Module 4.

3 The integration of respiration and photosynthesis into ecology; energy is transferred through ecosystems and transfer efficiency can be measured. Know photosynthesis is the main route by which energy enters ecosystems, Appreciate energy is transferred through trophic levels in food chains and webs and is dissipated as heat. Use numerical data to find the efficiency of transfer between trophic levels. Understand that poor efficiency of transfer leads to pyramids of number, biomass and energy. Compare efficiency as net productivity (gross productivity respiratory loss) between natural ecosystems and modern intensive farming. Appreciate the use of natural and artificial fertilisers, chemical pesticides, biological agents, integrated systems of pest control and intensive rearing of livestock increase efficiency of energy conversion and thus productivity. Evaluate economic and environmental and ethical issues involved with farming practice.

Key words: Trophic level Producer: an organism that synthesises organic molecules from simple inorganic ones such as carbon dioxide and water. Most producers are photosynthetic and form the first trophic level in a food chain. Primary/secondary consumer: any organism that obtains energy by eating another. Organisms feeding on plants are known as primary consumers and organisms feeding on primary consumers are known as secondary consumers.

Pyramids of numbers: Length of bar is proportionate to the number of individuals.

BUT because it doesnt take the size of the individual into account we get differing pyramids of number. Therefore pyramids of biomass (gm-2) Can weigh wet mass BUT it can vary due to the changes of water retention within the body. Dry mass however o Heat below 100C o Weigh it before heating o Weigh it after heating o Continue and weigh until there is a constant mass. Should get:

BUT zooplankton and phytoplankton are an example of a standing crop because if the sampling is done at a certain point in time the zooplankton are going very rapidly and therefore consuming the phytoplankton rapidly and therefore the mass of phytoplankton captured is very small and therefore can be less than the primary consumer.

Pyramids of energy The most accurate Represent flow of energy and energy stored in organisms. Measured in kJm-2year-1

Energy transfer between trophic levels: The sun is the source of energy for ecosystems. It is lost in food chains o Plants normally convert 1-3% of the suns available energy to them into organic matter. o Over 90% of the suns energy is reflected back into space by clouds and dust or absorbed by the atmosphere. o Not all wavelengths of light can be absorbed for photosynthesis. o Light may not fall on a chlorophyll molecule o A factor, such as low carbon dioxide levels may limit the rate of photosynthesis. Stored energy is also known as the net production of organic materials o Net production = gross production respiratory losses. The energy can also be lost when between producer and consumer o Some of the organism is not eaten o Some parts are eaten but cannot be digested and are therefore lost in faeces. o Energy lost in excretory materials urea. o Loss through heat.

Calculating the efficiency of energy transfers: kJ m-2 year-1 kilojoules per square metre per year.

Agricultural ecosystems Made up of largely domesticated animals and plants used to produce food for mankind. Productivity o Rate in which something is produced. Net productivity = gross productivity respiratory losses. kJ m-2 year-1 affected by: The efficiency of the crop at carrying out photosynthesis. This is improved if all the necessary conditions for photosynthesis are supplied. The area of ground covered by the leaves of the crop.

Comparison of natural and agricultural ecosystems; Natural ecosystems Solar energy only no additional energy input. Lower productivity More species diversity More genetic diversity within a species Nutrients are recycles naturally within the ecosystem with little addition from outside. Populations are controlled by natural means, such as competition or climate. In a natural climax community Agricultural ecosystems Solar energy plus energy from food (labour) and fossil fuels (machinery and transport) Higher productivity Less species diversity Less genetic diversity within a species Natural recycling is more limited and supplemented by the addition of artificial fertilisers. Populations are controlled by both natural means and by use of pesticides and cultivation. Is an artificial community prevented from reaching its natural climax.

Chemical and biological control of agricultural pests; Pesticides are poisonous chemicals that kill pests. o Must be specific So it is only toxic to that organism. o Biodegradable So it can break down and is harmless to substances in the soil. But needs to be chemically stable so it has a long shelf life. o Cost effective o And not accumulative Doesnt build up in the food chain. Biological control o Idea is to control the pest and not to eradicate. o However Do not act quickly May become a pest itself Biological control Very specific Once introduced, the control organism reproduces itself Pests do not become resistant Chemical pesticides Always have some effect on non-target species Must be reapplied at intervals, making them very expensive Pests develop genetic resistance, and new pesticides have to be developed.

Integrated pest control systems Choosing animal or plant varieties that suit the local area and are as pest-resistant as possible Managing the environment to provide suitable habitats, close to the crops, for natural predators Regularly monitoring the crop for signs pf pests sp that early action can be taken

Removing the pests mechanically if the pest exceeds an acceptable population level. Using biological agents if necessary and available. Using pesticides as a last resort if pest populations start to get out of control.

Intensive rearing of livestock Intensive rearing Movement is restricted and so less energy is used in muscle contraction The environment can be kept warm in order to reduce heat loss from the body Feeding can be controlled so that animals receive the optimum amount and type of food for maximum growth with no wastage. Predators are excluded so that there is no loss to other organisms in the food web. OR Selective breeding of animals to produce varieties that are more efficient at converting the food they eat into body mass. Using hormone to increase growth rates.

Explain how the intensive rearing of domestic livestock increases net productivity (4) Slaughtered when still growing/before maturity/while young so more energy transferred to biomass/tissue/production. Fed on concentrate/controlled diet/controlled conditions/so higher proportion of digested food absorbed/lower proportion lost in faeces/valid reason for addition Movement restricted so less respiratory loss/less energy used Kept inside/heating/shelter/confined so less heat loss/no predators Genetically selected for high productivity.