Broaching Basics

The Basics Broaching is one of the most productive precision-machining processes known. It is also a study in self-contradiction. It's a high-production, metal-removal process that sometimes is required to make one-of-a-kind parts. It's at it's best when machining simple surfaces or complex contours. Its recent successes include such dissimilar items as high-precision computer parts and massive locomotive bull gears. Broaching is similar to planning, competes with milling and boring, and gives turning and grinding stiff competition. Properly used, broaching can greatly increase productivity, hold tight tolerances, produce precision finishes, and minimize the need for highly skilled machine operators.Tooling

Tooling is the heart of any broaching process. The broaching tool is based on a concept unique to the process - rough, semi-finish, and finish cutting teeth combined in one tool or string of tools. A broach tool frequently can finish-machine a rough surface in a single stroke.In its simplest form, a broach tool resembles a wood rasp. It is a slightly tapering round or flat bar with rows of cutting teeth located along the tool axis. In advanced forms, extremely complex cross-sections and tooth designs may be found, However, the basic axial, multi-toothed tool shape remains Exterior or Surface Broaching For exterior or surface broaching, the broach tool may be pulled or pushed across a workpiece surface; or the surface may move across the tool. Internal broaching requires a starting hole or opening in the workpiece so the broaching tool can be inserted. The tool, or the workpiece, is then pushed or pulled to force the tool through the starter hole. The final shape may be a smoother, flatter surface, larger hole, complex splined, toothed notched curved, helical, or some other irregularly shaped section. Almost any irregular cross-section can be broached as long as all surfaces of the section remain parellel to the direction of broach travel. The exceptions to this rule are uniform rotating sections such as helical gear teeth, which are produced by rotating the broach tool as it passes the workpiece surface. Blind holes or holes with limited depth can also be broached with punch broaches which are pushed with limited travel. Standard Nomenclature Whatever the actual tooth size and shape, standard nomenclature is used to describe the essential parts of a broaching tool. (See illustration below) When an internal pull broach is used, for example , the pull end and front pilot are passed through the starting hole. Then the pull end is locked to the pull head of the broaching machine. The front pilot assures correct axial align-ment of the tool with the starting hole and serves as a check on the starting hole size.
Length The length of a broach tool or string of tools is determined by the amount of stock to be removed, and limited by the machine stroke, bending moments (in a push broach), stiffness, accuracy, and other factors. A pull broach is usually limited to 75 times the diameter of the finishing teeth. Broaching tools can be as small as 0.050 in. or as large as 15 to 20 in. in diameter. The Rear Pilot The rear pilot maintains tool alignment as the final finish teeth pass through the workpiece hole. On round tools the diameter of the rear pilot is slightly less than the diameter of the finish teeth. Often a notched tail or retriever end is added to the tool to engage a handling mechanism that supports the rear of the broach tool. CONVENTIONAL PULL (HOLE) BROACHING TOOL

These are the basic shapes and nomenclature for conventional pull (hole) broaching tools. Note chipbreakers in first section of roughing teeth. These may be extended to more teeth if the cut is heavy or material difficult. Note also extra finishing teeth. Cutting Tooth Sections Broach teeth usually are divided into three separate sections along the length of the tool: the roughing teeth, semi-finishing teeth, and finishing teeth. The first roughing tooth is proportionately the smallest tooth on the tool. The subsequent teeth progressively increase in size up to and including the first finishing tooth. The difference in height between each tooth, or tooth rise, usually is greater along the roughing section and less along the semi-finishing section. All finishing teeth are the same size.Individual teeth (see illustration below) have a land and face intersect to form a cutting edge. The face is ground with a hook or face angle that is determined by the workpiece material. For instance, Soft steel workpieces usually require greater hook angles; hard or brittle steel, smaller hook angles. The Land The land supports the cutting edge against stresses. A slight clearance or backoff angle is ground onto the lands to reduce friction. On roughing and semi-finishing teeth, the entire land is relieved with a backoff angle. On finishing teeth, part of the land immediately behind the cutting edge is often left straight so that repeated sharpening (by grinding the face of the tooth) will not alter the tooth size. Distance Between Cutting Teeth The distance between teeth, or pitch is determined by the length of cut and influenced by the type of workpiece material. A relatively large pitch may be required for roughing teeth to accommodate a greater chip load. Tooth pitch may be smaller on semi-finishing and finishing teeth to reduce the overall length of the broach tool. Pitch is calculated so that, preferably, two or more teeth cut simultaneously. This prevents the tool from drifting or chattering.Sometimes a broach tool will vibrate when a heavy cut is taken, especially when the cutting load is not evenly distributed. Vibration may also occur when tooth engagement is irregular. The greatest contributing factors to vibration are poor tooth engagement and extremely hard workpieces. Such problems must be anticipated by the broach designer. Tooth Rise The tooth rise or taper is calculated from one tooth to the next so that the thickness of the chip does not impose too great a strain on individual teeth. A large tooth rise increases power requirements. When all teeth are simultaneously engaged in the workpiece, too large a tooth rise could cause an increase in power requirements beyond the rated tonnage of the machine. If the rise is too small to permit the teeth to bite into the workpiece, a glazed or galled finish will result. Tooth Gullet The depth of the tooth gullet is related to the tooth rise, pitch, and workpiece material. The tooth root radius is usually designed so that chips curl tightly within themselves, occupying as little space as possible. Chip Load As each broach tooth enters the workpiece, it cuts a fixed thickness of material. The fixed chip length and thickness produced by broaching create a chip load that is determined by the design of the broach tool and the predetermined feed rate.This chip load feed rate cannot be altered by the machine operator as it can in most other machining operations. The entire chip produced by a complete pass of each broach tool must be freely contained within the preceding tooth gullet. The size of the tooth gullet (which determines tooth spacing) is a function of the chip load and the type of chips produced. However, the form that each chip takes depends on the workpiece material and hook. Brittle materials produce flakes. Ductile or malleable materials produce spiral chips.

Flat-Bottomed Gullet Long cuts in ductile materials or interrupted cuts producing two or more chips, would soon fill a circular gullet with chips. The solution is a flatbottomed gullet with extra-wide spacing. This provides room for two or more spiral chips or a large quantity of chip flakes. Chipbreakers Notches, called chipbreakers, are used on broach tools to eliminate chip packing and to facilitate chip removal. (See illustration below) The chipbreakers are ground into the broach, parallel to the tool axis. Chipbreakers on alternate teeth are staggered so that one set of chipbreakers is followed by a cutting edge. The finishing teeth complete the job. Chipbreakers are vital on round broaching tools, Without the chipbreakers, the tools would machine ring-shaped chips that would wedge into the tooth gullets and eventually cause the tool to break. Special chipbreaker designs can be used to increase the maximum tooth rise of a broach without overloading the machine. If deep slots are ground into the lands of the cutting teeth, the depth of cut can be increased on each tooth without fear of overloading. The sections

of the workpiece not machined by the first tooth are picked up by the next tooth, or the next, by staggering the array of slots along the tool axis.
Generating Form/Nibbling Some broach designs generate the tooth profile in a nibbling pattern. This process is called generating form. Each tooth of the broach increases in size. Thus the nibbled profile is the envelope of a series or thousands of corner generations. A nibbling-type broach can produce accurate teeth or forms with a good surface finish only when machine alignment is carefully maintained providing stringent broach maintenance and the blank is carefully prepared. Full-form finishing broaches are available to improve the accuracy and surface finish of the part produced by nibbling ~ type broaches.

Shear Angle Broach designers may place broach teeth at a shear angle to improve surface finish and reduce tool chatter. When two adjacent surfaces are cut simultaneously, the shear angle is an important factor in moving chips away from the intersection of the cutting teeth. Another method of placing teeth at a shear angle on broaches is by using a herringbone pattern. An advantage of this design is that it eliminates the tendency for parts to move sideways in the workholding fixtures during broaching. A disadvantage is its inherent complexity which requires more manufacturing time and higher cost. A so-called criss-cross type of shear facilitates milling and grinding of the teeth.

Side Relief When broaching slots, the tool becomes enclosed by the slot during cutting and must carry chips produced through the entire length of the workpiece. Sides of the broach teeth will rub the sides of the slot and cause rapid tool wear unless clearance is provided. This is done by grinding a side relief angle on both sides of each tooth with only a small portion of the tooth near the cutting edge, called the slot. The same approach is used for one-sided corner cuts and spline broaches.
Back Taper Another type of relief commonly used on form broaches, such as internal spline and rack tooth forms, is called back taper. The purpose of back tapering is to provide a tapered tooth form in the direction of clearance (face of form to heel of tooth) to minimize contact between tooth flank and workpiece and thus reduce frictional contact, rubbing wear, and metal pickup.

Back tapering can be accomplished by using a magnetic sine table and raising the back end of the surface broach with shims for finish grinding. The grinding wheel is dressed to the proper form in relation to the amount of back taper needed, and this form is ground into the broach. This technique is more practical and economical than backing off or relieving the individual teeth

Broach Tools
All broaching tools are "special designs" in that they are generally made for a single user and a specific machining operation. However, certain types of broaches have become especially well-known for the type of work they do. INTERNAL BROACHES Internal broaches are either pulled or pushed through a starter hole. The machines can range from fully automated multi stationed verticals to horizontal pull types to simple presses. Rotary-Cut Broaches Rough forgings, malleable~ iron castings with a hard skin, and sand castings with abrasive surface inclusions are cut with one of three types of rotary-cut broaches. The design idea is somewhat similar to that of a chipbreaking slot, but the cutting edge has been drastically reduced and the slots between the teeth have become much deeper. Rotary-cut broaching teeth are heavier, to withstand the heavy cutting load, and are spaced in staggered fashion along the axis of the broach to generate the entire circumference of the hole. The tools are designed to take deep cuts underneath a poor-quality surface. Once this surface has been penetrated, the balance of the broaching tool proceeds to semi-finish and finish underlying metal in the normal manner. Hexagonal Rotary-Cut Broach The hexagonal rotary-cut broach is used for small diameter holes, remove little stock. Depth of cut is limited to the distance across the flats. Radial Rotary-Cut Broach The radial rotary-cut broach removes more stock than the hex-type tool because the cutting portions of the teeth are connected by arcs rather than by flats. Spline, Rotary-Cut Broach Spline, rotary-cut broaches offer a grater degree of flexibility than either of the other tool types and also permit maximum stock removal. The amount of stock removal is governed primarily by the capacity of the broaching machinem rather than by any tooling limitations. Rise per tooth may be as much as 0.050 in. on such broaches. Keyway Broach Almost all keyways in machine tools and parts are cut by a keyway broach - a narrow, flat bar with cutting teeth spaced along one surface. Both external and internal keyways can be cut with these broaches. Internal keyways usually require a slotted bushing or horn to fit the hole, with the keyway broach pulled through the horn, guided by the slot. If a number of parts, all of the same diameter and keyway size, are to be machined, an internal keyway broach can be designed to fit into the hole to support the cutting teeth. Only the cutting teeth extend beyond the hole diameter to cut the keyway. Bushings or horns are not required.

Multiple Spline Keyway Broach When several keyways are spaced around a hole, the resulting sections is a multiple-spline cut. A single keyway broach can be used to cut all the splines by indexing the workpiece around a fixture. However, high procuction work usually requires a multiple-spline broach. This tool is equivalent to a series of keyway broaches combined in one tool, with the cutting teeth spaced around the tool diameter. These teeth can be straight sided, involute, helical, spline or a combination.

Helical Broach Helical splines (either straightsided or involute) can be broached with a helical broach. The teeth are ground in a helical path around the tool axis. The helix angle corresponds to that required in the work.

Spiral Tooth Broach The spiral tooth tool for internal broaching basically is a round broach with teeth on a shear angle. The teeth are always engaged in the workpiece which can reduce vibration.

Burnishers Burnishers are broaching tools designed to polish (by cold-working) rather than cut a hole. The total change in diameter produced by a burnishing operation may be no more than 0.0005 to 0.001 in. Burnishing tools, used when surface finish and accuracy are critical and relatively short and are generally designed to push broaches. Burnishing buttons sometimes are included behind the finishing-tooth section of a conventional broaching tool. The burnishing section may be added as a special attachment or easily replaced shell. These replacement shells are commonly used to reduce tooling costs when high wear or tool breakage is expected. They are also used to improve surface finish. Shell Broaches Shell broaches can be used on the roughing semi-finsihing sections of a broach tool. The principal advantage of a shell broach is that worn sections can be removed and resharpened, or replaced, at far less cost than a conventional single-piece tool. When shells are used for the finishing teeth of long broaches; the teeth of the shell can be ground to far greater accuracy than those of a long conventional broach tool and the tool can continue to be used by replacing the shell. Spline-Burring Broaches Spline-burring broaches are quite short and are generally designed as push broaches. They remove burrs created by machining work done after the splines have been formed. For example, a hole might be drilled and tapped into the spline for a grease fitting, leaving burrs that could create assembly problems. These broaches are made slightly undersize on the spline width and may be equipped with round teeth to remove burrs from inside the bore.

Special Sizing Broaches Special sizing broaches are pulled or pushed through a semi-finished hole to take out the last few thousandths of stock faster and more efficiently than a fine-feed boring tool can.

SURFACE BROACHES These Broaches are used to remove material from an external surface are commonly known as surface broaches. Such broaches are passed over the workpiece surface to be cut, or the workpiece passes over the tool on horizontal, vertical or chain machines to produce flat or contoured surfaces. While some surface broaches are of solid construction, most are of built-up design - with sections, inserts, or indexable tool bits that are assembled end-to-end in a broach holder or subholder. The holder fits on the machine slide and provides rigid alignment and support. The first tooth of each insert or section of the assembly is ground to conform with the last tooth of the preceding insert or section. Burnishing inserts are sometimes provided at the end of the holder to perform their function after the other teeth have completed their operations, but such tools are very vulnerable to metal pickup and can cause tearing. Most surface broaches are special and designed for a specific application, but some standard, general-purpose broaches are available. Broach holders can often be standardized in several sizes to hold various surface broaches. Only the more common of the many different surface broaches available are discussed in this section. Pine-Tree Broaches Pine-tree broaches cut the complex serrations used to lock turbine blades into their rotors. Common practice is to use a set of broaches; the first cuts a straight-sided V-notch in the rotor rim and is followed by one or more serrated broaches that progressively widen the notch to the full pine-tree configuration. Sectional Broaches Sectional broaches are used to broach unusual or difficult shapes - often in a single pass. The sectional broach may be round or flat, internal or external. The principle behind this tool is similar to that of the shell broach, but straight sections of teeth are bolted along the axis of the broach rather than being mounted on an arbor. A complex broaching tool can be built up from a group of fairly simple tooth sections to produce a cut of considerable complexity. Carbide Broach Inserts Broaching tools with brazed carbide broach inserts are frequently used to machine cast-iron parts. Present practice, such as in machining automotive engine blocks, has moved heavily to the use of disposable, indexable inserts, and this has drastically cut tooling costs in many applications

Heavy-Duty Broaches Carbide tool bits and the sectional-broach idea are combined into heavy-duty broaches for cutting deeply into heavily scaled surfaces. The carbide-tipped tool bits are arranged in a

staggered pattern on the face of a tool holder. Each tooth is preset by means of an adjustable screw and locked in place in the tool holder by a setscrew. (See above) Slab Broaches Slab broaches are simple tools for producing flat surfaces come closest to being truly generalpurpose broaches. A single slab broach can be used to produce flat surfaces having different widths and depths on any workpiece by making minor adjustments to the broach, fixture, and / or machine. Progressive or Nibbling-Type Broaches Progressive or nibbling-type broaches are for cutting through hard surfaces and for heavy stock removal. These broaches have two sets of narrow roughing teeth, with each set positioned at an angle with respect to the centerline of the broach holder, thereby forming an inverted vee. Each tooth or insert takes a shear cut, generally to full depth, but covers only a small portion of the workpiece surface. This is similar to a single-point tool on a sharper or planer progressively generating a flat surface on the workpiece. Full-width teeth for semi-finishing and finishing are located behind the roughing teeth on progressive broaches so that the entire surface in cut in one pass. For narrow surfaces, the teeth or inserts at the starting end are V-shaped. On subsequent teeth, the vees gradually widen until the full required width of the surface is cut. The final teeth are flat, similar to those on a slab broach. Slot Broaches Slot broaches are for cutting slots but are not as general purpose in function as slab broaches. Adjustments can easily be made to produce different slot depths, but slot widths are a function of the broach width. When sufficient production volume is required: however, slot broaches are often faster and more economical than milling cutters. In broaching, two or more slots can often be cut simultaneously. Spline Punches Spline punches, special types of broaches with only one tooth, are used for shaping holes through which conventional broaches cannot pass. One example is internal gear teeth in a blind hole. The gear teeth are rough cut by drilling and shaping, or milling, then one or more spline punches are forced into the work to produce the tooth form.

Blind-Hole Broaching Blind-hole broaching violates two broaching principles: the tool does not pass completely through the workpiece, and it must be withddrawn badkward over the broached surface. But it can be done when necessary. The job usually involves a series of short push broaches, each slightly larger in diameter than the preceding tool. These short push broaches are mounted on a circular indexing table that rotates under or over the workpiece, the broaching machine pushes the workpiece over the tool, withdraws it, and then waits for the next broaching tool to index into position.

Strip Broaching Strip broaching also violates the principle that a broach tool should not return through the workpiece, or else tool life will be reduced and the surface finish of the workpiece will be marred. In strip broaching, the broach tool is returned through the workpiece hole without stopping the machine to unload. Strip broaching is most commonly used for round-hole broaching of large

quantities of low-cost parts when machining costs must be held to an absolute minimum. Strip broaches can be combined with burnishing buttons that slightly increase the hole diameter to provide a small amount of clearance, permitting the tool to be withdrawn without damaging the finished surface or dulling the cutting teeth. Rotary Broaches Rotary broaches are special types of surface broaches. They are not commonly used, but they do offer advantages when producing work with external radial forms. In the most common setup, the broach tool is mounted on a rotating faceplate and the work is clamped into a hydraulic fixture. The tool makes one revolution to cut the desired shape. Circular slots can be cut by a rotary broach that is turned around its own axis.

Ring or Pot Broaches In pot broaching, one or more workpieces are generally pulled or pushed up or pushed down through the bore of a pot broach subholder that is normally stationary on a vertical machine. There are three basic types of pot broaches having internal cutting tooth configurations: ring, stick, and combination ring and stick

Broaching Machines
The type of broach cutting tool required for a given job is the single most important factor in determining the type of broaching machine to be used. Second in importance is the production requirement. Taken together, these factors usually determine the specific type of machine for the job. The type of broach tool (internal or surface) immediately narrows down the kinds of machines that could be used. The number of pieces required per hour, or over the entire production run, will further narrow the field. For example, a dual-ram machine with one operator may be chosen over two single-ram machines requiring two operators, to provide higher output per man-hour. The single operator can load one table of a dual-ram unit while the other ram is cutting. Even higher production requirements may dictate a continuous chain horizontal machine. The machine size in a particular model is a function of the tool size, workpiece size, broaching power requirements, and available production space. For internal broaching, the length of a broach in relation to its diameter may determine whether it must be pulled rather than pushed through the workpiece, for a broach tool is stronger in tension than in compression. This in turn, helps determine the type of machine for the job. A short push broach often is handled in a press instead of expensive ram-type broaching machine. Presses, of course, can be converted to pull short broaches by the addition of a pull-down adapter that converts push strokes to pull strokes. Lubrication, workpiece size, chiphandling characteristics, and surface finish help determine whether a pull-up or a pull-down broach should be used. The trend is strongly to pull-down machines because gravity helps feed lubricant to the cutting teeth. Large workpieces are more easily handled in a pull-down than in a pull-up machine. The type of drive - hydraulic or electro-mechanical - is another important factor in machine selection. So are convertibility and automation. Some machine designs allow for conversion from internal to surface work, for example. Some designs are fully automated: others are limited in scope and operate only with close operator supervision. Here is a rundown of the major types of broaching machines:

VERTICAL BROACHING MACHINES About 60% of the total number of broaching machines in existence are verticals, almost equally divided between vertical internals and vertical surface or combination machines. Vertical broaching machines, used in every major area of metalworking, are almost all hydraulicallly driven. One of the essential features that promoted their development, however, is beginning to turn into a limitation. Cutting strokes now in use often exceed existing factory ceiling clearances. When machines reach heights of 20 feet or more, expensive pits must be dug for the machine so that the operator can work at factory floor level unless they are the table-up type. Vertical Internal Broaching Machines These are either table-up, pull-up, pull-down, or push-down, depending upon their mode of operation. Vertical Internal Pull-Up Type The pull-up type, in which the workpiece is placed below the work table, was the first to be introduced. Its principal use is in broaching round and irregular-shaped holes. Pull-up machines are now furnished with pulling capacities of 6 to 50 tons, strokes up to 72 in., and broaching speeds of 30 fpm. Larger machines are available; some have electro-mechanical drives for greater broaching speed and higher productivity. Vertical Internal Pull-Down Type The more sophisticated pull-down machines, in which the work is placed on top of the table, were developed later than the pull-up type. These pull-down machines are capable of holding internal shapes to closer tolerances by means of locating fixtures on top of the work table. Machines come with pulling capacities of 2 to 75 tons, 30 to 110 in. strokes, and speeds up to 80 fpm. Vertical Push Down Type Vertical push down machines are often nothing more than general-purpose hydraulic presses with special fixtures. They are available with capacities of 2 to 25 tons, strokes up to 36 in., speeds as high as 40 fpm. In some cases, universal machines have been designed which combine as many as three different broaching operations - such as push, pull, and surface simply through the addition of special fixtures. Vertical Surface or Combination Broaching Machines This type is found mainly in the automotive and hand tool industry. These machines produced in single-and double-ram versions (and even more rams occasionally), are hydraulically powered, with a few notable exceptions. Capacities range from 3 to 50 tons, with up to 130-in. strokes, and speeds of up to 120 fpm. Electro-Mechanically Driven Vertical Surface Broaching Machines These are available with either single or double rams and with strokes up to 120 in., capacities of 25 tons, and speeds of 60 fpm. HORIZONTAL BROACHING MACHINES The favorite configuration for broaching machines seems now to have come full circle. The original gear-or screw-driven machines were designed as horizontal units. Gradually, the vertical machines evolved as it became apparent that floor space could be much more efficiently used with vertical units. Now the horizontal machine, both hydraulically and mechanically driven is again finding increasing favor among users because of its very long strokes and the limitation that ceiling height places on vertical machines. About 40% of all broaching machines are now horizontals. For some types of work, such as roughing and finishing automotive engine blocks, they are used exclusively.

Horizontal Internal or Combination Machines This type was among the first used after the advent of powered broaching, have been driven hydraulically for many years. Hydraulic drives, developed during the early twenties, offered such pronounced advantages over the various early mechanical driving methods that only within recent years have any other methods been used. By far the greatest amount of horizontal internal broaching is done on hydraulic pull-type machines, for which configurations have become somewhat standardized over the years. Fully one-third of the broaching machines in existence are of this type, and of these, nearly one-fourth are over twenty years old. They find their heaviest application in the production of general industrial equipment but can be found in nearly every type of industry. Hydraulically driven horizontal internal machines are built with pulling capacities ranging from 2l/2 to 75 tons, the former representing machines only about 8ft. long, the latter machines over 35 ft. long. Strokes up to 120 in. are available, with cutting speeds generally limited to less than 40 fpm. Horizontal Surface Broaching Machines This type accounts for only about 10% of existing broaching machines, but this isn't indicative of the percentage of the total investment they represent or of the volume of work they produce. Horizontal surface broaching machines belong in a class by themselves in terms of size and productivity. Only the large continuous horizontal units can match or exceed them in productivity. Horizontal surface units are manufactured in both hydraulically and electro-mechanically driven models, with the latter now becoming dominant. The older hydraulically driven horizontal surface machines now are produced with capacities up to 40 tons, strokes up to 180 in., and normal cutting speeds of 100 fpm. These machines, a major factor in the automotive industry for nearly 30 years, turn out a great variety of cast-iron parts. They use standard carbide cutting tools and some of the highest cutting speeds used in broaching. But electro-mechanically driven horizontal surface machines are taking over at an everincreasing rate for certain applications, despite their generally higher cost. Because of their smooth ram motion and the resultant improvements in surface finish and part tolerances, these machines have become the largest class of horizontal surface broaching units built. They are available with pulling capacities in excess of 100 tons, strokes up to 30 ft., and cutting speeds, in some instances of over 300 feet per minute. Larger machines have fully stress-relieved welde4d steel frames, rather than gray-iron castings. Frequently two sets of cutting tools are attached to the ram so parts can be broached on both the forward and return strokes. A common operation on automobile engine blocks is broaching head surfaces on one stroke of the ram, and pan rail and bearing surfaces on the return stroke. These machines can also be equipped with dual-speed controls, whereby the ram is driven at one pre-selected speed during one portion of the stroke and changed to a second pre-selected speed during another portion of the stroke. A typical application is the use of the high speed for the initial roughing cut on pinetree slots in turbine wheels, and the slower speed while the finishing teeth are cutting. Continuous Surface Horizontal Chain Broaching Machines These have been the most popular type of machine produced for high-production surface broaching. has the distinction of having built, the largest and smallest service units ever produced. The large continuous machine was a 42.5-ton giant with a 29-ft.-long bed, a 220-in. stroke, and a 40-ton broaching capacity. It performs nine separate operations on 71/2-lb., 121/2 in.-long

connecting rod-and-cap sets for farm-machinery engines. The smallest was an 8.5-ton chain broach with a 2.5-ton capacity and a 20-in. stroke it broaches 5-oz., 2.5-in.-long manual transmission shaft shifters in four different configurations for automobiles. The key to the productivity of a continuous horizontal broaching machine is elimination of the return stroke by mounting the workpieces, or the tools, on a continuous chain. Most frequently, the tools remain stationary, mounted in a tunnel in the top half of the machine, and the chainmounted workpieces pass underneath them. SPECIAL BROACHING MACHINES Special broaching machines also fall under the general categories of internal or surface use, but beyond that it is difficult to classify the wide and often unique variety of special machines. Nevertheless, here is a sampling. Sometimes it is impossible to bring the workpiece to the machine. This is particularly true in the marine, power-generation construction, and air-frame industries. Therefore broaching machine builders have designed portable machines that can be bought to the work. A form of internal broaching called strip broaching is used occasionally to effect large gains in productivity per machine and man-hour through reduced broaching time cycles. In strip broaching, the broach is returned directly through the hole just broached, immediately after the cutting stroke, eliminating the necessity for disengaging the broach tool from its pulling or pushing head. Broach life is reduced because the cutting edges rub against the work on the return stroke, but not to the extent where the overall saving derived from this technique is lost. Internal broaching of helicopter rotor spar sections is an unusual special broaching application. In one instance, a 24-ft. long workpiece had about 1/8 in. of 4153 aluminum removed around the periphery of the irregularly-shaped internal form by 35 progressively stepped broach sections. These were pulled through the workpiece one at a time by a special electro-mechanical horizontal machine with a 64-ft. long bed. Broach sections were semi-automatically loaded and unloaded from the pulling bar at the beginning and end of each stroke. One operator handled the entire job, riding from loading to unloading stations in an electric cart.

Broaching (metalworking)
A push style 516 inches (8 mm) keyway broach; note how the teeth are larger on the left end. A broached keyway in the end of an adjustable wrench. Broaching is a machining process that uses a toothed tool, called a broach, to remove material. There are two main types of broaching: linear and rotary. In linear broaching, which is the more common process, the broach is run linearly against a surface of the workpiece to effect the cut. Linear broaches are used in a broaching machine, which is also sometimes shortened to broach. In rotary broaching, the broach is rotated and pressed into the workpiece to cut an axis symmetric shape. A rotary broach is used in a lathe or screw machine. In both processes the cut is performed in one pass of the broach, which makes it very efficient. Broaching is used when precision machining is required, especially for odd shapes. Commonly machined surfaces include circular and non-circular holes, splines, keyways, and flat surfaces. Typical workpieces include small to medium sized castings, forgings, screw machine parts, and stampings. Even though broaches can be expensive, broaching is usually favored over other processes when used for high-quantity production runs.[1]

Broaches are shaped similar to a saw, except the teeth height increases over the length of the tool. Moreover, the broach contains three distinct sections: one for roughing, another for semi-finishing, and the final one for finishing. Broaching is an unusual machining process because it has the feed built into the tool. The profile of the machined surface is always the inverse of the profile of the broach. The rise per tooth (RPT), also known as the step or feed per tooth, determines the amount of material removed and the size of the chip. The broach can be moved relative to the workpiece or vice-versa. Because all of the features are built into the broach no complex motion or skilled labor is required to use it.[2] A broach is effectively a collection of single-point cutting tools arrayed in sequence, cutting one after the other; its cut is analogous to multiple passes of a shaper.

Contents

1 Process 2 Usage 3 Types o 3.1 Surface broaches o 3.2 Internal broaches o 3.3 Design 4 Broaching machines 5 Rotary broaching 6 History 7 References o 7.1 Bibliography 8 External links

[edit] Process
The process depends on the type of broaching being performed. Surface broaching is very simple as either the workpiece is moved against a stationary surface broach, or the workpiece is held stationary while the broach is moved against it. Internal broaching is more involved. The process begins by clamping the workpiece into a special holding fixture, called a workholder, which mounts in the broaching machine. The broaching machine elevator, which is the part of the machine that moves the broach above the workholder, then lowers the broach through the workpiece. Once through, the broaching machine's puller, essentially a hook, grabs the pilot of the broach. The elevator then releases the top of the pilot and the puller pulls the broach through the workpiece completely. The workpiece is then removed from the machine and the broach is raised back up to reengage with the elevator.[3] The broach usually only moves linearly, but sometimes it is also rotated to create a spiral spline or gun-barrel rifling.[4] Cutting fluids are used for three reasons. First, to cool the workpiece and broach. Second, to lubricate cutting surfaces. Third, to flush the chips from the teeth. Fortified petroleum cutting fluids are the most common, however heavy duty water soluble cutting fluids are being used because of their superior cooling, cleanliness, and non-flammability.[5]

[edit] UsageAn example of a broached workpiece. Here the broaching profile is a spline.

Broaching was originally developed for machining internal keyways. However, it was soon discovered that broaching is very useful for machining other surfaces and shapes for high volume workpieces. Because each broach is specialized to cut just one shape either the broach must be specially designed for the geometry of the workpiece or the workpiece must be designed around a standard broach geometry. A customized broach is usually only viable with high volume workpieces, because the broach can cost $15,000 USD to $30,000 USD to produce.[6]\ Broaching speeds vary from 20 to 120 surface feet per minute (SFPM). This results in a complete cycle time of 5 to 30 seconds. Most of the time is consumed by the return stroke, broach handling, and workpiece loading and unloading.[7] The only limitations on broaching are that there are no obstructions over the length of the surface to be machined, the geometry to be cut does not have curves in multiple planes,[8] and that the workpiece is strong enough to withstand the forces involved. Specifically for internal broaching a hole must first exist in the workpiece so the broach can enter.[9] Also, there are limits on the size of internal cuts. Common internal holes can range from 0.125 to 6 in (3.2 to 150 mm) in diameter but it is possible to achieve a range of 0.05 to 13 in (1.3 to 330 mm). Surface broaches' range is usually 0.075 to 10 in (1.9 to 250 mm), although the feasible range is 0.02 to 20 in (0.51 to 510 mm).[10] Tolerances are usually 0.002 in (0.05 mm), but in precise applications a tolerance of 0.0005 in (0.01 mm) can be held. Surface finishes are usually between 16 and 63 microinches (in), but can range from 8 to 125 in.[10] There may be minimal burrs on the exit side of the cut.[7] Broaching works best on softer materials, such as brass, bronze, copper alloys, aluminium, graphite, hard rubbers, wood, composites, and plastic. However, it still has a good machinability rating on mild steels and free machining steels. When broaching, the machinability rating is closely related to the hardness of the material. For steels the ideal hardness range is between 16 and 24 Rockwell C (HRC); a hardness greater than HRC 35 will dull the broach quickly. Broaching is more difficult on harder materials, stainless steel and titanium,[11] but is still possible.[8][12] [edit] Types Broaches can be categorized by many means:[4]

Use:[8] internal, or surface Purpose: single, or combination Motion: push, pull, or stationary Construction: solid, built-up, hollow or shell Function: roughing, sizing, or burnishing

If the broach is large enough the costs can be reduced by using a built-up or modular construction. This involves producing the broach in pieces and assembling it. If any portion wears out only that section has to be replaced, instead of the entire broach.[13]Most broaches are made from high speed steel (HSS) or an alloy steel; TiN coatings are common on HSS to prolong life. Except when broaching cast iron, tungsten carbide is rarely used as a tooth material because the cutting edge will crack on the first pass.[13]

[edit] Surface broaches

The slab broach is the simplest surface broach. It is a general purpose tool for cutting flat surfaces.[8]

Slot broaches (G & H) are for cutting slots of various dimensions at high production rates. Slot broaching is much quicker than milling when more than one slot needs to be machined, because multiple broaches can be run through the part at the same time on the same broaching machine.[8] Contour broaches are designed to cut concave, convex, cam-, contoured, and irregular shaped surfaces.[8] Pot broaches are cut the inverse of an internal broach; they cut the outside diameter of a cylindrical workpiece. They are named after the pot looking fixture in which the broaches are mounted; the fixture is often referred to as a "pot". The pot is designed to hold multiple broaching tools concentrically over its entire length. The broach is held stationary while the workpiece is pushed or pulled through it.[14] This has replaced hobbing for some involute gears and cutting external splines and slots.[8] Straddle broaches use two slab broaches to cut parallel surfaces on opposite sides of a workpiece in one pass. This type of broaching holds closer tolerances than if the two cuts were done independently.[8] It is named after the fact that the broaches "straddle" the workpiece on multiple sides.[14]

[edit] Internal broaches

A modular broach Solid broaches are the most common type; they are made from one solid piece of material. For broaches that wear out quickly shell broaches are used; these broaches are similar to a solid broach, except there is a hole through the center where it mounts on an arbor. Shell broaches cost more initially, but save cost overall if the broach must be replaced often because the pilots are on the mandrel and do not have to be reproduced with each replacement.[13] Modular broaches are commonly used for large internal broaching applications. They are similar to shell broaches in that they are a multi-piece construction. This design is used because it is cheaper to build and resharpen and is more flexible than a solid design.[13] A common type of internal broach is the keyway broach (C & D). It uses a special fixture called a horn to support the broach and properly locate the part with relations to the broach.[8] A concentricity broach is a special type of spline cutting broach which cuts both the minor diameter and the spline form to ensure precise concentricity.[8] The cut-and-recut broach is used to cut thin-walled workpieces. Thin-walled workpieces have a tendency to expand during cutting and then shrink afterward. This broach overcomes that problem by first broaching with the standard roughing teeth, followed by a "breathing" section, which serves as a pilot as the workpiece shrinks. The teeth after the "breathing" section then include roughing, semi-finishing, and finishing teeth.[15]

An internal broach for cutting splines

The finishing teeth

The semi-finishing teeth

The roughing teeth

The front pilot

The slot in the tip of the broach where the broaching machine latches on to the broach to pull it through the workpiece

[edit] Design
For defining the geometry of a broach an internal type is shown below. Note that the geometries of other broaches are similar.

where:

P = pitch RPT = rise per tooth nr = number of roughing teeth ns = number of semi-finishing teeth nf = number of finishing teeth tr = RPT for the roughing teeth ts = RPT for the semi-finishing teeth tf = RPT for the finishing teeth Ls = Shank length LRP = Rear pilot length D1 = Diameter of the tooth tip D2 = Diameter of the tooth root D = Depth of a tooth (0.4P) L = Land (behind the cutting edge) (0.25P) R = Radius of the gullet (0.25P) = Hook angle or rake angle = Back-off angle or clearance angle Lw = Length of the workpiece (not shown)

A progressive surface broach The most important characteristic of a broach is the rise per tooth (RPT), which is how much material is removed by each tooth. The RPT varies for each section of the broach, which are the roughing section (tr), semi-finishing section (ts), and finishing section (tf). The roughing teeth remove most of the material so the number of roughing teeth required dictates how long the broach is.[16] The semi-finishing teeth provide surface finish and the finishing teeth provide the final finishing. The finishing section's RPT (tf) is usually zero so that as the first finishing teeth wear the later ones continue the sizing function. For free-machining steels the RPT ranges from 0.006 to 0.001 in (0.15 to 0.025 mm). For surface broaching the RPT is usually between 0.003 to 0.006 in (0.076 to 0.15 mm) and for diameter broaching is usually between 0.0012 to 0.0025 in (0.030 to 0.064 mm). The exact value depends on many factors. If the cut is too big it will impart too much stress into the teeth and the workpiece; if the cut is too small the teeth rub instead of cutting. One way to increase the RPT while keeping the stresses down is with chip breakers. They are notches in the teeth designed to break the chip and decrease the overall amount of material being removed by any given tooth (see the drawing above).[4] For broaching to be effective, the workpiece should have 0.020 to 0.025 in (0.51 to 0.64 mm) more material than the final dimension of the cut.[7] The hook () angle is a parameter of the material being cut. For steel, it is between 15 and 20 and for cast iron it is between 6 and 8. The back-off () provides clearance for the teeth so that they don't rub on the workpiece; it is usually between 1 and 3.[4] When radially broaching workpieces that require a deep cut per tooth, such as forgings or castings, a rotor-cut or jump-cut design can be used; these broaches are also known as free egress or nibbling broaches.[8] In this design the RPT is designated to two or three rows of teeth. For the broach to work the first tooth of that cluster has a wide notch, or undercut, and then the next tooth has a smaller notch (in a three tooth design) and the final tooth has no notch. This allows for a deep cut while keeping stresses, forces, and power requirements low.[4] There are two different options for achieving the same goal when broaching a flat surface. The first is similar to the rotor-cut design, which is known as a double-cut design. Here four teeth in a row have the same RPT, but each progressive tooth takes only a portion of the cut due to notches in the teeth (see the image gallery below). The other option is known as a progressive broach, which completely machines the center of the workpiece and then the rest of the broach machines outward from there. All of these designs require a broach that is longer than if a standard design were used.[4] For some circular broaches, burnishing teeth are provided instead of finishing teeth. They are not really teeth, as they are just rounded discs that are 0.001 to 0.003 in (0.025 to 0.076 mm) oversized. This results in burnishing the hole to the proper size. This is primarily used on non-ferrous and cast iron workpieces.[7] The pitch defines the tooth construction, strength, and number of teeth in contact with the workpiece. The pitch is usually calculated from workpiece length, so that the broach can be designed to have at least two teeth in contact with the workpiece at any time; the pitch remains constant for all teeth of the broach. One way to calculate the pitch is:[16]

Example of a double-cut surface broach Top view of a double-cut surface broach Side view of a double-cut surface broach

[edit] Broaching machines

The hydraulic cylinder of a horizontal broaching machine. Broaching machines are relatively simple as they only have to move the broach in a linear motion at a predetermined speed and provide a means for handling the broach automatically. Most machines are hydraulic, but a few specialty machines are mechanically driven. The machines are distinguished by whether their motion is horizontal or vertical. The choice of machine is primarily dictated by the stroke required. Vertical broaching machines rarely have a stroke longer than 60 in (1.5 m).[17] Vertical broaching machines can be designed for push broaching, pull-down broaching, pullup broaching, or surface broaching. Push broaching machines are similar to an arbor press with a guided ram; typical capacities are 5 to 50 tons. The two ram pull-down machine is the most common type of broaching machine. This style machine has the rams under the table. Pull-up machines have the ram above the table; they usually have more than one ram.[18] Most surface broaching is done on a vertical machine.[8] Horizontal broaching machines are designed for pull broaching, surface broaching, continuous broaching, and rotary broaching. Pull style machines are basically vertical machines laid on the side with a longer stroke. Surface style machines hold the broach stationary while the workpieces are clamped into fixtures that are mounted on a conveyor system. Continuous style machines are similar to the surface style machines except adapted for internal broaching.[18] Horizontal machines used to be much more common than vertical machines, however today they represent just 10% of all broaching machines purchased. Vertical machines are more popular because they take up less space.[8]

[edit] Rotary broaching

Schematic of a rotary broach starting a cut. Off-axis (wobble) angle r Rake f Front relief dp Pilot diameter w Width across corners (AC)

A somewhat different design of cutting tool that can achieve the irregular hole or outer profile of a broach is called a rotary broach or wobble broach. One of the biggest advantages to this type of broaching is that it does not require a broaching machine, but instead is used on lathes, milling machines[19], screw machines or Swiss lathes.[20] Rotary broaching requires two tooling components: a tool holder and a broach. The leading (cutting) edge of the broach has a contour matching the desired final shape. The broach is mounted in a special tool holder that that allows it to freely rotate. The tool holder is special because it holds the tool so that its axis of rotation is inclined slightly to the axis of rotation of the work. A typical value for this misalignment is 1 degree. This angle is what produces a rotating edge for the broach to cut the workpiece. Either the workpiece or the tool holder is rotated. If the tool holder is rotated, the misalignment causes the broach to appear as though it is "wobbling", which is the origin of the term "wobble broach".[20] For internal broaching the sides of the broach are drafted inward so it becomes thinner; for external broaching the sides are drafted outward, to make the pocket bigger. This draft keeps the broach from jamming; the draft must be larger than the angle of misalignment. If the work piece rotates, the broach is pressed against it, is driven by it, and rotates synchronously with it. If the tool holder rotates, the broach is pressed against the workpiece, but is driven by the tool holder.[20] Ideally the tool advances at the same rate that it cuts. The ideal rate of cut is defined as:[21] Rate of cut [inches per rotation (IPR)] = (diameter of tool [inches]) sin(Angle of misalignment [degrees]) If it advances much faster, then the tool becomes choked; conversely, if it advances much slower, then an interrupted or zig-zag cut occurs. In practice the rate of cut is slightly less than the ideal rate so that the load is released on the non-cutting edge of the tool. There is some spiraling of the tool as it cuts, so the form at the bottom of the workpiece may be rotated with respect to the form at the top of the hole or profile. Spiraling may be undesirable because it binds the body of the tool and prevents it from cutting sharply. One solution to this is to reverse the rotation in mid cut, causing the tool to spiral in the opposite direction. If reversing the machine is not practical, then interrupting the cut is another possible solution. In general, a rotary broach will not cut as accurately as a push or pull broach. However, the ability to use this type of cutting tool on common machine tools is highly advantageous.

[edit] History
The concept of broaching can be traced back to the early 1850s, with the first applications used for cutting keyways in pulleys and gears. After World War I, broaching was used to rifle gun barrels. In the 1920s and 30s the tolerances were tightened and the cost reduced thanks to advances in form grinding and broaching machines.[22]