Chapter 1

1.1. Concept of interconnection

Electricity in the large quantities required to supply electric power systems is produced in generating stations, commonly called power plants. The transmission system carries electric power efficiently and in large amounts from generating stations to consumption areas. Such transmission is also used to interconnect adjacent power systems for mutual assistance in case of emergency and to gain for the interconnected power systems the economies possible in regional operation. The interconnection of electric power systems of different countries/states provides a great many technological and economic advantages: improvement in the reliability and quality of the electricity supplied, reduction of the installed capacity of electric power stations as the result of combined load curves and the reduction in the reserve capacity required, the possibility of joint construction and use of large power plants by countries that are members of the interconnected system, the possibility of efficient use of hydroelectric resources, and improvement in the composition of generating capacities as a result of the building of large electric power stations with generating installations of high unit capacity. Under conditions of sudden increase in load or loss of generation in one area, it is immediately possible to borrow power from adjoining interconnected areas. Interconnection causes larger currents to flow on transmission line under faulty condition with a consequent increase in capacity of circuit breakers. Also, the synchronous machines of all interconnected areas must operate stably and in a synchronized manner. The disturbance caused by a short circuit in one area must be rapidly disconnected by circuit breaker opening before it can seriously affect adjoining areas. 1. It permits the construction of larger and more economical generating units and the transmission of large chunk of power from the generating plants to major load centre. 2. It provides capacity savings by seasonal exchange of power between areas having opposing winter and summer requirements. 3. It permits capacity savings from time zones and random diversity. 4. It facilitates transmission of off-peak power and gives the flexibility to meet unexpected emergency loads.

1.2. Electrical grid

An electrical grid is a vast, interconnected network for delivering electricity from suppliers to consumers. It consists of three main components: 1) generating plants that produce electricity from combustible fuels (coal, natural gas, biomass) or non-combustible fuels (wind, solar, nuclear, hydro power); 2) transmission lines that carry electricity from power plants to demand centers; and 3) transformers that reduce voltage so distribution lines carry power for final delivery. In the power industry, electrical grid is a term used for an electricity network which includes the following three distinct operations: 1. Electricity generation - Generating plants are usually located near a source of water, and away from heavily populated areas. They are usually quite large in order to take advantage of the economies of scale. The electric power which is generated is stepped up to a higher voltage-at which it connects to the transmission network. 2. Electric power transmission - The transmission network will move (wheel) the power long distances-often across state lines, and sometimes across international boundaries until it reaches its wholesale customer (usually the company that owns the local distribution network). 3. Electricity distribution - Upon arrival at the substation, the power will be stepped down in voltagefrom a transmission level voltage to a distribution level voltage. As it exits the substation, it enters the distribution wiring. Finally, upon arrival at the service location, the power is stepped down again from the distribution voltage to the required service voltage(s).

1.2.1. Structure of distribution grids

The structure, or "topology" of a grid can vary considerably. The physical layout is often forced by what land is available and its geology. The logical topology can vary depending on the constraints of budget, requirements for system reliability, and the load and generation characteristics. The cheapest and simplest topology for a distribution or transmission grid is a radial structure. This is a tree shape where power from a large supply radiates out into progressively lower voltage lines until the destination homes and businesses are reached. Most transmission grids require the reliability that more complex mesh networks provide. If one were to imagine running redundant lines between limbs/branches of a tree that could be turned in case any particular limb of the tree were severed, then this image approximates how a mesh system operates. The expense of mesh topologies restrict their application to transmission and medium

voltage distribution grids. Redundancy allows line failures to occur and power is simply rerouted while workmen repair the damaged and deactivated line. A substation receives its power from the transmission network, the power is stepped down with a transformer and sent to a bus from which feeders fan out in all directions across the countryside. These feeders carry three-phase power, and tend to follow the major streets near the substation. As the distance from the substation grows, the fanout continues as smaller laterals spread out to cover areas missed by the feeders. This tree-like structure grows outward from the substation, but for reliability reasons, usually contains at least one unused backup connection to a nearby substation. This connection can be enabled in case of an emergency, so that a portion of a substation's service territory can be alternatively fed by another substation

1.2.2. Geography of transmission networks

Transmission networks are more complex with redundant pathways. A wide area synchronous grid or "interconnection" is a group of distribution areas all operating with alternating current (AC) frequencies synchronized (so that peaks occur at the same time). This allows transmission of AC power throughout the area, connecting a large number of electricity generators and consumers and potentially enabling more efficient electricity markets and redundant generation. Electricity generation and consumption must be balanced across the entire grid, because energy is consumed almost immediately after it is produced. A large failure in one part of the grid - unless quickly compensated for - can cause current to re-route itself to flow from the remaining generators to consumers over transmission lines of insufficient capacity, causing further failures. One downside to a widely connected grid is thus the possibility of cascading failure and widespread power outage. A central authority is usually designated to facilitate communication and develop protocols to maintain a stable grid. Highvoltage direct current lines or variable frequency transformers can be used to connect two alternating current interconnection networks which are not synchronized with each other. This provides the benefit of interconnection without the need to synchronize an even wider area.

1.2.3. Redundancy and defining "grid"

A town is only said to have achieved grid connection when it is connected to several redundant sources, generally involving long-distance transmission. This redundancy is limited. Existing national or regional grids simply provide the interconnection of facilities to utilize whatever redundancy is available. The exact stage of development at which the supply structure becomes a grid is arbitrary. Similarly, the term national grid is something of an anachronism in many parts of the world, as transmission cables now frequently cross national boundaries. The terms distribution grid for local connections and transmission

grid for long-distance transmissions are therefore preferred, but national grid is often still used for the overall structure.

1.3. Power Transmission in India

India's power transmission and system operations are going through an extensive national restructuring program parallel with evolving state-level reforms. The Power Grid Corporation of India (POWERGRID), India's national transmission utility, is the main implementing agency of this program. Currently, there are five regional transmission grids for the northern, eastern, north-eastern, western and the southern regions. The map below shows the

PGCIL plans to interconnect its regional systems to a national power grid, which can facilitate power sharing from neighboring states or countries with surplus power. The entire programme is has been planned out in a phased manner consisting of three phases at an estimated investment of US$ 20 billion. Of this, POWERGRID would invest US$ 11 billion. The rest would be from the private sector.

Phase-I involving interconnection of regional grids through HVDC Back-to-Back links with a cumulative capacity of 5000 MW has already been completed.

Source: PGCIL Phase-II is partially complete and involves a hybrid system comprising of high capacity HVDC and HVAC lines (both 765 kV and 400 kV).

At the end of this phase, cumulative inter-regional capacity would be 23,000 MW. This would help transfer operational surplus and would provide flexibility in inter-regional transfer of power. The Phase-III is scheduled to be completed by 2012. This would consist of a ring of 765 kV transmission lines inter-connecting ER, WR and NR and would be utilised for transfer of short term as well as long term surplus. The cumulative capacity at the end of this phase would be 30,000 MW.

Source: PGCIL

The present cumulative capacity is 16450 MW. On an average, 1500-2000 MW is being transferred and about 35 MU/day is being traded. The major inter regional links of 8000 MW capacity is shown below:

Source: PGCIL To encourage private investment in the transmission business, the Central Government enacted the Electricity Laws (Amendment) Act in August 1998. This Act provides for state transmission utilities and transmission licensees, and thereby facilitates state power reform and private investment in power transmission. An extensive network of Transmission and Distribution lines has been developed over the years for evacuating power produced in the various generating stations and distributing the same to the consumers. Depending upon the quantum of power and the distance involved lines of appropriate voltages are laid. The nominal Extra High Voltage lines in vogue are HVDC, 400 KV, 230/220 KV, 110 KV and 66 KV lines have been introduced so far by the SEBs are Punjab, U.P, W.B, M.P. Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka, Bihar and Orissa as also by BBMB (Punjab) and Central Sector only. The standard voltage of operation on the distribution side are 33 KV, 22 KV,11KV, 400/230 Volts besides 6.6 KV, 3.3 KV and 2.2 KV. The low voltage system has 3 phase 4 wires supply giving 400/420 volts between 2 phases and

220/240 volts between phase and neutral. This has been universally adopted throughout the country. The State of Maharashtra has the largest Transmission and Distribution network of 631972 Ckt. Kms in the country. Apart from Maharashtra the States of Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh,Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Bihar, West Bengal and Orissa have more than 1 lakh Ckt. Kms. of T&D Lines. One of the major reasons of power shortage in the country is high transmission and distribution losses which include power thefts and non-payment by priority sectors. In addition to this is the poor financial conditions of SEBs many of whom have mounting dues aggregating over Rs 100 billion. The restructuring of the power sector, reform of the SEBs rationalization of tariff, improvement in not only generation but also in distribution and transmission, and above all a commercial re-orientation of the entire sector are the core issues to be dealt with for toning up the sector performance.

1.4. Cascading failure in power transmission

Cascading failure is common in power grids when one of the elements fails (completely or partially) and shifts its load to nearby elements in the system. Those nearby elements are then pushed beyond their capacity so they become overloaded and shift their load onto other elements. Cascading failure is a common effect seen in high voltage systems, where a single point of failure (SPF) on a fully loaded or slightly overloaded system results in a sudden spike across all nodes of the system. This surge current can induce the already overloaded nodes into failure, setting off more overloads and thereby taking down the entire system in a very short time. This failure process cascades through the elements of the system like a ripple on a pond and continues until substantially all of the elements in the system are compromised and/or the system becomes functionally disconnected from the source of its load. For example, under certain conditions a large power grid can collapse after the failure of a single transformer. Monitoring the operation of a system, in real-time, and judicious disconnection of parts can help stop a cascade. Another common technique is to calculate a safety margin for the system by computer simulation of possible failures, to establish safe operating levels below which none of the calculated scenarios is predicted to cause cascading failure, and to identify the parts of the network which are most likely to cause cascading failures. One of the primary problems with preventing electrical grid failures is that the speed of the control signal is no faster than the speed of the propagating power overload, i.e. since both the control signal and the electrical power are moving at the speed of light, it is not possible to isolate the outage by sending a warning

ahead to isolate the element. To ameliorate this systemic defect, superconducting magnetic energy storage units at critical junctions can store or release power for a few seconds to allow control systems to catch up and actuate isolating procedures.

1.4.1. Causes
Electrical power cannot easily be stored over extended periods of time, and is generally consumed less than a second after being produced. The load on any network must be matched by the supply to it and its ability to transmit that power. Any overload of a power line, or under load/overload of a generator, can cause hard-to-repair and costly damage, so the affected device is disconnected from the network if a serious imbalance is detected. As power lines carry more current, they get hotter. This causes them to lengthen and sag between towers. They may safely reach a specified minimum clearance height above the ground. If the lines sag further, a flashover to nearby objects (such as trees) can occur, causing a transient increase in current. Automatic protective relays detect the high current and quickly act to disconnect the faulted line from service. To maintain the lines' specified operating clearance, the rightof-way must be kept clear of vegetation. Should a fault occur and take a line out of service, the change in current flow is compensated by other transmission lines, which must have enough spare capacity to carry the excess current. If they do not, overload protection in those lines will also trip, causing a cascading failure as the excess current is switched onto neighboring circuits running at or near their capacity. System operators are responsible for ensuring that power supply and loads remain balanced, and for keeping the system within safe operational limits such that no single fault can cause the system to fail. After a failure affecting their system, operators must obtain more power from generators or other regions or "shed load" (meaning cut power to some areas) until they can be sure that the worst remaining possible failure anywhere in the system will not cause a system collapse. In an emergency, they are expected to immediately shed load as required to bring the system into balance. To assist the operators there are computer systems, with backups, which issue alarms when there are faults in the transmission or generation system. Power flow modeling tools let them analyze the current state of their network, predict whether any parts of it may be overloaded, and predict what the worst possible failure left is, so that they can change the distribution of generation or reconfigure the transmission system to prevent a failure should this situation occur. If the computer systems and their backups fail, the operators are required to monitor the grid manually, instead of relying on computer alerts. If they cannot interpret the current state of the power grid in such an event, they follow a contingency plan, contacting other plant and grid operators by telephone if necessary. If there is a failure, they are also required to notify adjacent areas

which may be affected, so those can predict the possible effects on their own systems. Local operators are co-ordinate by regional centers, but the operating principle is the same whether the network is large or small.

1.5. Islanding
Islanding refers to the condition in which a distributed generation (DG) generator continues to power a location even though electrical grid power from the electric utility is no longer present. Islanding can be dangerous to utility workers, who may not realize that a circuit is still powered, and it may prevent automatic re-connection devices. For that reason, distributed generators must detect islanding and immediately stop producing power; this is referred to as anti-islanding. The common example of islanding is a grid supply line that has solar panels attached to it. In the case of a blackout, the solar panels will continue to deliver power as long as the sun is shining. In this case, the supply line becomes an "island" with power surrounded by a "sea" of unpowered lines. For this reason, solar inverters that are designed to supply power to the grid are generally required to have some sort of automatic anti-islanding circuitry in them. In intentional islanding, the generator disconnects from the grid, and forces the distributed generator to power the local circuit. This is often used as a power backup system for buildings that normally sell their power to the grid.

1.5.1. Islanding basics

Electrical inverters are devices that convert direct current (DC) to alternating current (AC). Grid-interactive inverters have the additional requirement that they produce AC power that matches the existing power presented on the grid. In particular, a grid-interactive inverter must match the voltage, frequency and phase of the power line it connects to. There are numerous technical requirements to the accuracy of this tracking. Consider the case of a house with an array of solar panels on the roof. Inverter(s) attached to the panels convert the varying DC current provided by the panels into AC power that matches the grid supply. If the grid is disconnected, the voltage on the grid line might be expected to drop to zero, a clear indication of a service interruption. However, consider the case when the house's load exactly matches the output of the panels at the instant of the grid interruption. In this case the panels can continue supplying power, which is used up by the house's load. In this case there is no obvious indication that an interruption has occurred.

Normally even when the load and production are exactly matched, the so-called "balanced condition", the failure of the grid will result in several additional transient signals being generated. For instance, there will almost always be a brief decrease in line voltage, which will signal a potential fault condition. However, such events can also be caused by normal operation, like the starting of a large electric motor. Methods that detect islanding without a large number of false positives is the subject of considerable research. Each method has some threshold that needs to be crossed before a condition is consider to be a signal of grid interruption, which leads to a "non-detection zone" (NDZ), the range of conditions where a real grid failure will be filtered out.

1.6. LOAD DISPATCH CENTRE

The Load Dispatch Centre is the nerve centre for the operation, planning, monitoring and control of the power system. Electricity cannot be stored and has to be produced when it is needed. It is therefore essential that power system is planned and operated optimally & economically. This is the main objective of Load Dispatch Centre.

1.6.1. The objectives of Load Dispatch Centre are

1. Matching the power demand with system integrity, reliability and security of generation and transmission facilities. 2. Regulating the system frequency. 3. Optimum utilization of resources. 4. Quick restoration of normalcy after system disturbances thus the objectives of Load Dispatch Department is to co-ordinate generation, transmission and distribution of electricity from moment to moment to achieve maximum security and efficiency . The functions of load Dispatch Department are Dynamic in nature. While performing the functions the policies laid down by management are strictly followed. In State electricity Board the policies that govern the operation of Load Dispatch Department are . Economy of generation , transmission and distribution of supply of electric power to the consumers. . Continuity and high reliability of power supply. Safety of equipment

1.6.2.Responsibilities of State Load Dispatch Centre.

Demand Estimation for operational purpose. Scheduling for Merit Order dispatch. Regulating Generation Load Balance. Schedule for Central Sector Drawl & Regulate it. Monitor bilateral power supply agreement. Maintain system frequency in 49.0 Hzs to 50.5 Hzs range. Outage planning and monitoring. Reactive power management and voltage control. Load Shedding Implementation. Coordination with RLDC and other constituents.

1.6.3.Functions of the State Load Dispatch Centre.

1. The Regional Load Dispatch Centre shall be the apex body to ensure integrated operation of the power system in the concerned region. 2. The Regional Load Dispatch Centre shall comply with such principles, guidelines and methodologies in respect of the wheeling and optimum scheduling and dispatch of electricity as the Central Commission may specify in the Grid Code. 3. The Regional Load Dispatch Centre Shall a. be responsible for optimum scheduling and dispatch of electricity within the region, in accordance with the contracts entered into with the licensees or the generating companies operating in the region. b. monitor grid operations; c. keep accounts of the quantity of electricity transmitted through the regional grid; compliance of directions. Transmission within a State regional grid; d. exercise supervision and control over the inter-State transmission system; and e. be responsible for carrying out real time operations for grid control and dispatch of electricity within the region through secure and economic operation of the regional grid in accordance with the Grid Standards and the Grid Code. 4. The Regional Load Dispatch Centre may levy and collect such fee and charges from the generating companies or licensees engaged in inter - State transmission f electricity as may be specified by the Central Commission.