Chapter 8 Binded

9/12/2012
1
2011 Sajid
Chapter
Dr Muhammad Sajid
Assistant Professor
NUST, SMME.
Reference Text:
Fundamentals of Fluid
Mechanics, 6th Ed
By Munson, Young, Okiishi
and Huebsch
Email: m.sajid@smme.nust.edu.pk
Tel: 9085 6065
Fluid Mechanics - II
12-Sep-12
0
8
Viscous flow in pipes
Pipe flow characteristics
Fully developed laminar
& turbulent flow
Major & Minor losses

Introduction
Now, we cover fluid with internal viscous
friction attributed by the viscosity
properties and friction between the flows
and any adjacent walls.
We will look into how to analyse the
laminar and turbulent pipe flows, and to
calculate friction losses due to pipe walls
as well as pressure losses due to fitting
components such as valves, junctions,
faucets and flow measurement apparatus.
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Pipes and ducts
Duct: A conduit with non circular cross
section.
Pipe: A conduit of circular cross section.
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Pipe system components
Pipes
Fittings / Connectors
Flow Control devices
Pumps / Turbines
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CHARACTERISTICS OF PIPE FLOW
Chapter 8. Page384
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Flow Characteristics
Pipe flow
Completely filled.
Pressure driven.
Assumption: Round
Cross section

Open channel flow
Partially filled
Gravity driven
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Laminar Turbulent Flow
Flow in pipes can be divided into two different
regimes, i.e. laminar and turbulence
Experimental demonstration of flow transition
from laminar to turbulent flow regimes.
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Time Dependence of Fluid velocity
x component of velocity as a function of
time at A.
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Laminar Turbulent Flow
Streak lines for small, medium and large
flow rates (Re).
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Example
Consider water flow in a pipe having a diameter of D = 20 mm which is
intended to fill a 0.35 liter container. Calculate:
(a) the minimum time required if the flow is laminar,
(b) the maximum time required if the flow is turbulent.
Density = 998 kg/m
3
and dynamic viscosity = 1.1210
3
kg/ms.
Solution:
(a) For laminar flow, use Re =VD/ = 2100:

Hence, the minimum time t is:

(b) For turbulent flow, use Re = VD/ = 4000:

Hence, the minimum time t is:

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( )
( )( )
s m
D
V 118 . 0
020 . 0 998
10 12 . 1 2100 2100
3
=
= =

V D
V
Q
V
t
2
4
t
= =
( )
( )( )
s m
D
V 224 . 0
020 . 0 998
10 12 . 1 4000 4000
3
=
= =

V D
V
Q
V
t
2
4
t
= =
( )
( ) ( )
s t 45 . 9
118 . 0 02 . 0
10 35 . 0 4
2
3
=
=

t
( )
( ) ( )
s t 96 . 4
224 . 0 02 . 0
10 35 . 0 4
2
3
=
=

t
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Entrance region & fully developed flow
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Entrance length
The entrance region can be represented by entrance length l
e
, which
can be empirically determined by the following formulae for both
regimes:

Laminar:

Turbulent:

Due to different boundary layer thickness in the inviscid core, the
pressure distribution behaves non-linearly in this region and the
pressure slope is not constant as shown in Fig. 8.5. However, after
the flow is fully developed, the slope becomes constant and the
pressure drop Ap is directly caused only by viscous effect.
By projecting the graph back towards the tank, we can estimate the
pressure drop due to entrance flow. Hence, by using the Bernoulli
equation with losses, the pressure value at all position along the
same pipe can be calculated.

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Re 06 . 0 =
D
e
6 1
(Re) 4 . 4 =
D
e
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Problem 8.6

Solution
Volume flow rate = 0.1 m
3
/s
Diameter, D = 20 cm
Viscosity, = 1.79x10
-5

Step 1:
V = (4 x 0.1)/(tD
2
) = 0.4/0.1256 = 3.185 m/s

Re = VD/ = 42,700
Step 2:
l
e
= 4.4(42700)
1/6
0.2 = 5.2 m
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END OF WEEK # 1
Home Work problems. 8.2, 8.4, 8.6 & 8.8
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Fully developed laminar flow
Fully developed: the velocity
profile is the same at any
cross section of the pipe.
Whether the flow is laminar
or turbulent,
Flow in a long, straight,
constant diameter sections of
a pipe becomes fully
developed.
But the other flow properties
are different for these two
types of flow.
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Knowledge of the velocity profile can lead
directly to other useful information such as
pressure drop, head loss, flowrate.
We begin by developing the equation for
the velocity profile in fully developed
laminar flow.
If the flow is not fully developed, a theoretical
analysis becomes much more complex
If the flow is turbulent, a rigorous theoretical
analysis is as yet not possible.

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There are numerous ways to derive
important results pertaining to fully
developed laminar flow.
Three alternatives include:
From F = ma applied directly to a fluid
element,
From the Navier Stokes equations of motion,
&
From dimensional analysis methods.
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F = ma Applied to a Fluid Element
Consider the motion of a cylindrical fluid
element at time t within a pipe.

The local acceleration is zero because the flow is
steady (V/ t = 0), and
The convective acceleration is zero because the
flow is fully developed (V.V= u u/x i = 0).
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Every part of the fluid merely flows along its
streamline parallel to the pipe walls with
constant velocity,
Velocity varies from one pathline to another.
This velocity variation, combined with the fluid
viscosity, produces the shear stress.

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If gravitational effects are neglected, the
pressure is constant across any vertical cross
section of the pipe, although it varies along
the pipe from one section to the next.
If the pressure is P
1
at section (1), it is P
1
-P
at section (2).
A shear stress , acts on the surface of the
cylinder of fluid it is a function of the radius of
the cylinder, = (r).
We isolate the cylinder of fluid and apply
Newtons second law, F
x
= m a
x
,
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The fluid is not accelerating, so that a
x
= 0.
Thus, fully developed horizontal pipe flow is a
balance between pressure and viscous forces
The pressure difference acting on the end of the
cylinder of area r and
The shear stress acting on the lateral surface of the
cylinder of area 2rl.
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This force balance can be written as

which can be simplified to give

Since neither p nor l are functions of the
radial coordinate, r, it implies that 2/r must
also be independent of r.

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That is, = Cr , where C is a constant.
At the centerline of the pipe (r = 0) there is no
shear stress = 0.
At the pipe wall (r = D/2) the shear stress is a
maximum, denoted
w
the wall shear stress.
Hence, C= 2
w
/D and the shear stress
distribution throughout the pipe is a linear
function of the radial coordinate
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If the viscosity were zero there would be no
shear stress, and pressure would be constant
throughout the pipe
We get a relation between
pressure drop, and
wall shear stress
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To carry the analysis further we must
prescribe how the shear stress is related to
the velocity.
For a laminar flow of a Newtonian fluid, the
shear stress is simply proportional to the
velocity gradient. = du/dy
In the notation associated with our pipe
flow, this becomes

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The two governing laws for fully developed
laminar flow of a Newtonian fluid within a
horizontal pipe

By combining these equations & integrating

where c
1
is a constant.

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Because the fluid is viscous it sticks to the
pipe wall so that u = 0, at r= D/2.

V
c
is the centerline velocity
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The volume flowrate through the pipe can
be obtained by integrating the velocity
profile across the pipe.

The average velocity is the flowrate divided
by the cross-sectional area,

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Poiseuille flow
These results show that for laminar pipe
flow in a horizontal pipe the flowrate is
directly proportional to the pressure drop,
inversely proportional to the viscosity,
inversely proportional to the pipe length, and
proportional to the pipe diameter to the fourth
power.
This flow, first determined experimentally
by Hagen in 1839 and Poiseuille in 1840,
is termed HagenPoiseuille flow.
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Inclined pipes
Replace the pressure drop p, by the effect
of both pressure and gravity p - l sin.
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From the NavierStokes Equations
General motion of an incompressible
Newtonian fluid is governed by
the continuity equation, and
the momentum equation
For steady, fully developed flow in a pipe,
the velocity contains only an axial
component, which is a function of only the
radial coordinate.
For such conditions, the left-hand side of
momentum Eq. is zero.
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From the NavierStokes Equations
The Navier Stokes equations become.

In polar coordinates

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From Dimensional Analysis
We assume that the pressure drop in the
horizontal pipe, is a function of
the average velocity of the fluid in the pipe, V,
the length of the pipe, l
the pipe diameter, D, and
the viscosity of the fluid, .
The density or the specific weight of the
fluid are not important parameters.
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From Dimensional Analysis
There are five variables that can be described
in terms of three reference dimensions M, L, T.
This flow can be described in terms of, k r = 5
3 = 2 dimensionless groups.
These are

The value of C must be determined by theory or
experiment.
For a round pipe, For ducts of other cross-sectional
shapes, the value of C is different
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FULLY DEVELOPED TURBULENT
FLOW
Section 8.3
Page 399
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Fully developed turbulent flow
Turbulent pipe flow is more likely to occur
than laminar flow in practical situations,
A considerable amount of knowledge about
the topic has been developed, the field of
turbulent flow still remains one of the least
understood area of fluid mechanics.
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Transition from Laminar to Turbulent Flow
Reynolds number must be less than
approx. 2100 for laminar flow and greater
than approx. 4000 for turbulent flow.
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Its irregular, random nature is the
distinguishing feature of turbulent flows.
The character of many of the important
properties of the flow (pressure drop, heat
transfer, etc.) depends strongly on the
existence and nature of the turbulent
fluctuations or randomness indicated.

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Mixing, heat and mass transfer
processes are enhanced in turbulent
flow compared to laminar flow.
The macroscopic scale of the
randomness in turbulent flow is very
effective in transporting energy and
mass throughout the flow field,
thereby increasing the various rate
processes involved.
Laminar flow, is very small but finite-
sized fluid particles flowing smoothly
in levels, one over another.
The only randomness and mixing
take place on the molecular scale and
result in relatively small heat, mass,
and momentum transfer rates.

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Turbulent shear stress
Axial component of velocity, u = u(t), at a
given location in turbulent pipe flow is.

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The fundamental difference between
laminar and turbulent flow lies in the
chaotic, random behavior of the various
fluid parameters.
Such flows can be described in terms of
their mean values (denoted with an
overbar) on which are superimposed the
fluctuations (denoted with a prime).
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Thus, if u u(x, y, z, t) is the x component of
instantaneous velocity, then its time mean
(or time average) value, , is;

The time interval, T, is considerably longer
than the period of the longest fluctuations
And considerably shorter than any
unsteadiness of the average velocity

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Can the concept of viscous shear stress
for laminar flow ( = du/dy) to that of
turbulent flow by replacing u, the
instantaneous velocity, by , the time
average velocity ?
The shear stress in turbulent flow is not merely
proportional to the gradient of the time-
average velocity: d/dy.
It also contains a contribution due to the
random fluctuations of the components of
velocity.

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The shear stress for turbulent flow in terms of
a new parameter called the eddy viscosity, .

The eddy viscosity changes from one
turbulent flow condition to another and from
one point in a turbulent flow to another.
The turbulent process could be viewed as the
random transport of bundles of fluid particles
over a certain distance, l
m
, the mixing length,
from a region of one velocity to another region
of a different velocity.

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By the use of some ad hoc assumptions and physical
reasoning, the eddy viscosity is then given by.

The problem is shifted to determining the mixing length, l
m
which
is not constant throughout the flow field.
Near a solid surface the turbulence is dependent on the distance
from the surface.
Thus, additional assumptions are made regarding how the
mixing length varies throughout the flow.
There is no general model that can predict the shear stress
throughout an incompressible, viscous turbulent flow.
It is impossible to integrate the force balance equation to
obtain the turbulent velocity profile as was done for laminar
flow.

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Turbulent Velocity Profile
An often-used correlation is the
empirical power-law velocity profile.
n is a function of the Reynolds
number, typically from 6 to 10.
The power-law profile cannot be valid
near the wall, since according to this
equation the velocity gradient is infinite
there.
In addition, it cannot be precisely valid
near the centerline because it does not
give d/dr = 0 at r = 0.
However, it does provide a
reasonable approximation to the
measured velocity profiles across
most of the pipe.
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Turbulence modeling
It is not yet possible to theoretically predict
the random, irregular details of turbulent
flows.
One can time average the governing Navier
Stokes equations to obtain equations for the
average velocity and pressure.
The resulting time-averaged differential
equations contain not only the desired
average pressure and velocity as variables,
but also averages of products of the
fluctuationsterms of the type that one tried
to eliminate by averaging the equations!

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Chaos and turbulence
Chaos theory, which is quite complex and is
currently under development, involves the
behavior of nonlinear dynamical systems and
their response to initial and boundary
conditions.
The flow of a viscous fluid, which is governed
by the nonlinear NavierStokes equations,
may be such a system.
It may be that chaos theory can provide the
turbulence properties and structure directly
from the governing equations.

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Dimensional Analysis of pipe flow
Turbulent flow can be a very complex, difficult
topic, most turbulent pipe flow analyses are
based on experimental data and semi-empirical
formulas.
These data are expressed conveniently in
dimensionless form.
It is often necessary to determine the head loss,
h
L
, that occurs in a pipe flow so that the
following equation, can be used in the analysis
of pipe flow problems.

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Dimensional analysis of pipe flow
The overall head loss for the pipe system
h
L
, consists of
the head loss due to viscous effects in the
straight pipes, termed the major loss and
denoted h
L major
, and
the head loss in the various pipe components,
termed the minor loss and denoted h
L minor
,

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Major losses
the pressure drop and head loss in a pipe are
dependent on the wall shear stress,
w
,
between the fluid and pipe surface.
Difference b/w laminar and turbulent flow is:
the shear stress for turbulent flow is a function of
the density of the fluid,
the shear stress for laminar flow, is independent of
the density, leaving the viscosity, as the only
important fluid property.

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Major losses
the pressure drop, p for steady,
incompressible turbulent flow in a
horizontal round pipe of diameter D
is:

the pressure drop for laminar pipe
flow is found to be independent of
the roughness of the pipe,
but it is necessary to include this
parameter when considering
turbulent flow.

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Major losses
A relatively thin viscous sublayer is
formed in the fluid near the pipe wall in
turbulent flow
Thus for turbulent flow the pressure drop
is expected to be a function of the wall
roughness.
relatively small roughness elements
have completely negligible effects on
laminar pipe flow.
For pipes with very large wall
roughness such as that in corrugated
pipes, the flowrate may be a function
of the roughness.
We will consider only typical constant
diameter pipes with relative
roughnesses in the range

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Major losses
The pressure drop, p can be
expressed in terms of k r = 4
dimensionless groups.
This result differs from that used for
laminar flow in two ways.
the pressure term is made dimensionless by
dividing by the dynamic pressure, rather
than a characteristic viscous shear stress,
we have introduced two additional
dimensionless parameters, the Reynolds
number, and the relative roughness, which
are not present in the laminar formulation.

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Major losses
Assume that the pressure drop should
be proportional to the pipe length. This
way the l/D term can factored out.
We defined friction factor as:
Thus for horizontal pipe flow.
And
For laminar fully developed flow, f = 64/Re
For turbulent flow, the functional
dependence of the friction factor on the
Reynolds number and the relative
roughness, is a rather complex one that
cannot, be obtained from a theory

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Major losses
Join energy equation with expression of
pressure drop. We get:

This is the DarcyWeisbach equation, it is valid
for any fully developed, steady, incompressible
pipe flow, horizontal or not.
In general with V
in
= V
out
, the energy eq gives

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Major Losses
It is not easy to determine the functional dependence of the
friction factor on the Reynolds number and relative roughness.
Much of this information is a result of experiments conducted by
Nikuradse in 1933 and amplified by many others since then.
One difficulty lies in the determination of the roughness of the
pipe.
Nikuradse used artificially roughened pipes produced by gluing sand
grains of known size onto pipe walls to produce pipes with sandpaper-
type surfaces.
The pressure drop needed to produce a desired flowrate was measured
and the data were converted into the friction factor for the corresponding
Reynolds number and relative roughness.
The tests were repeated numerous times for a wide range of Re and /D
to determine the f=(Re, /D ) dependence.
In commercially available pipes it is possible to obtain a measure
of the effective relative roughness of typical pipes and thus to
obtain the friction factor.

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Major losses
Typical roughness values for various pipe surfaces are shown along
with the functional dependence of f on Re and called the Moody
chart in honor of L. F. Moody, who, along with C. F. Colebrook,
correlated the original data of Nikuradse in terms of the relative
roughness of commercially available pipe materials.

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Major losses
The turbulent portion of the Moody chart is represented
by the Colebrook formula

In fact, the Moody chart is a graphical representation of
this equation, which is an empirical fit of the pipe flow
pressure drop data.
A difficulty with its use is that for given conditions it is not
possible to solve for f without some sort of iterative
scheme.
It is possible to obtain an equation that adequately
approximates the Colebrook / Moody chart relationship
but does not require an iterative scheme.

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Major Losses - Summary
The head loss due to viscous effects in straight
pipes, termed the major loss and denoted h
L major
,
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The Typical roughness values for various pipe surfaces are
shown along with the functional dependence of f on Re and called
the Moody chart.
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Example 8.5
Air flows through a 4mm diameter plastic
tube with an average velocity of V=50m/s.
Determine the pressure drop in a 0.1m section
of the tube if the flow is laminar.
Repeat the calculations if the flow is turbulent.
Solution
= 1.23 kg/m
3
& = 1.79x10
-5
Re=13,700
For laminar flow, f = 64/Re = 0.00467
Pressure drop from , is p = 0.179
kPa
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Example 8.5
For plastic tube = 0.0015mm and
/D = 0.0015/4 = 0.000375
With Re = 13700, f = 0.028 from Moody Chart
Pressure drop from , p = 1.076 kPa
Alternately, from

And the pressure drop, p = 1.076 kPa
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Solved Problem
A horizontal cast iron pipe of 8cm diameter
transporting water at 20C has a pressure
drop of 500 kPa over 200m.
Estimate the flow rate using the Moody diagram
for Re = 1x10
4
, 1x10
5
& 1x10
6
.
Solution:
The relative roughness, /D = 0.26/80 = 0.00325
The friction factor from Moody chart is f = 0.0256
The head loss, h
L
= p/ = 500000/9800 = 51
The average velocity, from is,
V =3.92m/s
Flowrate, Q = AV, = x 0.04 x 3.92 = 0.0197m
3
/s.

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PROBLEMS
8.42, 8.45, 8.50, 8.58, 8.60, 8.62 & 8.70.
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In addition to straight pipes most piping
systems consist of valves, bends, tees, etc
which add to the overall head loss of the
system.
Such losses are generally termed minor
losses, denoted as h
L minor
.
How to determine the various minor losses
that commonly occur in pipe systems?

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Minor losses
A valve provides a means to
regulate the flowrate by
changing the geometry of
the system.
With the valve closed, the
resistance to the flow is
infinitethe fluid cannot flow.
With the valve wide open the
extra resistance due to the
presence of the valve may or
may not be negligible.
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Minor losses example: Valve
10/8/2012
7
An analytical method to predict the head loss
for components of piping system is not
possible.
The head loss information is given in
dimensionless form and based on
experimental data.
The most common method to determine
head losses or pressure drops is to specify
the loss coefficient, k
L

8
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t
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2

70
Loss Coefficient
Its value depends on geometry of component.
It may also depend on fluid properties.

In many cases Re is large enough that flow
through the component is dominated by inertia
effects, with low viscous effects.
Here pressure drops and head losses correlate
directly with the dynamic pressure.
Thus, in many cases the loss coefficients for
components are a function of geometry only

8
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2

71
Loss Coefficient
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8
Head loss through a component is given in
terms of the length of pipe that would produce
the same head loss.

The head loss of the pipe system is the same
as that produced in a straight pipe whose
length is equal to the pipes of the original
system plus the sum of the additional
equivalent lengths of all of the components of
the system.
8
-
O
c
t
-
1
2

72
Equivalent length
Loss coefficient at flow entrance
8
-
O
c
t
-
1
2

73
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9
Loss coefficient at flow exit
8
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t
-
1
2

74
Loss coefficient in sudden expansion
In this case the loss coefficient can be
calculated from analytical means.

Apply continuity, momentum & energy
equations in control volume.

8
-
O
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t
-
1
2

75
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10
Loss coefficient in sudden expansion
8
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2

76
3

3
3
=
3
3

3

1

1

3

3
=
3
3

3

1

1

3
=
3

3

1

1
2
2
=

3
3
2
2
+
3

3

1
1
2
2

3
2
2
+=
1

3
2
2
=
1
=
3
3
=

1
1
2
2
=
1
2
1

1
3
2
2
=
3
2
=

1
2
2

Loss coefficient in conical diffuser
Diffuser is a device shaped
to decelerate a fluid.
Losses can be reduced if
expansion is gradual.
8
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2

77
For small angles, the diffuser is long and most of
the head loss is due to the wall shear stress.
For moderate or large angles, the flow separates
from the walls and the losses are due mainly to
dissipation of the kinetic energy of the jet leaving
the smaller diameter pipe.

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Loss coefficient in conical diffuser
Losses in
a diffuser
NOTE
Typical
results
only.

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78
Flow through a diffuser is very complicated and may
be strongly dependent on the area ratio specific
details of the geometry, and the Reynolds number.
Losses in bends
The losses are due
to the separated
region of flow near
the inside of the
bend, and
8
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2

79
The swirling secondary flow that occurs from
the imbalance of centripetal forces as a
result of the curvature of the pipe centerline.
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12
Losses in miter bends
Miter bends are used
where space is too
limited for smooth bends.
The losses in miter
bends can be reduced by
using guide vanes that
direct the flow with less
unwanted swirl and
disturbances.
8
-
O
c
t
-
1
2

80
Loss coefficient for pipe components
8
-
O
c
t
-
1
2

81
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13
Loss coefficient for pipe components
8
-
O
c
t
-
1
2

82
Loss coefficient for valves
8
-
O
c
t
-
1
2

83
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14
Loss coefficient for valves
8
-
O
c
t
-
1
2

84
Example 8.6
Air at STP is to flow
through test sections
(5) and (6) with a
velocity of 200 m/s.
8
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2

85
Flow is driven by a fan that increases the
static pressure by the amount p
1
- p
9
. needed
to overcome head losses experienced by the
fluid as it flows around the circuit.
Find p
1
- p
9
and the power supplied to the
fluid by the fan.

10/8/2012
15
Example 8.6
Fan provides energy to
overcome the head loss.
Energy eq b/w 1 and 9.
8
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t
-
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2

86
z
1
= z
9
, V
1
= V
9
A
Power is
Loss coefficients
Section 6 to 4 (clockwise) is a diffuser with K
L
= 0.6
Section 4 has K
L
= 4.0,
Section 4-5 is nozzle, K
L
=0.2.
At corners, K
L
= 0.2.
Total head loss is.
Example 8.6
8
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t
-
1
2

87

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1
Non circular conduits
With slight modification many round pipe
results can be carried over, to flow in conduits
of other shapes.
Regardless of the cross-sectional shape,
there are no inertia effects in fully developed
laminar pipe flow.
The friction factor can be written as f = C/Re
h
C depends on the shape of the duct, and
Re
h
is the Reynolds number, based on the
hydraulic diameter D
h
.

1
2
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t
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2

90
Non circular conduits
The hydraulic diameter is four times the
ratio of the cross-sectional flow area
divided by the wetted perimeter, P, of the
pipe.
1
2
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t
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1
2

91
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2
Example 8.7
Air at T = 50 C and P
atm
flows from furnace
through an 20cm dia pipe with V = 3 m/s.
It then passes into a square duct whose side
is of length a, with smooth surfaces (c = 0)
The unit head loss is the same for the pipe
and the duct.
Determine the duct size, a.
1
2
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2

92
Plan
Determine the head loss per unit length for the
pipe, and then size the square duct to give the
same value.
Solution
Find Viscosity and Re
From Re and c/D = 0, find friction factor f = 0.022
Example 8.7
Air properties from appendix
Re = 34,100
Friction factor, f = 0.022
1
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93
Head loss per unit length is .0505
Same for the square duct, i.e. .0505 =
Where Dh is
And in duct, V
s
= Q
pipe
/A
duct
= 0.09/a.
Three equations and three variables.
10/12/2012
3
PIPE FLOW EXAMPLES
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94
Pipe systems
The main idea involved is to apply the energy
equation between appropriate locations within
the flow system,
The head loss written in terms of the friction
factor and the minor loss coefficients.
Two classes of pipe systems:
those containing a single pipe (whose length may
be interrupted by various components),
those containing multiple pipes in parallel, series,
or network configurations.
1
2
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95
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4
Single pipe
The three most common types of problems are.
Type I: Determine the necessary pressure difference
or head loss from the desired flowrate or average
velocity.
Type II: Determine the flowrate from the applied
driving pressure or head loss.
Type III: Determine the diameter of the pipe needed
from the the pressure drop and the flowrate.
We assume
the pipe system is defined in terms of the length of
pipe sections used
the number of elbows, bends, and valves needed to
convey the fluid is known.
the fluid properties are given.
1
2
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2

96

Threaded elbows 90
K = 1.5
Globe valve
open, K = 10
Faucet
K = 2
Q
1.75 m
5.25 m
3.5 m
3.5 m
3.5 m 3.5 m
(1)
(2)
97
Example
Water flows from the ground floor to the second level in a
three-storey building through a 20 mm diameter pipe
(drawn-tubing, c = 0.0015 mm) at a rate of 0.75 liter/s.
The water exits through a faucet of diameter 12.5 mm.
Calculate the pressure at point (1).
all losses are neglected,
the only losses included
are major losses, or
all losses are included.
1
2
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2

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5
Example
( ) ( )
m
h h g gz V V p + + + =
1 2
2
1
2
2 1
2
1

98
From the modified Bernoulli equation, we can write

In this problem, p
2
= 0, z
1
= 0. Thus,

The velocities in the pipe and out from the faucet are respectively

The Reynolds number of the flow is
L
gh gz V p gz V p + + + = + +
2
2
2 2 1
2
1 1
2
1
2
1
( )
( )
( )
( )
s m
D
Q
A
Q
V
s m
D
Q
A
Q
V
631 . 6
012 . 0
10 75 . 0 4 4
387 . 2
020 . 0
10 75 . 0 4 4
2
3
2
2 2
2
2
3
2
1 1
1
=
= = =
=
= = =
t t
t t
546 , 42
10 12 . 1
) 020 . 0 )( 387 . 2 )( 998 (
Re
3
=
= =

Vd
1
2
-
O
c
t
-
1
2

The roughness c/d = 0.0015/20 = 0.000075. From the Moody chart, ] ~ 0.022 (or,0.02191 via
the Colebrook formula). The total length of the pipe is

Hence, the friction head loss is

The total minor loss is

The pressure at (1) is
Example
m 71 . 6
) 81 . 9 ( 2
387 . 2
02 . 0
21
) 022 . 0 (
2
2 2
1
= = =
g
V
d
f h
f
99
m 21 75 . 1 ) 5 . 3 ( 4 25 . 5 = + + =
| |
m
m
94 . 11 23 . 5 71 . 6
23 . 5
) 81 . 9 ( 2
387 . 2
2 10 ) 5 . 1 ( 4
2
2 2
1
= + = + =
= + + = =
A
m f
m
h h h
g
V
K h
et
( ) ( )
( )( ) ( )( )( ) ( )( )
Pa 205
23 . 5 71 . 6 81 . 9 998 5 . 3 5 . 3 81 . 9 998 387 . 2 631 . 6 998
2
1
2
1
2 2
1 2
2
1
2
2 1
k
h h g gz V V p
m
=
+ + + + =
+ + + =
1
2
-
O
c
t
-
1
2

10/12/2012
6
PIPE NETWORKS (MULTIPLE PIPE
SYSTEMS)
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10
0
Multiple pipe systems
The governing mechanisms for the flow in
multiple pipe systems are the same as for the
single pipe systems.
But because of the numerous unknowns
involved, additional complexities may arise in
solving for the flow in multiple pipe systems.
The simplest multiple pipe systems can be
classified into series or parallel flows.
1
2
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2

10
1
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7
Pipes in series
Every fluid particle that passes through the
system passes through each of the pipes. Thus,
The flowrate is the same in each pipe, and

The head loss is the sum of the head losses in each
of the pipes.

The friction factors will be different for each pipe
because the Re and c will be different.
1
2
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10
2
Pipes in series (Problem types)
Type I:
If flowrate is known, the pressure drop or head loss can
be determined from given equations.
Type II:
If the pressure drop is given and flowrate is required, an
iteration scheme is needed.
None of the friction factors, are known, so solution may
involve more trial-and-error attempts.
Type III:
If the pressure drop is given and pipe diameter is to be
determined, iterations are needed as in Type II.
1
2
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2

10
3
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8
Pipes in parallel
A fluid particle traveling from A to B may take
any of the paths available, with
The total flowrate equal to the sum of the flowrates in
each pipe.

The head loss experienced by any fluid particle
traveling between A and B is the same, independent
of the path taken.

1
2
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2

10
4
Each point in the
system can only
have one pressure
The pressure
change from 1 to 2
by path a must
equal the pressure
change from 1 to 2
by path b
A

p
1
+
V
1
2
2g
+ z
1
=
p
2
+
V
2
2
2g
+ z
2
+ h
L
A
a a
L
h z
g
V
z
g
V
p p
+ =
2
2
2
1
2
1
1 2
2 2
B
1
2
B
b b
L
h z
g
V
z
g
V
p p
+ =
2
2
2
1
2
1
1 2
2 2
Pipe networks
10
9
1
2
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2

10/12/2012
9

h
L
a
= h
L
b
a
b
1
2
Pressure change by path A
Pipe networks
Assumptions
Pipe diameters are constant or K.E. is small
Model withdrawals are occurring at nodes so V
is constant between nodes
Or sum of head loss around loop is zero.
B
b b
A
a a
L L
h z
g
V
z
g
V
h z
g
V
z
g
V
+ = +
2
2
2
1
2
1
2
2
2
1
2
1
2 2 2 2
11
0
1
2
-
O
c
t
-
1
2

Pipe Loops
Pipe loops are common in water
distribution systems.

Pipe network divided into loops with nodes

1
2
-
O
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t
-
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2

11
1
10/12/2012
10
Pipe Loops Basic Principles
At each node, continuity may be applied:

Around any loop, the sum of head losses
must be zero:

=
=
n
i
i
q
1
0
=
=
m
i
i
h
1
0
1
2
-
O
c
t
-
1
2

11
2
Pipe Loops Basic Principles
Also, in each pipe, head loss is a function
of discharge as is evident from all pipe flow
formulae

Sign Convention (very important!)
Flows into a node are positive
Head loss clockwise round a loop are
positive

1
2
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11
3
10/12/2012
11
Pipe Loops Solution techniques
The "loop" or "head balance" method
This is used when the total volume rate of
flow through the network is known but the
heads or pressures at junctions within the
network are unknown.
The "nodal" or "quantity balance" method
This is used when the heads at each flow
entry point are known and it is required to
determine the pressure heads and flows
through the network.
1
2
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2

11
4
The Loop Method
1. assume values of q
i
to satisfy
2. calculate h
fi
from q
i
3. if then solution is correct
4. if then apply a correction factor and
return to step 2

Correction factors can be computed from:

= 0
i
q
= 0
fi
h
= 0
fi
h
=
i
fi
fi
i
q
h
h
q
2
o
1
2
-
O
c
t
-
1
2

11
5
10/12/2012
12
The Nodal Method
1. assume a value of head H
j
at each junction
2. calculate q
i
from H
j
3. if then solution is correct
4. if then apply a correction factor and
return to step 2

Correction factors can be computed from:

= 0
fi
q
= 0
fi
q
=
fi
i
i
h
q
q
H
2
o
1
2
-
O
c
t
-
1
2

11
6
Network Analysis
1
2
-
O
c
t
-
1
2

11
7
Find the flows in the loop given the inflows
and outflows.
The pipes are all 25 cm cast iron (c=0.26 mm).
A
B
C D
0.10 m
3
/s
0.32 m
3
/s
0.28 m
3
/s
0.14 m
3
/s
200 m
100 m
10/12/2012
13
Example
Assign a flow to each pipe link
Flow into each junction must equal flow out
of the junction
A
B
C D
0.10 m
3
/s
0.32 m
3
/s
0.28 m
3
/s
0.14 m
3
/s
0.32
0.00
0.10
0.04
arbitrary
11
8
1
2
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-
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2

Solution
Calculate the head loss in each pipe
1
2
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O
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-
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2

11
9
f=0.02 for Re>200000

h
f
=
8fL
gD
5
t
2
|
\

|
.
|
Q
2
339
) 25 . 0 )( 8 . 9 (
) 200 )( 02 . 0 ( 8
2 5
1
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
t
k
k
1
,k
3
=339
k
2
,k
4
=169
A
B
C D
0.10 m
3
/s
0.32 m
3
/s
0.28 m
3
/s
0.14 m
3
/s
1
4 2
3

h
f
1
= 34.7m
h
f
2
= 0.222m
h
f
3
= 3.39m
h
f
4
= 0.00m
h
f
i
i=1
4
= 31.53m
| | | |
g
D Q
d
f
g
A Q
d
f
g
V
D
f h
f
2
4
2 2
2
2
1
2
1
2
1
t
= = =
10/12/2012
14
Solution
The head loss around the loop isnt zero
Need to change the flow around the loop
The clockwise flow is too great (head loss is positive)
reduce the clockwise flow to reduce the head loss
oq
i
= -0.163

Repeat until head loss around loop is zero
Easier solution would be to use numerical tools.
1
2
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2

12
0
A
B
C D
0.10 m
3
/s
0.32 m
3
/s 0.28 m
3
/s
0.14 m
3
/s
0.157
0.163
0.263
0.123
1
4 2
3
Q
0
+ Q
Q1 = 0.157
Q2 = -0.123
Q3 = 0.263
Q4 = 0.163
Numeric Analysis
Solution techniques
Use a numeric solver (Solver in Excel) to find a change in
flow that will give zero head loss around the loop, or
Use a pipe Network Analysis software.
Set up a spreadsheet as shown, initially AQ is 0
Set the sum of the head loss to 0 by changing AQ the column Q
0
+
AQ contains the correct flows
1
2
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2

12
1
Q 0.000
pipe f L D k Q0 Q0+Q hf
P1 0.02 200 0.25 339 0.32 0.320 34.69
P2 0.02 100 0.25 169 0.04 0.040 0.27
P3 0.02 200 0.25 339 -0.1 -0.100 -3.39
P4 0.02 100 0.25 169 0 0.000 0.00
31.575 Sum Head Loss
10/12/2012
15
END OF CHAPTER
1
2
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2

12
2

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