Chapter 2

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF LUBRICANTS

27

duration of shearing the better the lubricating film which is generated by the

MY.

.P

.I
FIGURE 2.9

I
Time

Thixotropic behaviour.

VISCOSITY MEASUREMENTS Various viscosity measurement techniques and instruments have been developed over the years. The most commonly used in engineering applications are capillary and rotational viscometers. In general, capillary viscometers are suitable for fluids with negligible non-Newtonian effects and rotational viscometers are suitable for fluids with significant non-Newtonian effects. Some of the viscometers have a special heating bath built-in, in order to control and measure the temperature, so that the viscosity-temperature characteristics can be obtained. In most cases water is used in the heating bath. Water is suitable for the temperature range between 0' to 99C. For higher temperatures mineral oils are used and for low temperatures down to -!54"C, ethyl alcohol or acetone is used.
2.7

Capillary Viscometers Capillary viscometers are based on the principle that a specific volume of fluid will flow through the capillary (ASTM D445, ASTM D2161). The time necessary for this volume of fluid to flow gives the 'kinematic viscosity'. Flow through the capillary must be laminar and the deductions are based on Poiseuille's law for steady viscous flow in a pipe. There is a number of such viscometers available and some of them are shown in Figure 2.10. Assuming that the fluids are Newtonian, and neglecting end effects, the kinematic viscosity can be calculated from the formula:
2)

= nr4glt / 8LV = k(t, - tJ

(2.15)

where:
u

is the kinematic viscosity [m2/sl; is the capillary radius [ml;

28

ENGINEERING TRIBOLOGY

I
g

V
t

is the mean hydrostatic head [ml; is the earth acceleration [m/s21; is the capillary length[ml; is the flow volume of the fluid [m31; is the flow time through the capillary, t = (t, - 41, [sl; is the capillary constant which has to be determined experimentally by applying a reference fluid with known viscosity, e.g. by applying freshly distilled water. The capillary constant is usually given by the manufacturer of the viscometer.

for British Standard U-tube viscometer

tr;-.t

for opaque fluids Kinematic viscometers

FIGURE 2.10 Typical capillary viscometers (adapted from [=I).

In order to measure the viscosity of the fluid by one of the viscometers shown in Figure 2.10, the container is filled with oil between the etched lines. The measurement is then made by timing the period required for the oil meniscus to flow from the first to the second timing mark. This is measured with an accuracy to within 0.1 [sl. Kinematic viscosity can also be measured by so called short tube viscometers. In the literature they are also known as efflux viscometers. As in the previously described viscometers, viscosity is determined by measuring the time necessary for a given volume of fluid to discharge under gravity through a short tube orifice in the base of the instrument. The most commonly used viscometers are Redwood, Saybolt and Engler. The operation principle of these viscometers is the same, and they only differ by the orifice dimensions and the volume of fluid discharged. Redwood viscometers are used in the United Kingdom, Saybolt in

Chapter 2

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF LUBRICANTS

29

Europe and Engler mainly in Eastern Europe. The viscosities measured by these viscometers are quoted in terms of the time necessary for the discharge of a certain volume of fluid. Hence the viscosity is sometimes found as being quoted in Redwood and Saybolt seconds. The viscosity measured on Engler viscometers is quoted in Engler degrees, which is the time for the fluid to discharge divided f by the discharge time of the same volume o water at the same temperature. Redwood and Saybolt seconds and Engler degrees can easily be converted into centistokes as shown in Figure 2.11. These particular types of viscometers, are gradually becoming obsolete, since they do not easily provide calculable viscosity.

1.3
1.4
1 5

1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9

2
25

a
8

: 3
45 5

P6 w 7
9 10

15 W

as
30
Y

40
4s
Y)

m
W 90

Im

1w-

FIGURE 2.11 Viscosity conversion chart (compiled by Texaco Inc.).

In order to extend the range of kinematic, Saybolt Universal, Redwood No. 1 and Engler viscosity scales only (Figure 2.10, a simple operation is performed. The viscosities on these scales which correspond to the viscosity between 100 and 1000 [cS] on the kinematic scale are multiplied by a factor of 10 and this gives the required extension. For example:

30

ENGINEERING TRIBOLOGY

4000 [cS] = 400 [cS] x 10 = 1850 [SUS] = 51 [Engler] x 10 = 510 [Englerl

10 = 18500 [SUS]

A typical short tube viscometer is shown in Figure 2.12.

Overflowrim

Capillary tube -

FIGURE 2.12 Schematic diagram of a short tube viscometer.

Rotational Viscometers Rotational viscometers are based on the principle that the fluid whose viscosity is being measured is sheared between two surfaces (ASTM D2983). In these viscometers one of the surfaces is stationary and the other is rotated by an external drive and the fluid fills the space in between. The measurements are conducted by applying either a constant torque and measuring the changes in the speed of rotation or applying a constant speed and measuring the changes in the torque. These viscometers give the dynamic viscosity. There are two main types of these viscometers: rotating cylinder and cone-on-plate viscometers.

Rotating Cylinder Viscometer The rotating cylinder viscometer, also known as a Couette viscometer, consists of two concentric cylinders with an annular clearance filled with fluid as shown in Figure 2.13. The inside cylinder is stationary and the outside cylinder rotates at constant velocity. The force necessary to shear the fluid between the cylinders is measured. The velocity of the cylinder can be varied so that the changes in viscosity of the fluid with shear rate can be assessed. Different cylinders with a range of radial clearances are used for different fluids.
e

Chapter 2

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF LUBRICANTS

31

Graduated scale

g .g

/Pointer

Pointer

Inner cylinder (stationary)

Outer cylinder (rotating)

~ r i ~ i motor ng

FIGURE 2.13 Schematic diagram of a rotating cylinder viscometer.

For Newtonian fluids the dynamic viscosity can be estimated from the formula:

q = M(l/r:+
where:
rl rb,r, M

r) / 4lcdo = kM / o :

(2.16)

is the dynamic viscosity [Pas]; are the radii of the inner and outer cylinders respectively [ml; is the shear torque on the inner cylinder [Nml;

is the angular velocity [rad/sl; is the immersion depth of the inner cylinder [ml; is the viscometer constant, supplied usually by the manufacturer for each pair of cylinders [m-31. When motor oils are used in European and North American conditions, the oil viscosity data at -18OC is required in order to assess the ease with which the engine starts. A specially adapted rotating cylinder viscometer, known in the literature as the 'Cold Cranking Simulator' (CCS), is used for this purpose (ASTM D2602). The schematic diagram of this viscometer is shown in Figure 2.14. The inner cylinder is rotated at constant power in the cooled lubricant sample of volume about 5 [ml]. The viscosity of the oil sample tested is assessed by comparing the rotational speed of the test oil with the rotational speed of the reference oil under the same conditions. The measurements provide an
d k

32

ENGINEERING TRIBOLOGY

indication of the ease with which the engine will turn at low temperatures and with limited available starting power.
Constant-power motor drive with tachometer with tachometer

Overload clutch Overload clutch

I
FIGURE2.14 Schematic diagram of a cold cranking simulator.

In the case of very viscous fluids, two cylinder arrangements with a small clearance might be impractical because of the very high viscous resistance; thus a single cylinder is rotated in a fluid and measurements are calibrated against measurements obtained with reference fluids.

. Cone on Plate Viscometer The cone on plate viscometer consists of a conical surface and a flat plate. Either of these surfaces can be rotated. The clearance between the cone and the plate is filled with the fluid and the cone angle ensures a constant shear rate in the clearance space. The advantage of this viscometer is that a very small sample volume of fluid is required for the test. In some of these viscometers, the temperature of the fluid sample is controlled during tests. This is achieved by circulating pre-heated or cooled external fluid through the plate of the viscometer. The schematic diagram of this viscometer is shown in Figure 2.15. The dynamic viscosity can be estimated from the formula:
q = 3Macosza(l - a2/2) 2xwr3= kM / w /
where:
(2.17)

q r

is the dynamic viscosity [Pas]; is the radius of the cone [m];

Chapter 2

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF LUBRICANTS

33

M
w

is the shear torque on the cone [Nml; is the angular velocity [rad/sl; is the cone angle [radl; is the viscometer constant, usually supplied by the manufacturer [ma].

a k

FIGURE 2.15 Schematic diagram of a cone on plate viscometer.

Other Viscometers Many other types of viscometers, based on different principles of measurement, are also available. Most commonly used in many laboratories is the Falling Ball Viscometer. A glass tube is filled with the fluid to be tested and then a steel ball is dropped into the tube. The measurement is then made by timing the period required for the ball to fall from the first to the second timing mark, etched on the tube. The time is measured with an accuracy to within 0.1 [sl. This viscometer can also be used for the determination of viscosity changes under pressure and its schematic diagram is shown in Figure 2.16. The dynamic viscosity can be estimated from the formula:

q = 2r2(p,- p)gF / 9v
where:
rl

(2.18)

is the dynamic viscosity [Pas];

34

ENGJNEERING TRIBOLOGY

r
pb

is the radius of the ball [m]; is the density of the ball Ikg/m31;

is the density of the fluid [kg/m31; is the gravitational constant [m/s21; g V is the velocity of the ball [m/s]; F is the correction factor. The correction factor can be calculated from the formula given by Faxen 1191:
P

F = 1 - 2.104(d/D)

2.09(d/D)-

0.9(d/D)

(2.19)

where:
d D

is the diameter of the ball [m]; is the internal diameter of the tube [ml.

FIGURE 2.16 Schematic diagram of a Falling Ball Viscometer. There are also many other more specialized viscometers designed to perform viscosity measurements, e.g. under high pressures, on very small volumes of fluid, etc. They are described in more specialized literature [e.g. 211.