y undened if x = y if x = y.

Consequently, we approach (0, 0) from within the domain (i.e., x = y) and then nd
(x,y)(0,0)

lim

(f (x, y)) =

(x,y)(0,0)

lim

(x + y) = 0 + 0 = 0.
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Example 4. Answer.

Same as (1), except

(x,y,z)(1,0,0)

lim

exyz ln(x2 + y 2 + z 2 ).

Again begin with the rules: f here is a product f = (exyz )ln(x2 +y 2 +z 2 ).

We look at each piece. First, exyz = et with t = xyz. Note that et is continuous (even dierentiable) while xyz is continuous (a polynomial). Therefore as (x, y, z) (1, 0, 0) we have (by rule (c)) exyz e0 = 1. In the same way, ln(x2 +y 2 +z 2 ) = ln w with w = x2 + y 2 + z 2 . Again ln w is continuous if w > 0 since dierentiable, while x2 + y 2 + z 2 is a polynomial. as (x, y, z) (1, 0, 0) we have w 1 and ln w ln 1 = 0. limit exists and equals 1 0 = 0. Example 5. Find all the points where x5 y x2 + y 2 0, , (x, y) = (0, 0) (x, y) = (0, 0)

f (x, y) =

is continuous. Answer.

Note that here f is given in pieces, depending on the value of (x, y).

Nevertheless, this should not bother you. We start by assuming (x0 , y0 ) = (0, 0). Then, near such an (x0 , y0 ), f (x, y) = (x5 y)/ x2 + y 2 . So, in this case, f is a quotient. The top is a polynomial, hence continuous. The bottom can be written as x2 + y 2 = t with t = x2 +y 2 . Since (x0 , y0 ) = (0, 0) and (x, y) is near (x0 , y0 ), we must have t = x2 + y 2 positive. t is continuous (again since dierentiable) and x2 + y 2 is also continuous. Whence (x0 , y0 ) = (0, 0), then x5 y x 5 y 0 0
x y Thus f (x, y) 0 0 2
5 2 x0 +y0

x2 + y 2 is continuous. In summary, if

and

x2 + y 2

2 x2 + y0 = 0. 0

= f (x0 , y0 ) and f is continuous at these points.

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Next, what happens if (x0 , y0 ) = (0, 0)? We must check whether f (0, 0) = 0. In this case,

(x,y)(0,0)

lim

f (x, y) =

x2 + y 2 0, so the earlier rules fail. We use this ex-

ample to introduce the Squeeze Theorem: Suppose f (x, y) = f1 (x, y) f2 (x, y) and then
(x,y)(x0 ,y0 )

lim

f1 (x, y) = 0

|f2 (x, y)| does not blow up in a small disc centered at (x0 , y0 ), f (x, y) = 0.

(x,y)(0,0)

lim

To see the reason for this result, note that f (x, y) is the product of two numbers: one (f1 (x, y)) which gets smallerindeed approaches 0while the other (f2 (x, y)) which is bounded as (x, y) approaches (0, 0). To use this theorem in the present example, we note (|y|)2 = y 2 x2 + y 2 and thus |y| or |y| 1.
y , x2 +y 2

x2 + y 2

x2 Hence f (x, y) = x5 |f2 | = |y| 2

x +y 2 y . x2 +y 2

+ y2

Set f1 = x5 , f2 =

then f1 0 while

1 (i.e., bounded) and (x, y) (0, 0). We conclude

(x,y)(x0 ,y0 )

lim

f (x, y) = 0 (= f (0, 0)).

Therefore our f is always continuous.

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Further Exercises: Find the indicated limits or show they do not exist. Indicate your reasons. 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) exyz 1 (x,y,z)(2,4,0) 1 + x2 + y 2 + z 2 lim sin(x2 + y 2 ) x2 + y 2 (x,y,z)(0,0,0) lim sin(x2 + y 2 ) (x,y,z)(1,0,0) x2 + y 2 + z 2 lim lim x5 y 2 + x2 + y 2 x3 y 3 x4 + y 6

(x,y)(0,0)

x4 y 4 (x,y,z)(0,0,0) x2 + y 2 + z 2 lim x2 y 2 + z 3 (x,y,z)(0,0,0) x2 + y 2 + z 2 lim

Find all points where the given functions are continuous. State your reasons. 7) f (x, y, z) = ex 8) f (x, y, z) =
2 2 2

y z

+ sin(xyz)

ex tan z 1 + x2 + y 2 (x, y) = (0, 0) (x, y) = (0, 0) (x, y) = (0, 0) (x, y) = (0, 0)

11) Same as 10) except at (0, 0), f = 2.

2 2 x y , x2 + y 2 9) f (x, y) = 1, 3 2 x xy , x2 + y 2 10) f (x, y) = 0,

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