Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Collected and Shared by Tran Manh Trung Foreign Language Department Hong Duc University Thanh Hoa Province ************************
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung Hong Duc University Thanh Hoa
Ord 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09
INFORMAL/EVERYDAY a lot of/ loads of/ plenty of a bit to get together to start/to begin big thing stuff to find out to do again
FORMAL/ACADEMIC a great deal of /numerous/ several Somewhat (before adj. or adv.)/ slightly to collaborate with sbd on smth to initiate/to commence smth/v-ing large (number/percentage), considerable device/object material to ascertain/discover to repeat
VIETNAMESE MEANING nhiu mt ch t t cng t c bt u khi u ln, to ln vt dng/vt th cht liu, vt liu t ra, t thy m m lp li
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10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 37 38
to do well to set up to cut down on to go up to come up with to look into to go up and down to bring up a question to get rid of to turn down smth to turn out smth to take smth back to put off smth to put up with to put away smth to put down to smth to come about to give up to go back/give back to give off smth to give away to carry out smth to seem to climb to help to stop to use to shorten to show to go
to succeed to establish to reduce to increase to create to investigate to fluctuate to raise a question to eliminate to refuse to produce to retract (a statement) to postpone smth to tolerate to save to attribute to to occur to relinquish return to swh/ smth to produce (heat) to betray to conduct to appear to ascend to assist/ aid to cease to consume to decrease/ to abbreviate to demonstrate to depart
th c nh ng thit lp gim bt tng ln to ra iu tra dao ng a ra vn loi b t chi l ra, to ra m r li t ho li n chu ng tit kim, d nh quy cho, g cho n xy ra t b tr li/ tr li sn sinh, to ra tit l, phn bi tin h nh hnh nh, dng nh i ln, tng ln (s lng) gi p dng li d ti d ng, u ng gim bt/ r ngn t ch ra, chng minh i, khi h nh
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39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 67
to want to end to tell to keep to say no to free to mend/ to fix to need to live in the end at once at the same time at first on and off mainly next again and again so understanding lack chance sweat house sight friendly whole lively lucky
to desire to finish/ to terminate to inform preserve/ retain to reject to release/ to liberate to repair to require to reside finally/ultimately immediately simultaneously/ concurrently initially intermittently principally/primarily subsequently repeatedly therefore/ consequently comprehension deficiency opportunity perspiration residence vision amiable complete energetically/animated fortunate
mong mun kt th c th tin, cho bit ng gi g gi n/ t chi tr t do, ph th ng ch sa cha cn ti, trti cui c ng ngay lp tc ng thi, c l ng c u ti n gin on, l cl kh c c ng ch yu tip theo lp i lp li v v th, vy s hiu s thiu ht c hi, dp m h i ni c tr (count) kh nng nhn, th gi c th mt n to b n y sinh lc/ sng ng may mn
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68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96
childish wrong worse cheap dim mad to lay back in charge of enough better clear empty to ask for hot (topic) more and more to get bad to get worse horrible to come in to talk about to go down to come up with to look at to pin down to experience the influence of Lets consider I love/like/prefer On top of that
immature/ infantile incorrect/questionable inferior to inexpensive indistinct insane to relax responsible for sufficient superior to transparent vacant to require/ to request controversial Increasingly/ unceasingly/non-stop to obtain/ to receive disappointing to deteriorate unacceptable to enter to discuss to descend to suggest to examine to determine to be influenced It is important to consider Personally, I favour Another point is
nh tr con (t c nh ch) sai/ cvn thp km hn r kh rr m ng ng, in th gin chu tr nhim ch y tt hn, gii hn rr ng trng kh ng i hi, y cu u ang gy tranh ci tng ln khng ngng t c, ly , mua ti t, ng tht vng tr n xu i n kh th chp nhn, kinh khng ng i vo tho lun i xung, gim xung gi , a ra xem x t quyt t , dt kho m t chu nh hng h c nhc, xem x y n t T th t ng h i ch, i mt im kh na l c
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97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 126
Government must make laws In a nutshell Every coin has two sides by chance to try to swap as far as x goes to skip by accident kids O.K to make up for to catch on smth to go down with a disease to go up to get in touch with to let somebody know to call off to sort out to deal with small to think of about to do (research) hard to keep up a lot stand for next
There is a need for laws To state it briefly/ In brief There are advantages and disadvantages to Incidentally to attempt/ to endeavor to exchange in respect of / with respect to omit/not attend smth accidentally infants/offsprings acceptable/ satisfactory to compensate for to understand to contract a disease to increase to contact to inform to cancel to resolve to handle/ to address minimal/limited/ modest to conceive of/imagine an estimated, approximately, roughly to carry out, perform, undertake difficult, problematic,challenging to maintain a substantial amount, a considerable sum denote, represent adjacent
cn clut v t li m mi vn u cu im vnhc im nh tin n c gng trao i i vi, v phn b qua, kh tham d ng ngu nhi t c n, nh tr em c, chp nhn c n b bli , nm bt, hiu mc bnh tng ln li h. li lc n n cho bit hu b, b b i gii quyt, i n quyt nh gii quyt, x l nh, b ngh v, suy t nh khong chng tin h (nghi cu), m nhim nh n kh khn duy tr nhiu ch, thay cho k cn
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127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 152 153 154 155 156
prove rich the same as drink man old people crooks great, awesome sick of, fed up with feature before to think (that) Because Nobody can say I think that About And but to write a cheque carefull/cautious to check to agree with to go over to hand / to give In accordance with to involve lost to make sure to order
confirm affluent, wealthy, prosperous equivalent to beverage (count) male senior citizens, retirees offenders, lawbreakers preferable, desirable dissatisfied with characteristic Prior to to assume (that) Owing to or due to the fact that/As a result of It is impossible to predict It seems that/ It could be argued that Regarding/ Concerning as well as while/whereas to issue a checque prudent (imprudent)/prudential to verify to be bound by exeed to submit Pursuant to to entail inadvertently mislaid to ensure to authorise
khng nh gi c u ging nhau, tng ng ung n ng ngi cao tui ti phm tuyt vi, ng ao c kh h l ng i ng c im trc cho rng v Kh cth d on trc ng nNi ta n rng i V, v phn cn, cng nh nng, khi m vit t ng phiu n cn thn, thn trng kim tra ng vi vt qu qumc , tr l np nh n, Phhp vi k theo, k theo o m vt tht lc nh m bo rng u quyn
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157 158 159 160 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 179 180 181 182 183 184 185
to pay to supply to take away when we get Whenever we like / want One after the other There are no big differences between This shows that to put smth into action etc./ and so forth./ and so on. i.e e.g vs. nice/ cute smart come lifestyle 19th century workmate tired drunk sad who to get your money back to pay your bills really to go up to to work breathing
to settle to furnish to withdraw On receipt of Without prior notice At regular intervals No significant differences emerges between This demonstrates that To be implemented/ carried out among other examples namely, / that is, For example, versus/as apposed of attractive intelligent arrive way of life / manner of life The nineteenth century colleague exhausted intoxicated dejected whom ( i t t ng, sau gii t) n refund your payment to settle your account extremely to reach to function respiration
tr tin, thanh to n cung cp ly ra, r (tin) ra t Khi nhn c Khng bo trc u n Kh cs kh bit ng k n ng c o iu n ch ra rng y c tin h c a v hot ng nh, o vv.v tc l chng hn , v d chng li, ngc vi hp dn, l cun i th minh ng n li sng Kh vit tt ng ng nghip mt mi b say ru bun, ch nn n ai ly li tin tr tin hon mua h thanh to ng, n cc k, vc ng l ti (con s), t ti n hot ng s hhp
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186 187 188 189 190 191 192 193 194 195 196 197 198 199 200 201 202 203 204 205 206 207 208 209 210 211 212 213 214
meat-eater chance wrong died out relevant relatives copy break mix preference to come across to do away with to build up to finish off to back up to put forward to put across to obey a law poor country Thats why/ why new dependence quarrel In the same way to look for way money to imagine place
carnivore opportunity erroneous extinct pertinent kindred imitate fracture blend predilection to find to abolish to accumulate to conclude to support/to advocate propose to express to comply with a law developing country For this reason, / the reason for novel surbodination debate/dispute Similarly, to seek manner/solution currency to conceive / conceivably location
ng vt n tht c hi sai s t tuyt chng th ng, ng ch ch h h th tc ng n bt chc p v pha trn s thi v n t thy m b b i t lu ch kt lun ng h xut, ngh biu l, b t y tu th ph lut n p nc ngh o V do n l y mi s ph thuc C nhau i Tng t nh vy T kim m gii ph p tin t tng tng ni, v tr
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215 216 217 218 219 220 221 223 224 225 226 227 228 229 230 231 232 233 234 235 236 237 238 239 240 241 242 243 244
viewpoint fast/quickly how much when (conj) In/For many years to make smth better /to get better To put on weight verb + not + any + noun verb + not + many/much + noun to give as you can be seen wood to describe to learn by heart to go on may be somehow job to take on to give dad plane (not) smoke. to follow these guidelines. gran/granny/nana every year/ each year glasses shop fridge
stance rapidly/ as a matter of urgency to what extent (not applicable to price or amount) At the time of During a considearble period of years to improve/to upgrade to gain weight verb + no + noun verb + few/little + noun to provide as can be seen timber to depict to memorise to continue possibly, perhaps in a certain way occupation employ donate, contribute father aeroplane to refrain from smoking to adhere to these guidelines. grandmother annually spectacles retail outlet refrigerator
lp trng, quan im nhanh ti mc n o Khi m Trong nhiu nm ci thin, l cho tt hn m Tng c n kh (c g ng i ) kh (c g ng i ) a cho, cung cp nh ta cth thy g mt ghi nh tip tc cl bng c n ch o ngh nghip thu cho, tng b m bay y kh h thuc ng t theo s ch dn b hng nm k eo mt nh ca hiu t lnh
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TV/ telly boss change phone you back bin man and so on. / and so forth / etc.
television employer transform return your call refuse collector among other examples. / or avoid using them
Academic Language
The term academic language commonly refers to the language that is used in formal situations such as classrooms, college or universities. Moreover, it is the language of textbooks and exams. Academic language is the language used by teachers and students in order to acquire new knowledge and skills. It differs in structure and vocabulary from language used in daily social interactions. This means that academic language includes specialized vocabulary, as well as conventional text structures such as the use of nominal groups, i.e., groups of words that provide more information about particular concepts. For example, the language of linguistics includes words like morphology, language acquisition, or language learning.
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Some people argue that Have you ever considered ? The question raises the issue of
In this essay, I will state This essay will examine will be covered in this essay.
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Giving reasons
One reason for this is that This can be explained by This can be attributed to the fact that
Not only that, but A further reason is It should also be stated that
It has been claimed that It is widely believed that There is a widespread belief that
Refuting opinions
I would dispute this, however. However, this is not necessarily the case. There are some faults with this reasoning, however.
Hedging strategies
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Strengthening an argument
There can be no doubt that Therefore, we can say beyond any doubt that These are just some of the reasons why
To sum up, / In summary, / In short, Overall, / On the whole, To return to my original idea,
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Nouns
Verbs
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to dip to dive to plunge to show an upward trend to show a downward trend to hit the highest point to hit the lowest point to reach a peak to show some fluctuation to fluctuate wildly to remain stable to remain static to remain unchanged to stay constant to reach a plateau to level off to flatten out the highest the lowest the second highest the third highest compared to compared with relative to sharply suddenly rapidly abruptly dramatically
Phrases
Adverbs
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significantly steadily considerably markedly slightly gently gradually wildly sharp sudden rapid abrupt dramatic steep significant steady considerable marked slight gentle gradual
Adjectives
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MORE WORDS AND PHRASES TO DESCRIBE TRENDS: A. Introduction 1. The graph (biu )/table (bng)/ shows (cho thy)/indicates (ch)/ illustrates (minh ho)/ reveals (tit l)/ represents (trnh by) 3. It can be seen from the graph/table 5. As can be seen from the graph/table 7. As is illustrated by the graph/table B. Verbs 1. to constitute/ make up: to th nh 3. to account for: chim n 5. to stand at: gi (s) 7. to double: gp i 9. to halve: chia i, gim i mt na 11. to slow down: chm li 2. to comprise: bao gm 4. to amount to : l n (s) n 6. to treble: gp ba ln 8. to increase three fold: tng gp ba ln 10. to diminish: st gim, l st gim m 12. to remain the same/ unchanged: kh thay i, gi nguy ng n 2. It is clear from the graph/table 4. As the graph/table shows 6. As is shown by the graph/table 8. From the graph / table it is clear
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13. to deplete: l gim m 15. to escalate: leo thang, tng nhan 17. to fall to %: gim ti % 19. to fall by %: gim khong % 21. to rise to %: tng ti % 23. to rise from %: tng t %
14. to lessen: gim bt, l gim bt m 16. to stand at the same level: gi nguy n 18. to fall from %: gim xung di % 20. to drop to : gim ti % 22. to rise by %: tng khong
24. to increase at % /reduce at %: tng/gim % 25. to increase to /reduce to : tng/gim ti (s) 26. to remain relatively steady: vn duy tr tng i n nh C. Adverbs 1. exceptionally: cbit, khc thng 3. moderately: va phi 5. substantially: to ln, ng k 7. hardly/ scarcely: hu nh kh ng 2. remarkably: ng ch 4. extremely/enormously: cc k, rt 6. marginally: hi, i ch t 8. slowly: chm
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D. Prepositions and prepositional phrases 1. In/within the range of and :Trong phm vi 2. For/During the first six months, : Trong s th u u ng 3. During the remainder of the year, : Trong thi gian c li ca nm n 4. During the first half of this century, : Trong na u th k n y 5. Between 1950 and 1960, : Gia nm 1950 v1960 6. In the period from 1960 to 1990, :Trong giai on t 1960 to 1990 7. In the period between 1950 and 1960, : Trong giai on gia nm 1950 v1990 8. From that time on: T thi gian tr i 9. Over a ten-year period, : Trong giai on 10 nm 10. Throughout the nineteenth century: Trong sut th k 19 11. Unlike : Kh ging vi ng 12. In contrast to : so vi /tng phn vi 13. In comparison with : so s vi nh
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E. Nouns and noun phrases 1. overview: c nh kh qu c nh tng quan i n i t, i n 2. a large number /percentage of : mt s ln /mt t l phn trm ln ca 3. the whole/total amount/quantity of : tng lng ca 4. the total number of : tng s ca 5. An increase of %: s tng l % n 6. trend: khuynh hng 8. a drop of %: s gim % 10. a slight increase: s tng nh F. Comparison 1. Comparing the figures for 1990 and 2000 : So s c con s ca nm 1990 vnm 2000 nh c 2. Compared to/with x, y is : So vi x, y th 3. Comparing with x, y is more : so vi x , y th hn 4. Comparing X with Y we find that : So s X vi Y ch ta nhn thy nh ng 5. Comparing x with y, it can be seen by us that : So s x vi y ch ta cth thy rng nh ng 7. correlation: mi li h n 9. an increase in : s tng v 11. a drop in : gim v .
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Types of Trend
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particular lecturer's views, you will need to learn how to use "I" sparingly. So let's look at how we can write passages without reference to the first person pronoun. Avoid personal "I", "you", and "we", except for the thesis statement. So, instead of: "As I mentioned above...", write" "As was mentioned above..." except for the thesis statement. So, instead of: "As I mentioned above...", write" "As was mentioned above..." There are several ways to avoid using the first person pronoun "I":
One way is to let the assignment "speak for itself": for example, "I show..." becomes "The report shows..." "I interpret the results as..." becomes "The results indicate..." Another way to avoid the first person is to use the passive voice construction: Instead of write
"We administered the questionnaire..." "The questionnaire was administered..." (active voice) "I surveyed the literature" (active voice) "I took a sample..." (passive voice) "The literature was surveyed" (passive voice) "A sample was taken"
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(active voice)
(passive voice)
NOTE: for further help with using the passive voice, go to the passives tutorial in the Grammar section of this Website. - The second-person singular pronoun - you - raises a similar issue when used to refer to a hypothetical rather than a real individual. Consider the following sentence: You eat peas with a fork, not with a knife. - This you is not a definite person who chooses to eat peas with one utensil rather than another. The meaning of the sentence is actually something like, "Peas should be eaten with a fork, not with a knife." This you is a fictional character who in sentences of this kind also frequently goes by the name one, and who is standing in for a whole class of persons. - The fictional you is a welcome character in speech and informal writing but is perhaps best left out of formal writing. Since your reader, too, is you, the hypothetical or indefinite you may seem to cross a little too far into the reader's space for the maintenance of an impersonal air.
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* Use a semicolon to connect the two sentences. example: I like to travel; specifically, I enjoy places with old cathedrals. * Use a comma before and after the transitional word/phrase in the middle of a clause. example: I like to travel, and, specifically, I enjoy places with old cathedrals.
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on the other hand otherwise instead in contrast (more formal) Showing a Concession yet nevertheless (more formal) even so however although even though despite the fact that . . . despite Showing a Similarity likewise (more formal) similarly (more formal) in the same way
She hates housecleaning. On the other hand, she doesn't mind cooking. Students should attend class. Otherwise, they may lose their status. I am not going out tonight. Instead, I will stay home and watch a video. Women usually enjoy shopping. In contrast, men often dislike it. Examples He knows that he should do his homework, yet he never does it. I need to wear reading glasses. Nevertheless, I hate how I look in them. I know you don't like to study. Even so, you must pass your exam. There are many benefits to exercising. However, you must take some precautions to avoid injury. Even though the book is difficult to read, it is very interesting. Although the book is difficult to read, it is very interesting. Despite the fact that Kate is good at tennis, she lost the match. Despite Kate's skill at tennis, she lost the match. Examples Math was hard for me in high school. Likewise, it is hard in college. Houseplants require much care and attention. Similarly, outdoor plants must be cared for properly. Rock climbing takes much practice and skill. In the same way, learning to write well requires a great deal of practice. Examples Janet passed her exam, so she is very happy. Tim was late. As a result, we could not go to the concert. James is not feeling well. Therefore, he will not be here today. The committee voted against the proposal. Thus, we must consider another idea. I forgot that the cake was in the oven. As a consequence, it burned. Tina lost her keys. Consequently, she could not drive home.
Showing a Result so as a result therefore thus (more formal) as a consequence consequently (more formal)
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Establishing Time Relation or Sequence first second finally in conclusion in summary meanwhile Showing a Condition or whether . . . or if . . . (then) Explaining or Emphasizing in fact actually in other words namely (more formal) Giving an Alternative or either . . . or neither . . . nor (more formal)
Examples First, I think that she is studying hard. Second, I believe that she is a bright student. Finally, I know that she has great potential. In conclusion, I feel that she deserves to win the scholarship. In summary, we should offer her some financial help. Jeff was working hard to clean the house. Meanwhile, his brother was watching television. Examples I must study hard, or I will fail my exam. Whether you are coming or not, I am still going to Amy's party. If you want to get good grades, then you must do your homework. Examples The bookstore sells cards. In fact, they have the best cards around. James is actually the first person I have known who has been to Africa. He was late to class again. In other words, he didn't wake up on time. The plan needed only two things to succeednamely, time and money. Examples We can go to the beach, or we can go to the mountains. You can either ride the bus or walk to my apartment. I like neither that person nor his brother.
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DO: When Andy tries to speak to the drunk man in the alley, he feels pain in his stomach. DONT: When Andy had tried to speak to the drunk man, he felt pain in his stomach. In English, the present simple tense is used to describe habitual actions and events, and those that are usually true. It is said that the present simple is used to say that something happens all the time or repeatedly, or that something is true in general. As shown in the following examples: - I takemy breakfast every morning at 7 oclock. - Nurseslookafter patients in hospitals. Moreover,it is used to express facts. For example, the planets go round the sun. In the present simple, the verb does not take an ending with the following pronouns: I, you, they, and we. However, in the third person singular (he, she, and it), the verb ends with s or es, as in the following examples: - I usually goaway at weekends. - Sarah catchesthe early train. More precisely, in academic writing, the use of the present simple is often conventionalized and predominantly used. For example, in linguisticsessays, it is used to explain aspecific linguistic phenomenon which is always true. - A child acquires language during the critical period.
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- Language is a set of signals by which we communicate. - Code switching occurs in bilingual societies. Tense-shifting: NEVER switch tenses when answering questions on tests or when writing essays. Although the past tense is acceptable, (as long as there is no switching to other tenses), try to always use the present tense. Even though the novel/short story/play/poem, etc. obviously has been written in the "past," writing/discussion of texts should be in present tense.
Rule 06: Use gender neutral language (replace he, she with they, the character, or by name)
Although in the past it was acceptable to use "he" when referring to both men and women, it is no longer acceptable to do so now. Why? Because linguists found that language use actually does have an impact on the way people think and act. If pronouns are always "he," and certain professions are always fireman, policeman, chairman, congressmen, etc, then it is more likely that men -- by simple virtue of the privileged masculine pronoun and noun use -- will fill those positions, and that women will feel that they do not belong in them. Avoiding sexist pronouns will help you find liberation from these restricting gender roles.
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Even if you disagree with the above theory, using "he" only pronouns is a practice that is no longer tolerated in MLA style. You should instead choose to pluralize your subject and use "they" or "their" when referring back to that subject. Or you can choose "he or she," but if you need to write "he or she" more than twice in the sentence, you might give your reader a headache. Try to avoid "s/he" or "he/she" simply because it is unsightly. Really the best solution is pluralization. (When implementing the plural solution, remember the principle of agreement. "Everyone needs their umbrella" is not grammatical, because "everyone" is a singular subject.)
o o o o
Sexist: If a medical student wants to succeed, he has to learn to budget his time wisely. Liberated: If medical students want to succeed, they have to learn to budget his time wisely. Sexist: If one wants to become a DJ, he has to be familiar with the current music styles and have a strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow. Liberated: If one wants to become a DJ, he or she has to be familiar with the current music styles and have a strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow. Sexist: A good computer programmer has to root his knowledge in practical experience. Liberated: Good computer programmers have to root their knowledge in practical experience.
o o
Use non-sexist language: Avoid the word "man" and "he/his/him" when referring to general phenomena. When writing sentences, there are two ways to do this:
A) Make it plural. Sexist Language Give each student his paper as soon as he is finished. The average student is worried about his grade. Good Alternative Give students their papers as soon as they are finished. The average student is worried about grades.
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B) If necessary, use ONE, HE/SHE. Sexist Language If a student got an A, he did not have to do the extra work. Anyone who wants to go to the game tomorrow should bring his money. C) Also, see this table: Usually Inappropriate mankind manfs achievements man-made the common man man the ship six man-hours chairman businessman fireman mailman steward and stewardess policeman and policewoman congressman Good Alternatives humanity, people, human beings human achievements synthetic, manufactured, machine-made the average person, ordinary people staff the ship six staff-hours coordinator (of a committee or department), moderator (of a meeting), presiding officer, head, chair business executive firefighter mailcarrier flight attendant police officer congressional representative Good Alternative Anyone who got an A, did not have to do the extra work. If a student wants to go to the game tomorrow, she/he should bring money.
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"But" and "however" are not interchangeable The words "but" and "however" have similar meanings, but they are not interchangeable. If you take a grammatically correct sentence containing "but" and replace it with "however", or vice versa, the result will almost always be incorrect, mainly because of comma punctuation.
Correct examples: "I like oranges, but I do not like tangerines." "I like oranges. However, I do not like tangerines." "I like oranges; however, I do not like tangerines." "I, however, do not like grapefruits." "I like oranges however they have been prepared."
If you exchange any of these "but"s and "however"s, then the sentences would become incorrect, and in some cases meaningless.
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1. It goes without saying that / Of course, 2. It is quite clear that / Obviously, 3. It is worth pointing out that / Another point is 4. It does not seem unreasonable to suggest that / In my opinion, 5. It is often argued that / People say that 6. It is sometimes suggested that/ People say that 7. It is particularly significant that / Importantly, 8. It could be argued that ? Perhaps,. 9. It is likely that / Probably, .
In addition to a formal voice, you should also maintain a cool-headed, objective tone. Tone usually becomes an issue when you are writing about hot topics you feel strongly about -- religion, for example, or cultural values. Even when you strongly disagree with an idea, avoid getting "emotional" in your expression. Avoid seeming angry,
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or condescending, or rude. Keep your calm and remain scholarly, and try to portray yourself as one who is objectively assessing the situation.
Emotional: We must do everything we can to legalize gay marriage. For the sake of equality, the rights of liberty and freedom that our forefathers fought for--it is essential!!! Don't let conservatives take over your government and impose their puritanical moral values on everyone. This is only going to lead to dozens of more restrictions that those white-haired conservatives will impose in their cozy congress seats! Objective: Keeping gay marriage illegal poses significant questions about the constitutionality of such laws. The forefathers who wrote the Constitution believed an individual's freedom was vitally important, and that as long as the actions did not cause directly harm to society, the actions should not be decriminalized.
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Rule 17: Do not refer blindly to statistics without accurate reference to their source.
e.g. "A recent study showed" - which study?)
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We cannot build a new school at this point in time. Who would have thought that slavery could exist in this day and age? The Prime Minister believed that at the end of the day her policies would be vindicated.
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Over the hill. In the dog house. Back against the wall. Under the gun. My two cents. Stubborn as a mule. Bite your tongue. Dyed in the wool. Wrong side of the bed. The calm before the storm. Hair of the dog, On thin ice. Eye for an eye. Tongue-in-cheek. The third time is the charm.
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Well-chosen metaphors and similes can give your writing immense expressive power. Once a metaphor or simile has become a clich it no longer provides a vivid image for the reader. Consequently, instead of impressing , your readers with your writing style, you leave them with the impression that you have nothing of substance to say.
The cleaners were advised to lift their game or else. Management has been on a steep learning curve. It would be like looking for a needle in a haystack.
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Euphemisms are good if they spare someones feelings, but they are bad if they obscure meaning, or give a positive connotation to something illegal, immoral, or otherwise unacceptable.
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You should use tentative language when discussing findings or views in your reports and presentations. When you want to avoid expressing strong claims or opinions you can use the verbs appear and seem. In the sentences overleaf, the subject of appear and seem is it. As you can see, they are followed by that-clauses. It appears that interest in Putonghua has increased since the handover. It would seem that students in Hong Kong are less motivated to learn English than their counterparts in Shanghai. 3. It is aceptable to use there is as a preparatory subject. (See Rule 44)
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Informal (includes rhetorical question) Industrial sites cause vast amounts of environmental pollution, so why do we still use them? What is a team? A team can be one person but will usually end up including many more. The question is, however, does the "Design School Model" provide a practical solution to the problem of how to formulate strategy?
Formal The question surrounding the continued use of industrial sites, given their vast pollution production, still remains. A team can include one person but usually involves many more. It is questionable whether the "Design School Model" provides a practical solution to the problem of strategy formulation.
Rule 30: Write "most people, instead of the incorrect "most of people"
Likewise, "most women", "most animals", etc. But "most of the people" is OK.
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Informal (includes run on) Nurses must take into consideration patients' dietary needs resulting from allergies, medication, medical conditions and so on.
Formal Alternative Nurses must take into consideration patients' dietary needs resulting from allergies, medication and medical conditions.
Public transport includes vehicles Public transport includes vehicles for public use on the roads, for public use, such as buses, airways, waterways etc. trains and aeroplanes.
Informal Then the solution can be discarded. The blood is withdrawn slowly.
Formal Alternative The solution can then be discarded. The blood is slowly withdrawn.
Rule 33: Avoid phrases such as "I believe," "I feel," and "I think."
Even worse are phrases that add an adverb, such as "I strongly believe." Your tone will be much more confident if you just make the statement without preface.
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Rule 34: Avoid words that do not change the meaning of the sentence.
Unnecessary words like "Actually", "Really" or "Basically" can be omitted. 8
Rule 36: Do not use informal language - In formal English one would use the word whom instead of the word who in certain situations.
Formal: Whom did they elect? Informal: Who did they elect? Formal - Use 'whom' as an object: Whom have they chosen for the position? Informal - Use 'who' as an object: Who have they chosen for the position?
Formal : With whom did you study? Informal : Who did you study with? In informal language prepositions often come at the end of certain structures.
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Formal: To which nation does he belong? Informal: Which nation does he belong to? Some pronouns have different forms in formal and informal language. In informal language we often leave out some words. Formal: She said that she would come. Informal: She said she would come. Formal: Have you seen Annie? Informal: Seen Annie?
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6. in the event that ... 7. a disproportionate number ... 8. arrive at a decision ... 9. for a further period of ten years ... 10. such is by no means the case ... 11. in the field of education ... 12. they are without legal representation whatsoever ... 13. in the case of the third question ... 14. at the present time, overseas companies are ...
6. if ... 7. few ... 8. decide ... 9. for another ten years ... 10. this is not so ... 11. in education ... 12. they have no legal representation ... 13. in the third question ... 14. overseas companies are now ...
15. there is really somewhat of an obligation on behalf of the department of health ... 15. the Department of Health is obliged ...
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Rule 40: Do not start sentences with And, Also, So, Or, Even so, and But
Starting a sentence with them is sometimes considered inappropriate. A few decades ago it was considered totally unacceptable. Even today you can find several grammar books that advise against starting sentences with these conjunctions. However, the truth is that more and more academic writers now begin sentences with them. You must, however, make a conscious effort to avoid them just to be on the safe side. Instead of these, use `In addition', `However', `Hence', `Consequently', `Alternatively', `Nevertheless' at the beginninge of the sentence.
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- It is said that the child acquires the language in a short period of time. Similarly, using the passive voice in academic language is often more suitable than activeconstructions and is considered the most used in written genres
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Tentative expression
Assertive expression
One could argue that the overall The overall standard of English in Hong Kong has clearly improved. standard of English in Hong Kong has improved Modal verbs such as could, may and might are common in academic writing because they help writers express uncertainty or tentativeness. Also common are the verbs appear to and seem to, as well as adverbs of probability: perhaps, possibly, probably, likely, unlikely. Of course, depending on viewpoint and the available evidence, a writer can express greater or lesser degrees of certainty. Look at the examples in the table below. 1. Positive and assertive: 2. Suggesting likelihood: Clearly, then, Hong Kong students standard of written Chinese is declining. The evidence seems to suggest that Hong Kong students standard of written Chinese is declining. 3. Expressing less likelihood: It may/might/could be the case that Hong Kong students standard of written Chinese is declining.
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4. Negative:
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2. To refer back to a cause, then give an effect, use it is because of this: These countries economies are in great turmoil and it is because of this that pollution creates a huge problem. I know you. I understand you, and it is because of this that I love you. A black coat appears black because it absorbs all the wavelengths of visual light that fall on it and no light is reflected into the eye from that object. It is because of this that black clothes become hotter on a sunny day than white ones. Structures: Cause + and + it is because of this that + effect Cause + . + It is because of this that + effect 3. To give an effect first, then explain the cause, use this is because: Examples: - Out in space, the sky looks black, instead of blue. This is because there is no atmosphere. - As the sun begins to set, the light must travel farther through the atmosphere before it gets to you. More of the light is reflected and scattered. As less reaches you directly, the sun appears less bright. The colour of the sun itself appears to change, first to orange and then to red. This is because even more of the short wavelength blues and greens are now scattered. Only the longer wavelengths are left in the direct beam that reaches your eyes.
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- Agents often work more than 40 hours a week. They must often work in the evenings or on weekends. This is because most buyers and sellers are free only at those times. 4. To answer questions, use it is because, this is because, or because: - How can it be that an awesome God knows me by name and loves me without reservation? It is because He created me. - So why is Bush taking on the thankless issue of immigration? I believe it is because he sees the consequences for all Americans of our current dysfunctional policy. - Teens seem to have a need to feel that fear, as evidenced by the popularity of shocker, gross-out, supernatural and altogether scary books. Is it that the good guys and bad guys are easier to tell apart? Or maybe it is because those vampires and werewolves go through physical transformations that make puberty feel like a bump in the road? - Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye? This is because the amount of radiation required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye, is just too much for the eye to stand. - Why are you doing that? Because I like it. - To answer questions, use it is because, this is because, or because - Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye? This is because the amount of radiation required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye, is just too much for the eye to stand. - Why are you doing that? Because I like it. 5, In 'if ' and 'when' sentences use it is because:
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- If I look confused it is because I am thinking. - If we have no peace, it is because we have forgotten that we belong to each other. - When consumers complain that prices of CDs are too high it is because they are.
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Rule 48: Use some sort of hedging language and to qualify statements that you make.
HEDGING/AVOIDING COMMITMENT In order to put some distance between what youre writing and yourself as writer, to be cautious rather than assertive, you should: - use verbs (often with it as subject) such as imagine, suggest, claim, suppose - use attitudinal signals such as apparently, arguably, ideally, strangely, unexpectedly. These words allow you to hint at your attitude to something without using personal language. - use verbs such as would, could, may, might which soften what youre saying. - use qualifying adverbs such as some, several, a minority of, a few, many to avoid making overgeneralisations.
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