FSDF

Fall 2009 THE SAUDI ARAMCO JOURNAL OF TECHNOLOGY
A quarterly publication of the Saudi Arabian Oil Company
Saudi Aramco
Journal of Technology
Lessons Learned from 100 Intelligent Wells Equipped with Multiple Downhole Valves see page 2
Nonconventional Catalytic Process for Ultimate Removal of Organic SulfurContaining Compounds in Hydrocarbon Fractions see page 30
ON LUTI EVO
Birth of Smart (7 Liner)
LS WI ENT WEL TELLIG OF IN
TH ICVS
On the Cover
A representation of a Smart Trilateral Maximum Reservoir Contact Well where surface controlled downhole Inflow Control
Smart (ML/Expandable)
Smart (ML/Open Hole) (ML/MPFM)
Smart (SL/Open Hole) (ML/Slim Hole) (SL/Slim Hole)
Valves (ICVs) are used to manage the flow from each lateral. These controllable valves, along with real time pressure measurements, provide a means to optimize production, and
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
This evolution of intelligent/smart wells over time reflects the different completion types where smart completions were deployed. The first implementation of these completions in Saudi Aramco took place in conjunction with multilateral MRC wells in early 2004. Those implementations have demonstrated their advantages over conventional completions; furthermore, they have opened up numerous improvement opportunities. Their deployment has not been limited to new wells; it has been extended to enhance performance of existing weak and dead conventional wells after converting them to MRCs and multilaterals.
provide zonal isolation and flow control of commingled production from different laterals or segments. Using the variable positions of these valves, production can be managed in real time to improve wells and reservoir performance.
AT T E N T I O N ! M O R E S A U D I A R A M C O JOURNAL OF TECHNOLOGY ARTICLES AVA I L A B L E O N T H E I N T E R N E T. Additional articles that were submitted for publication in the Saudi Aramco Journal of Technology are being made available online. You can read them at this link on the Saudi Aramco Internet Web site: www.saudiaramco.com/jot.
The Saudi Aramco Journal of Technology is published quarterly by the Saudi Arabian Oil Company, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, to provide the companys scientific and engineering communities a forum for the exchange of ideas through the presentation of technical information aimed at advancing knowledge in the hydrocarbon industry. Complete issues of the Journal in PDF format are available on the Internet at: http://www.saudiaramco.com (click on publications). SUBSCRIPTIONS Send individual subscription orders, address changes (see page 71) and related questions to: Saudi Aramco Public Relations Department JOT Distribution Box 5000 Dhahran 31311, Saudi Arabia Fax: +966/3-873-6478 Web site: www.saudiaramco.com EDITORIAL ADVISORS Mohammed S. Al-Gusaier
President, Vela International Marine Ltd.
EDITORIAL ADVISORS (CONTINUED) Abdullah M. Al-Ghamdi

General Manager, Northern Area Gas Operations
P R O D U C T I O N C O O R D I N AT I O N Robert M. Arndt, ASC DESIGN Pixel Creative Group, Houston, Texas, U.S.A.
Dr. Muhammad M. Saggaf

Chief Petroleum Engineer
Salahaddin H. Dardeer
Manager, Yanbu Refinery
Mohammed A. Ansari
Program Director, Technology
Abdulmuhsen A. Al-Sunaid
Senior Engineering Consultant, Environmental Protection
ISSN 1319-2388. CONTRIBUTIONS Relevant articles are welcome. Submission guidelines are printed on the last page. Please address all manuscript and editorial correspondence to: EDITOR William E. Bradshaw The Saudi Aramco Journal of Technology Room 2014 East Administration Building Dhahran 31311, Saudi Arabia Tel: +966/3-873-5803 E-mail: william.bradshaw.1@aramco.com.sa Unsolicited articles will be returned only when accompanied by a self-addressed envelope. Khalid A. Al-Falih
President & CEO, Saudi Aramco
COPYRIGHT 2009 A R A M C O S E R V I C E S C O M PA N Y ALL RIGHTS RESERVED No articles, including art and illustrations, in the Saudi Aramco Journal of Technology, except those from copyrighted sources, may be reproduced or printed without the written permission of Saudi Aramco. Please submit requests for permission to reproduce items to the editor. The Saudi Aramco Journal of Technology gratefully acknowledges the assistance, contribution and cooperation of numerous operating organizations throughout the company.
Isam A. Al-Bayat
Vice President, Engineering Services
Abdulla A. Al Naim
Vice President, Exploration
Zuhair A. Al-Hussain
Vice President, Drilling and Workover
Saad A. Al-Turaiki
Vice President, Southern Area Oil Operations
Khaled A. Al-Buraik
Vice President, Saudi Aramco Affairs
Essam Z. Tawfiq
General Manager, Public Relations
Fall 2009 THE SAUDI ARAMCO JOURNAL OF TECHNOLOGY

A quarterly publication of the Saudi Arabian Oil Company
Saudi Aramco
Journal of Technology
Contents
Lessons Learned from 100 Intelligent Wells Equipped with Multiple Downhole Valves 2
Saeed M. Al-Mubarak, Naseem J. Al-Dawood and Salam P. Salamy
Drill Cuttings Re-Injection (CRI) Assessment for the Manifa Field: An Environmentally Safe and Cost-Effective Drilling Waste Management Strategy 9
Yousef M. Al-Shobaili, Kirk M. Bartko, Philip E. Gagnard, Mickey Warlick and Ahmad Shah Baim
Thermodynamic Analysis of Formation of Black Powder in Sales Gas Pipelines 17

Dr. Abdelmounam M. Sherik and Dr. Boyd R. Davis
Successful Utilization of Fiber Optic Telemetry Enabled Coiled Tubing for Water Shut-off on a Horizontal Oil Well in Ghawar Field
Ahmed K. Al-Zain, Jorge E. Duarte, Surajit Haldar, Saad M. Driweesh, Ahmed A. Al-Jandal, Faleh M. Al-Shammeri, Vsevolod Bugrov and Tashfeen Sarfraz
24
Nonconventional Catalytic Process for Ultimate Removal of Organic Sulfur-Containing Compounds in Hydrocarbon Fractions 30
Dr. Farhan M. Al-Shahrani, Dr. Tiacun Xiao, Dr. Abdennour Bourane, Dr. Omer R. Koseoglu and Prof. Malcolm L.H. Green
Innovative Solution for Drilling Pre-Khuff Formations in Saudi Arabia Utilizing Turbodrill and Impregnated Bits
Gabriel D. Carrillo, Usman Farid, Michael Albrecht, Perry Cook, Nouman Feroze and Kenneth Nevlud
37
Evaluation of Wellbore Stability during Drilling and Production of Open Hole Horizontal Wells in a Carbonate Field
Dr. Hazim H. Abass, Mickey Warlick, Cesar H. Pardo, Mirajuddin R. Khan, Dr. Ashraf M. Al-Tahini, Dr. Dhafer A. Al-Shehri, Dr. Hameed H. Al-Badairy, Yousef M. Al-Shobaili, Dr. Thomas Finkbeiner and Satya Perumalla
44
The Use of Multistage New Technology to Complete and Stimulate Horizontal Wells: Field Case
Hassan M. Al-Hussain, J. Ricardo Solares, Hamad M. Al-Marri and Carlos A. Franco
56
Revitalization of Old Asset Oil Fields into I-Fields

Dr. Mohammed N. Al-Khamis, Konstantinos I. Zormpalas, Hassan M. Al-Matouq and Saleh M. Al-Mahamed
63
Lessons Learned from 100 Intelligent Wells Equipped with Multiple Downhole Valves
Authors: Saeed M. Al-Mubarak, Naseem J. Al-Dawood and Salam P. Salamy
ABSTRACT
The last decade has been marked by the emergence of intelligent field (I-Field) technologies. Many E&P companies have moved from the piloting and trial-testing mode toward strategic implementation, demonstrating that these technologies have shown their capabilities. While the current deployment of these technologies represents only a small fraction of the overall installation, the trend is indicative of the shifting of attitudes and preferences within companies. Among those companies, Saudi Aramco has deployed fit-forpurpose technologies, such as intelligent wells equipped with multiple downhole valves, as part of its best-in-class practices, Fig. 1. Continuous assessment of these technologies is important to provide reassurance on their values. The resulting performance of this technology is a function of multiple factors, from reservoir parameters and completion schemes to surface infrastructure. Understanding and assessing the impact of these factors is complex due to the wide variation of variables. This article summarizes the lessons learned from more than 100 deployments in wells equipped with multiple downhole valves. These lessons illustrate the advantages of these applications and should provide insight for improved performance. As there is no one size fits all, proper design should be emphasized for maximum effectiveness.
Inflow Control Valves, (ICVs) smart or intelligent completions. The ICVs are multi-position active downhole valves that can be controlled from the surface. The concept of this technology was developed to provide a means to optimize production, and provide zonal isolation and flow control of commingled production from different laterals or segments. Using the variable positions of these valves, production can be managed in real time to improve oil performance. These downhole valves are accessories for maximum reservoir contact (MRC), multilateral or multisegmented horizontal wells to manage production, where there is: High reservoir pressure variation among laterals or segments. Significant variation in productivities between laterals. Varying gas/water fractions among laterals or segments. A presence of fractures, faults and/or high permeability intervals. The first deployment of this technology took place in 2004 across Saudi Aramco fields; mainly Shaybah and Haradh-III fields, with the majority installed in MRCs and multilateral wells. These technologies are used as fit-for-purpose. They are customdesigned to take into account reservoir characteristics, completion architecture, and operational and economic measures. The effectiveness of these completions depends on the proper planning, design and placement of laterals or segments. The presence of an integrated system, including surface panels and multiphase testing capabilities, is a key factor to effectively utilize ICVs. This article provides an assessment of wells equipped with surface-controlled downhole ICVs, focusing on their impact on well and reservoir performance and development cost. Results have proven that these completions have been effective in sustaining oil rates, controlling water production, minimizing or eliminating water and gas production and reducing development cost.
INTRODUCTION
This article documents the findings, results and recommendations of the evaluation of more than 100 intelligent wells equipped with multiple downhole valve installations in Saudi Aramco. The downhole valves are usually referred to as
LS ENT WEL
WITH ICVS
L EVO
Birth of Smart (7 Liner)
TELLIG O F IN ION UT
Smart (ML/Expandable)
Smart (ML/Open Hole) (ML/MPFM)
Smart (SL/Open Hole) (ML/Slim Hole) (SL/Slim Hole)
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
EVOLUTION OF APPLICATION OF DOWNHOLE VALVES IN SAUDI ARAMCO

The first implementation of these completions in Saudi Aramco took place in conjunction with multilateral MRC wells in early 2004. Encouraging results from the MRC and
Fig. 1. Evolution of intelligent wells equipped with downhole valves in Saudi Aramco.
FALL 2009 SAUDI ARAMCO JOURNAL OF TECHNOLOGY
multilateral wells triggered the need to optimize and manage production from different laterals. This need was translated into piloting downhole ICVs. Approval of the ICVs concept was achieved when the anticipated benefits were realized by monitoring the actual performance of these wells. The leveraged knowledge has provided an insight into the ICVs capabilities and implementation. Moreover, it has set the stage for the development of Haradh Increment-III exclusively with MRC wells equipped with ICVs1. The concept has not been limited to new wells. The utilization of ICVs has been extended to enhance performance of existing weak and dead conventional wells after converting them to MRCs and multilaterals. The technology even extended to target single lateral new horizontal wells where downhole valves were installed across the horizontal section. Moreover, the good results have led to trying new downhole technologies, such us permanent downhole multiphase flow meters (MPFMs). In Well A2, a trilateral well, every downhole valve was combined with a MPFM and permanent downhole pressure and temperature gauges. The latest implementation was tailored to target existing dead wells where slim hole multilaterals and single laterals were drilled and equipped with downhole valves across their open hole.
Normalized Lateral Rates (Choke Setting #3)

1.5 1.25 1.2 1.00 0.9 0.6 0.3 0.0 MB L-1 L-2 1.15
1.50
L-3
Fig. 2. Productivity variation among laterals at similar ICV positions.
Fig. 3. Schematic of quadrilateral well equipped with four ICVs.
OVERALL FINDINGS
Field performance of wells equipped with ICVs has indicated evident advantage over conventional completions. The ICVs have been very instrumental in meeting both reservoir and production main objectives, such as sustaining well productivity, improving sweep, controlling production of multiple laterals, managing water production and minimizing production interruptions. These advantages were more pronounced in fields that were developed with infrastructures that allow real-time remote monitoring and controlling capabilities3, as will be illustrated in the coming sections of this article.
production strategy of the well and the area. During the optimization, downhole valves and surface choke4 adjustments are performed to accomplish one of several objectives: minimizing drawdown, maximizing total production, minimizing water production or equalizing production among the laterals. It is fair to say that there is no one-size-fits-all approach. In any optimization scenario, options are ranked according to the possibility of accomplishing the desired target. Field optimization efforts have been performed for several wells honoring various objectives (i.e., less water production, balanced contribution, etc.).
PROLONGING WELL LIFE

Well A, a multilateral well, has demonstrated the power of ICVs in prolonging well life and eliminating water production. The multilateral well is located in a heterogeneous area characterized by irregular water movement due to the presence of fractures and high permeability layers. Once the well started to produce water, managing production among the laterals became more important. The production of this well was managed and maintained by changing downhole valve positions to eliminate water production that killed the well when the downhole valves were fully open1.
Managing Withdrawal and Optimizing Sweep
PRODUCTIVITY VARIATION AMONG LATERALS

Several multilateral wells equipped with downhole valves are located in an area characterized by high productivity variations among different laterals. These variations are influenced by reservoir properties and wellbore and completion characteristics. In the case of homogeneous reservoir environments, field data has indicated that the closer the lateral is to the heel, the higher the productivity, Fig. 2. This is due mainly to the pressure drop resulting from friction losses. Figure 3 illustrates a schematic of a quadrilateral well with its laterals labeled by MB, L-1, L-2 and L-3. Optimizing the production of these wells necessitates regulating the settings of downhole valves in accordance with the laterals productivities, and is in alignment with overall
Well B, a multilateral well, is located in an area with controlled injection and uniform sweep. The wells target, set to be 10 thousand barrels of oil per day (MBD), is in full
SAUDI ARAMCO JOURNAL OF TECHNOLOGY FALL 2009
alignment with reservoir production strategy. With these objectives in mind, comprehensive rate tests with several downhole choke setting combinations were conducted. Test results indicated that the upper lateral dominates the flow due to its higher productivity and the higher reservoir pressure in the area, Fig. 4. The final configuration of the downhole valves settings was adjusted so that all laterals are producing at about the same rate. Using the surface choke, the total withdrawal of the well was restricted to an oil rate of 10 MBD and 0% water cut. Since then, the well has been producing at this rate with no water production. Figure 5 shows the rate distribution of the laterals after the adjustment of the downhole valves at optimum settings.
Maximizing Production Rate
positions before and after, where ICV setting 10 reflects a fully open ICV and setting 0 represents a closed valve. Figure 6 shows the production rate and flowing bottom-hole pressure (FBHP) before and after. In this particular well, the optimization of the downhole valves was done in conjunction with additional control by use of a surface choke5.
Management of Withdrawal in Homogeneous Reservoirs
Well C is a trilateral well that was producing oil at a rate of 8.5 MBD at very high drawdown with all of its downhole valves fully open. A comprehensive test was conducted on the well at several downhole choke setting combinations. Results again indicated that the upper lateral (L-2) was dominating the flow. Having an assigned target rate for the well and knowing the reservoir performance around its three laterals, the downhole choke settings were adjusted to maximize the rate yet reduce drawdown. Table 1 indicates the valve
The examples mentioned in the previous section indicate how downhole valves have contributed to manage production, and improve performance and rate in heterogeneous reservoirs. This example discusses Well D, a trilateral that is located in a homogeneous reservoir. The objective was to produce the well at the lowest possible pressure drawdown from all the laterals; therefore delaying both water and gas breakthroughs. Production tests indicated that every lateral was produced at a rate of ~ 9 MBD at a fully open surface choke setting. The well was put on production at a rate of 10 MBD by adjusting the surface choke, allowing laterals to produce at a lower drawdown as detailed in Table 2. Lateral L-0 L-1 L-2 Initial ICV Setting 10 10 10 Final ICV Setting 10 5 4
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
Table 1. ICV settings before and after
Rate (MBD)
FBHP 2,296 psi 15 12 FBHP 1,927 psi 8.6 9 6 3 0 Before After 13.2
MB
L1
L2
Fig. 4. Upper lateral domination inflow when downhole valves fully open.
3.5 3.0
Rate (MBD)
3.5 3.0
3.5
Fig. 6. Rate and FBHP before and after optimization settings of ICVs.
2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0 MB L1 L2
Well D (Trilateral MRC with ICVs) Tested Downhole FWHP, Lateral Choke psi Lateral 1 100% 1,017 Lateral 2 100% 1,044 Motherbore 100% 1,036 Surface FWHP, Choke psi All 25% 1,086 All 35% 895
Table 2. Well D rate test at various ICVs and surface choke settings
Rate (MBD)
2.5
Rate, MBOD 9.3 8.9 8.7 Rate, MBOD 10 16
Fig. 5. Balanced inflow distribution at valve positions 10 for MB, 10 for L1 and four for L2.
Fig. 7. Surface choke settings eliminates cross flow by optimizing choke setting.
Field data indicated equivalent flow contribution among different laterals when wells produce dry oil, mainly in wells with minimum variations in reservoir quality. When water or gas breaks through in any lateral, ICVs become essential in managing withdrawal among different laterals to minimize or eliminate water or gas production.
Minimizing Cross Flow among Laterals in Heterogeneous Reservoirs
Due to the heterogeneity of some reservoirs and the presence of differential pressure among laterals, the efficient utilization of ICVs is required to manage withdrawal. A production log on Well E, one of the first trilateral MRC wells equipped with sliding sleeve controls, was run to determine lateral contributions, well performance, and to detect any water presence. Logging results indicated cross flow among the laterals at different surface choke settings and while the well was shut-in. Even if the cross flow is expected, it is not accepted for good reservoir management practices as cross flow between a wet and dry lateral could be damaging to well productivity, due to rock imbibitions of water. In this well, the cross flow was eliminated when the well surface choke was set at 102/164, Fig. 76. Similar cross flow was detected in a trilateral well equipped with downhole valves and downhole MPFM2. These occurrences of cross flow can be reduced or eliminated by implementing an active multi-position ICV system or other technologies that can prevent or minimize cross flow among laterals or segments. With these facts in mind, the functionality of ICVs becomes an integral part in managing the withdrawal from MRC or multilateral wells.
Downhole Valves Functionality and Capabilities
months. These routine tests can be done more easily in fields where surface infrastructure allows testing and optimization by either a permanent or portable surface control or testing unit. With the lack of dedicated testing facilities and surface control systems for each of the smart wells, it is extremely hard to optimize the performance of these wells; therefore, the expected benefits of such wells cannot be fully realized. In another aspect, field data has confirmed that after four years of deployment, the systems are functional in controlling inflow from laterals, and that the flow characteristics of the downhole valves are varied due to different completion designs and productivity indexes of producing zones. This makes the design and capabilities of the downhole valves essential to accomplish the desired objectives. Figure 8 illustrates downhole capabilities across various operating conditions. Assessments and efforts were made to improve the design of the downhole valves. The new design provides a higher level of control at lower flow rates, enabling finer adjustment of the distribution of inflow among different laterals or segments that shall allow better management of wells and will satisfy the production strategy7.
One of the adopted strategies when installing any of these completions is to make sure that all the ICVs are functional while the rig is on location. To date, the overall deployment success rate is close to 100%. Once a completion is set and a well is put in production, it is expected that these completions are routinely function tested in periods not exceeding six
Fig. 8. Downhole valve capabilities vary according to reservoir rock and fluid properties.
POTENTIAL IMPROVEMENTS
Cross Flow Prevention
The occurrence of cross flow between laterals or segments is not always preventable with the current ICV designs. When laterals experience differential pressures, they are vulnerable to cross flow. When a well is shut-in, cross flow can be prevented either by closing all the ICVs or equipping the completion with a cross flow preventer that is triggered whenever cross flow occurs.
ICV with Multiple Downhole Gauges
fields. The group benefits by having multiple members keep track of changes and detect errors before they escalate. This environment can be facilitated by establishing standards for ICVs, their surface control infrastructure and their remote control capabilities. When designing an ICV control room, it is necessary that the technologies used satisfy the following criteria: Affordable: Low-cost deployment strategies and ondemand solution accessibility. Available: As real time control becomes more strategic to the business, the cost of downtime increases. Scalable and high performance: Business users increasingly demand sophisticated real time testing and control functions. These requirements, coupled with performance and reliability, are essential. Supportable and manageable: These technologies must be usable and reliable. Compatible: Should be fully functional for all common ICV systems. Specialized expertise: A business unit with required expertise is required to run the center and conduct all tests and optimization according to predefined objectives. Secure and compliant: Its essential that a solution provide a trusted, secure environment in which to convey confidential business information.
Most of the available completions do not provide values for upstream or downstream pressures across downhole valves. Optimizing the performance from these completions requires rigorous testing for every lateral or segment. Such intensive testing can be eliminated if each ICV is equipped with multiple downhole gauges capable of reading both the upstream and downstream pressures across an ICV. The real time pressure measurements will facilitate: Optimizing the production of each lateral by setting the ICV at an optimum position. Identifying the occurrence of cross flow, thereby minimizing or eliminating cross flow. Calculating the total rate from each ICV (knowing the delta pressure and flow area). Providing a reservoir pressure reading when the valves are closed.
Requirements for Full Utilization
CONCLUSIONS
Advanced well completions have opened up numerous improvement opportunities. Earlier implementations of downhole valves have demonstrated their advantages over conventional completions. In this article, we have discussed the performance of surface controlled downhole valves and their impact on well performance. Moreover, it sheds light on potential improvements to ensure continuous improvement in their design and performance. The main conclusions are: The actual performance of wells equipped with downhole valves exceeds that of conventional wells. There is no one-size-fits-all completion scheme. They are designed as fit-for-purpose. It is essential to evaluate available completion capabilities with regard to reservoir properties and well configuration, well location and requirements prior to installation. The success of optimization of these completions depends upon the ability to facilitate operating these wells at their optimum performance level to be able to improve the overall asset value. Operational experience with MRC and multilateral wells equipped with ICVs is still maturing. The
For the purpose of having all the requirements met for full utilization of these completions, a set of roles and responsibilities need to be established to ensure maximum utilization of these technologies. The maximum utilization of these completions will result in operating these wells at their optimum performance, and therefore, improve the overall asset value. The requirements for full utilization will incorporate: Ability to remotely control downhole inflow control devices. Accessibility to testing facilities (surface or downhole). Optimization procedures. Capability of modeling (reservoir and wellbore). Integrated system (subsurface to surface).
ICV Control Room
One of the recommendations is to have control over all installed ICVs from a dedicated center. The center would require a real time collaboration environment, expert operators and remote control over all installed ICVs in all
evaluation has nurtured an accelerating learning environment, which leads to a better understanding of the existing ICV capabilities.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to thank Saudi Aramco management for their support and permission to present the information contained in this article. In addition, the authors would like to extend their appreciation to the Petroleum Engineering Technology Assessment Team members.
4. Konopczynski, M. and Ajayi, A.: Design of Intelligent Well Downhole Valve for Adjustable Flow Control, SPE paper 90664, presented at the SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Houston, Texas, September 2629, 2004. 5. Arnaout, I.H., Driweesh, S.M. and Zaharani, R.M.: Production Engineering Experience with the First I-Field Implementation in Saudi Aramco at Haradh-III: Transforming Vision to Reality, SPE paper 112216, presented at the SPE Intelligent Energy Conference, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, February 25-27, 2008. 6. Mubarak, S.M., Afaleg, N.I., Pham, T.R., Zeybek, M. and Soleimani, A.: Integrating Advanced Production Logging and New Wellbore Modeling in a MRC Well, SPE paper 105700, presented at the Middle East Oil Show, Bahrain, March 11-14, 2007. 7. Mubarak, S.M., Sunbul, A.H., Hembling, D., Sukkestad, T. and Jacob, S.: Improved Performance of Downhole Active Inflow Control Valves through Enhanced Design: Case Study, SPE paper 117634, presented at the Abu Dhabi International Petroleum Exhibition and Conference, Abu Dhabi, U.A.E., November 3-6, 2008.
REFERENCES
1. Mubarak, S.M., Pham, T.R. and Shafiq, M.: Using Downhole Control Valves to Sustain Oil Production from the First MRC, Multilateral and Smart Well in Ghawar Field: Case Study, SPE paper 120744, SPE Production and Operations Journal, November 2008, pp. 427-430. 2. Arnaout, I.H., Al-Buali, M.H., Mubarak, S.M., Johansen, E.S., Zareef, M.A. and nalmis, .H.: Optimizing Production in Maximum Reservoir Contact Wells with Intelligent Completions and Optical Downhole Monitoring System, SPE paper 118033, presented at the Abu Dhabi International Petroleum Exhibition and Conference, Abu Dhabi, U.A.E., November 3-6, 2008. 3. Mubarak, S.M.: Real-time Reservoir Management from Data Acquisition through Implementation: Closed-Loop Approach, SPE paper 111717, presented at the Intelligent Energy Conference, Amsterdam, SPE The Netherlands, February 25-27, 2008.
SAUDI ARAMCO JOURNAL OF TECHNOLOGY
FALL 2009
BIOGRAPHIES
Saeed M. Al-Mubarak is a Supervisor in the Southern Area Reservoir Management Department and a specialist in Real-Time Reservoir Management (RTRM) and Intelligent Fields (I-Fields). He has been very involved in the development, the design and the implementation of I-Fields and various advanced well completion systems. Saeed has more than 15 years of petroleum industry experience. His contributions to the international technical community are numerous, including his acceptance to be the Society of Petroleum Engineers (SPE) Distinguished Lecturer in RTRM during 2009-2010. Saeed received the 2009 SPE Regional Award for Management and Information. In 1992, he received his B.S. degree in Chemical Engineering from King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals (KFUPM), Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, and is now finishing his M.S. degree in Petroleum Engineering from the same university. Naseem J. Al-Dawood is currently acting as the General Supervisor of the Khurais Reservoir Management Division of the Southern Area Reservoir Management Department. He joined Saudi Aramco in 1993 and has worked in various disciplines, including reservoir management, reservoir description, and production and drilling engineering. Naseem has held various reservoir management supervisory positions and has carried out and led many reservoir related studies, including a team exploring opportunities to enhance wells and field performance through advanced well completion technologies. He received his B.S. and M.S. degrees in Petroleum Engineering in 1990 and 1992, respectively, both from the University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL.
Salam P. Salamy is a Petroleum Engineering Consultant for Saudi Aramco with over 20 years of industry experience. He is currently holding the position of Assistant to the Executive Head, Petroleum Engineering & Development. Salam joined Saudi Aramco in 1996 as an Engineer in the Reservoir Management Department on the Shaybah Field Project. He has held several reservoir management supervisory positions including at the Shaybah, Berri and Safaniya Fields. Prior to joining Saudi Aramco, Salam worked with the U.S. Department of Energy, BDM International Oil and Gas Division and the U.S. National Institute of Petroleum Energy Research (NIPER). His experience was primarily in the area of horizontal well technology. Salam is the author and co-author of over 25 technical publications. Salam was the Society of Petroleum Engineer (SPE) Distinguished Lecturer for 2004-2005 and a Keynote Speaker at several SPE Forums and Workshops. He served as the 2003-2004 SPE Saudi Arabia Section Chairman and was the 2002-2003 SPE Saudi Arabia Section Program ViceChairman. His awards include the 2006 Middle East Region Service Award and the 2009 SPE Distinguished Member Award. In 1982, he received his B.S. degree, and in 1985, he received his M.S. degree, both in Petroleum and Natural Gas Engineering from West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV.
Drill Cuttings Re-Injection (CRI) Assessment for the Manifa Field: An Environmentally Safe and Cost-Effective Drilling Waste Management Strategy
Authors: Yousef M. Al-Shobaili, Kirk M. Bartko, Philip E. Gagnard, Mickey Warlick and Ahmad Shah Baim
ABSTRACT
Over the past decades, environmental regulations for oil and gas companies have become increasingly more stringent to protect and preserve the environment for future generations. This is particularly true for remote areas and environmentally sensitive terrestrial and marine locations where there is a strong emphasis on protecting natural habitats and resources. Accordingly, many regulatory agencies have adopted zero discharge policies requiring all generated wastes to be disposed of in a responsible manner. For drilling operations, the various waste streams that need to be handled and disposed of properly include: drill cuttings, excess drilling fluid, contaminated rainwater, produced water, scale, produced sand, and even production and cleanup waste. Old practices involve temporary box storage and hauling of the waste products to a final disposal site. Often these sites are several kilometers (km) away from the generation source, creating not only liabilities for the operating company, but also environmental risks from accidental releases and gas emissions that result in higher operating costs. To address these concerns, waste management technologies have evolved to offer cuttings re-injection (CRI) as a safe and cost-effective alternative that permits the permanent and contained disposal of drilling cuttings in an engineeringdetermined subsurface formation. Cuttings re-injection provides a secure operation achieving zero discharge by injecting cuttings and associated fluids up to several thousand meters below the surface into hydraulically created fractures. This disposal technique mitigates any surface environmental risks and future liabilities for operating companies. Saudi Aramco has taken the initiative to utilize CRI as the preferred technology to manage drilling wastes that will be generated in the Manifa field development. To minimize risks associated with CRI and conduct successful injection operations, an Assurance Waste Injection Process was set in place to continuously monitor the operation and plan ahead for any eventuality. Assurance of the injection operation begins during the planning phase with a comprehensive feasibility study based on existing data. Simulations are performed for the anticipated downhole waste domain to ensure containment within the selected formation and permit adequate design of surface facilities for the particular project.
This article describes the various components of the first Saudi Aramco CRI pilot study. These include: reservoir/ geomechanical data analysis and interpretation; preliminary geomechanical modeling; target zone selection; test well design, drilling and injectivity testing; and geomechanical model refinement using field injectivity data. The objectives of this study for the Manifa field development project were to evaluate: What are the most promising zones for injection based on the geomechanical model? Do overlying formations provide effective containment of the injected wastes? What are the injection rates, volumes, slurry rheology, and particle size requirements for field testing? What were the results of the field injectivity testing at MNIF-ABC? What are the long-term, predictive results from recalibration of the geomechanical model? What is the well design and completion strategy during the implementation phase?
INTRODUCTION
The Manifa field is an offshore field that lies mainly in shallow water, up to 40 ft in depth. The Manifa field was discovered in 1957 and production began when the Manifa reservoir came onstream in 1964. The Manifa field is a northwest-southeast trending anticline and measures approximately 28 miles (45 km) in length and 11 miles (18 km) in width. There are six oil-bearing reservoirs in Manifa: Upper Ratawi, Lower Ratawi, Manifa, and ArabA, B and C/D. The reservoirs for increment development are the two most prolific reservoirs, the Lower Ratawi and Manifa reservoirs, Fig. 1. The Manifa and Lower Ratawi reservoirs are primarily limestone with occasional dolomitic intervals and generally exhibit high porosity and permeability. The reservoirs were deposited in a shallow marine carbonate platform capped by tight lime mudstones and algal bounds tone facies. A continuous tar mat underlies the oil column in both reservoirs that effectively separates the oil column from the aquifer.
important during the selection of tentative injection points. The stress contrast acts as a barrier to avoid uncontrolled vertical growth during the CRI operation. Additionally, that contrast can reduce the horsepower needed to fracture the formation, and consequently, help to reduce the operational and maintenance cost.
High Leakoff Zone: Formations with high leakoff in

upper layers provide a barrier to prevent uncontrolled vertical growth during the operations. The dehydration of the slurry causes premature screen out on top, which induces the storage of the cuttings in the upper area, and prevents the propagation in a vertical direction. Identification of the high leakoff zone is important in cases where no stress contrast is identified.
Lithology: The selection of a candidate injection zone

includes the analysis of the lithology composition of the analyzed formations. For CRI operation, it is desirable to inject in a formation that is easy to fracture, that will not have any interaction with the slurry injected, and that possesses a good storage capability that allows the injection of a considerable waste volume. In general, sandstone formations are the most suitable for cuttings disposal. The physical rock properties of sandstone allow easier fracturing compared with shale, and it is not reactive with the slurry made for the CRI operation. Also, it is important to identify the targeted area containing a proper containment formation above the CRI site. It must have the required sealing properties that assure that the injected waste will remain in the selected area, avoiding any unwanted migration of the slurry injected. These containment zones generally are shales with very low permeability and very high stress levels.
Fig. 1. Stratigraphic location.
RESERVOIR EVALUATION
The objective of this task was the evaluation and determination of the mechanical and petrophysical properties of the formations and lithologies present in the Manifa area. These data were used to evaluate the suitability of a subsurface formation for safe disposal of waste drilling cutting slurry. This task included detailed analysis and interpretation of available well log data. A detailed reservoir evaluation helped identify the waste containment and fracture barrier capability of a formation above the injection point that could prevent uncontrolled fracture vertical growth.
Geomechanical Model
Reservoir Depth: The location of the interest zone/pay

zone needs to be taken into consideration. It is not desirable to have interferences between the Target injection zone and the production zone. The feasibility study analyzes and ensures that the waste injection domain will remain away from the reservoir area, to protect the future production of the field.
Evaluation and analysis of appropriate logs were performed to determine elastic modulus, Poissons Ratio (PR) properties and possible fracture gradients of the different formations. Fluid leakoff coefficients for the disposal formation and other lithologies in the overburden were characterized. The information was employed to formulate the geomechanical model used for the hydraulic fracturing simulations. The simulations are performed to provide containment assurance and predict fracture extent and behavior in the specified conditions. While modeling the injection zones, important factors were taken into consideration:
MECHANICAL PROPERTY LOG

The vertical stress was estimated by integrating the available bulk density with respect to depth. A pore pressure gradient of 0.497 psi/ft was used from 6,000 ft; above 6,000 ft it was assumed a normal pore pressure gradient of 0.433 psi/ft. The minimum horizontal stress was estimated based on the elastic theory, assuming an isotropic environment and no external stresses in the area. Dynamic measurements of elastic moduli are derived from measuring acoustic velocities and the bulk density of the material. It is important to calibrate the computed dynamic elastic properties of the rock against the static rock properties
Containment Assurance: The identification of a good

containment is crucial for the success of the cuttings reinjection (CRI) operation. The following scenarios provide good indications for the proper storage of cuttings.
Stress Contrast: The identification of stress contrast

between the injection zone and the overburden is
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taken from the actual measurements of the core material being stressed in the laboratory.
Poissons Ratio
Poissons Ratio is the ratio of the lateral strain to the longitudinal strain. It represents the amount the sides of a cube are compressed.
Youngs Modulus
Youngs Modulus (YM) is the ratio of the applied stress to the longitudinal strain or the rock stiffness. This variable is an important variable as it impacts the fracture geometry. Dynamic elastic moduli correlations were calibrated against static moduli obtained for the core analysis. As a result of this analysis, the following corrections were made: Shuaiba Formation: YMstatic = 0.542*YM-dynamic + 586 PRstatic = 0.665*PR-static + 0.16 Khafji Formation: YMstatic = 0.8278*YM-dynamic - 667 PRstatic = 0.5348*PR-static + 0.171 Safaniya Formation: YMstatic = 10.721*YM-dynamic + 300 PRstatic = -1.463*PR-static + 0.549 The MNIF-XYZ compressional and shear sonic log data was used to develop a mechanical property log for estimating fracture height growth and net pressure in the three potential injection intervals: Safaniya, Khafji and Shuaiba formations. The minimum stress calculated from the sonic data indicates little stress contrast within the formation of interest. This is expected in a high permeability environment having clean, low modulus rock throughout the interval. Because of this little stress contrast, the fracture geometry will be dependent on the Youngs Modulus contrast of the formation.
Fracture Gradients
The lithologic characteristics of the lower Aruma shale and Wasia formations suggest these zones are suitable for CRI. A high leakoff area is known to exist, and was identified in the lower part of Aruma where natural fissures occur in the limestone at 4,000 ft. This increase in permeability makes an excellent barrier for preventing uncontrolled fracture height growth. High stress contrast on top of the Lower Aruma Shale (LAS) formation also provides a good containment barrier for the underlying injection zone. Additionally, a cap rock of anhydrite in the Rus formation ensures the waste would not reach the surface. All these features are presented in Fig. 2. Based on the analysis discussed, four possible injection points were identified. The bottom of the LAS formation constitutes one of those selected injection zones. This point is located at 5,180 ft under the high stress contrast presented in that area. This condition would provide fracture height control. The Safaniya and Khafji members of the Wasia formation also constitute suitable zones for injection purposes. Both formations consist of shaly-sand lithology, and the low fracture gradient (FG) of this type of lithology makes for suitable operations. Two injection points were recognized in the Khafji member at 6,320 ft and 6,730 ft, respectively; however, to take advantage of the entire thickness of the Khafji, injection at 6,730 ft was selected as the main injection point. The injection point at 6,320 ft could provide another suitable place for cuttings disposal in case of any contingency event.
FLUID PROPERTIES
Fluid properties used for the injection model were based on an Aberdeen and North Sea1 fluid slurry mixture. This fluid is similar in nature to what several other operators have used in published SPE papers. The requirement of an injection fluid is to have sufficient viscosity to carry the solid cuttings. Table 1 provides the fluid rheology used for this study along with others for comparison. All fracture models require a fluid with filter cake capabilities that are governed by fluid loss. This number can be calculated in the field based on the fluid efficiency of the total fracture system after the minifrac. This number would be an
Gamma Ray
Fracture Gradients
Fig. 2. Containment assurance.
Fig. 3. MNIF-ABC location.
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Identify Injection Zones
Perforate 100 ft 7 Casing Guns at 12 SPF
Establish Injection with Clean Brine
Perform Acid Treatment
No
Yes
StepRate/Down Test
Obtain Fracture Extension Pressure 300 bbl Injection Test Obtain Near Wellbore Pressure Losses
Obtain Closure Pressure
300 bbl Injection Test Obtain Closure Pressure 600 bbl Injection Test Obtain Closure Pressure
1,200 bbl Injection Test
Obtain Closure Pressure
Fig. 4. CRI injection test process.
average number of the fines concentration in the fracture. Leakoff tests in the laboratory were performed with actual cuttings. The slurry was xanthum-based polymer with 20% cuttings. Results from the laboratory leakoff tests for the three intervals are shown in Table 2. For the high leakoff zones (i.e., Safaniya and Khafji), the laboratory based leakoff ranged from
12
0.0005 ft/sq-min to 0.0009 ft/sq-min while the tighter Shuaiba indicated laboratory leakoffs ranging from 0.0003 ft/sq-min to 0.0005 ft/sq-min. Other studies have suggested that slurry leakoff tests for high permeability sands, in both field and laboratory measurements, have leakoff values from 0.004 ft/sqmin to 0.005 ft/sq-min2, 3. For low permeability formations,
such as shales, the leakoff coefficients range from 0.0005 ft/sqmin to 0.0006 ft/sq-min4, 5 measured from field slurry tests.
FIELD TEST
MNIF-ABC, a land based well, Fig. 3, was selected to evaluate the feasibility of CRI into selected target zones to determine the most promising zones for injection of drill cuttings from the proposed offshore platform wells. The CRI injection test process, Fig. 4, was applied to the four injection intervals to determine fluid leakoff, minimum stress and fracture extension pressures. The multiple injection tests evaluated short- and long-term injection cycles. These multiple tests provided an understanding of the fluid leakoff characteristic over time, and the injection pressure based on an increase in slurry volume injected into the formation. The multiple injection tests also established an injection rate and pressure history that will be used later to determine the completion strategy: annular vs. tubing injection. All four formations, with the exception of the Safaniya formation, clearly showed fracture extension and closure pressure based on the step-rate and pressure falloff. Figure 5 shows a typical injection test that was performed. This particular test was in the Aruma formation where three injection tests were performed pumping 300 bbl, 600 bbl and 1,200 bbl at three barrels per minute (bpm). Field Aberdeen Fluid Ekofisk Fluid Linear #30 HPG
Table 1. Fluid rheology data
The injection test in the Safaniya formation was curtailed due to the excessive breakdown pressure and the formation sand flowback into the wellbore. The Shuaiba formation fracture extension pressure and predicted closure pressure was correctly predicted. The Khafji closure pressure prediction was higher than the actual closure pressure, which was probably due to the Khafji being highly permeable and friable. The Aruma calculated closure pressure was higher than predicted. The complete results of the pressure analysis based on the injection tests are tabulated in Table 3.
FRACTURE MODEL PRESSURE MATCHING DISCUSSION

The modeling effort to determine the fracture geometry of the cuttings was performed with a fully three dimensional fracture model. The model is a fully numerical solution for
Aruma CRI Injection
4400
4300
4200
4 bpm Pext*=4130 psi
Bottomhole Pressure (psi)
4100 Rate Loss Pclosure = 3,998 psi 3900 Step-Rate/Step-
4000
Specific Gravity 1.04 1.04 1.04
n 0.7 0.22 0.55
k 0.0051 0.641 0.007
Viscosity (cp) 71.5 1280 54.3
3800 300 bbl FOT 3700 600 bbl FOT 1,200 bbl FOT
3600 Pres=2,700 psi 3500 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 Time (min) 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 * Uncorrected for Gauge Depth
Fig. 5. Aruma CRI injection test.
Formation Safaniya Khafji (Plug 1) Khafji (Plug 2) Shuaiba (Plug 1) Shuaiba (Plug 2)
Porosity 34 24 24 16 16
Permeability (md) 9,500 2,240 2,240 0.5 0.5
Leakoff Coefficient (ft/min2) 9.06E-4 5.62E-4 8.19E-4 3.21E-4 5.52E-4
Spurt Loss (gal/100 gal) 7.8 3.6 2.5 1.6 0
Table 2. Laboratory based fluid leakoff and spurt loss
Formation Maximum Surface Pressure (psi) Aruma Khafji Shuaiba 2,000 2,800 2,800
Extension Pressure (psi)
4,125 4,557 5,610
Fracture Extension Pressure Gradient (psi/ft) 0.86 0.69 0.79
Fracture Closure Pressure (psi) 4,083 3,828 NA**
Fracture Closure Pressure Gradient (psi/ft) 0.83 0.58 NA**
Predicted* Fracture Closure Pressure (psi) 2,757 4,578 5,391
Predicted* Fracture Closure Pressure Gradient .71 0.71 0.79
Table 3. Pressure analysis results *MNIF XYZ MI study prediction. ** Pressure falloff time was not sufficient. All pressures are bottom-hole unless identified as surface.
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two dimensional fluid-flow/proppant-transport calculations and a rigorous Finite Element Method (FEM) solution for fracture width/propagation in a layered formation with varying moduli. Net pressure matching was performed on all three successful injection zones. The Aruma and Shuaiba formation resulted in the best pressure match, requiring minimal change to the geomechanical model developed for these two formations. The Khafji net pressure match was the most difficult and resulted in only capturing the trend and not the absolute value, Fig. 6. Further work needs to be done in the fracture model to compensate for the soft rock fracturing and possible filtration of the slurry within the porous media. Figure 7 shows the resulting fracture geometry based on this match. The fracture stayed contained within the perforated interval and resulted in a fracture length of 50 ft to 100 ft. No post diagnostics were performed after the slurry injections to confirm the fracture height; however, the net pressure plot indicates the fracture stayed contained, and grew laterally based on the positive pressure gain throughout the slurry injection. Table 4 is a compilation of the predicted geometries for the three injection zones. All three zones showed containment within the perforated interval and fracture lengths that ranged
Khafji CRI Net Pressure 1st FOT Test
10000
from 30 ft to 300 ft. The Aruma was a much harder formation and showed the greatest length of 350 ft.
COMPLETION STATEGY
The offshore Manifa wells will require the wellbore to be at a high angle (< 30) through the proposed injection zone target to reach the wells primary objective in the Manifa and Lower Ratawi formation. The well will be drilled in a spider pattern, resulting in a quantity of the wells oriented in the wrong direction to the maximum stress. Incorrect well orientation would result in excessive treating pressures and multiple fracture generations. To reduce these impacts, plus the possibility of the cuttings falling out on the low side of the pipe, it was recommended that the slurry be pumped down the tubing string vs. annular injection. The tubing injection reduced the risk of not being able to inject in this interval over time. This provides the opportunity to clean out the pipe with coiled tubing and add additional perforations if the formation will not accept slurry. The final proposed well design provides a well where the slurry can be injected down into the 4 tubing, and then Formation Fracture Height Containment (100 ft perforated interval) Yes Yes Yes Fracture Length (ft) 250 - 300 50 - 100 30 - 50
Bottom-hole Pressure (psi)
Aruma Khafji Shuaiba
1000
Table 4. Fracture model geometry prediction 300 bbl injection period

100
10
1 Fracture Extension Fracture Height Growth Fracture Screenout
24 at Rus 1,125 ft.

1 10 100 1000
0.1
0.1
Time (min)
Net Pressure (3750) Frac Model 50 bbl Frac Model 300 bbl
181/8 at LAS 4,800 ft.
Fig. 6. Khafji net pressure match - Lower net pressure is related to fracturing soft unconsolidated sandstone formation.
Perf at Aruma 95/8 Liner Hanger and Tie-back
67.51 min
Width - Total in
TVD ft 6575
6650
6725
0.000 0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.025 0.030 0.035 0.040 0.045 0.050 0.085 m/sec 40 80 120 160
133/8 at Ahmadi 6,000 ft.
PDHMS 95/8 packer (drillable) and seal assy on
Perf at Khafji 95/8 at 8,500 ft. Buwaib
41/2 tubing
3950 4500 5050
Stress (psi)
Fracture Penetration (ft)

Fig. 8. Planned MNIF CRI well completion.
Fig. 7. Fracture geometry prediction after 300 bbl slurry injected in MNIF-XYZ.
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down the backside into the Aruma formation, if the Khafji fails to accept all the slurry material, Fig. 8. The injection wells will be at an inclination of not more than 30 across the injection zone with a minimum separation of 800 ft from nearby wells at the injection zones, and it will be possible to resume drilling to the downhole target upon completion of the planned wells on the platform. The cuttings injection at this time will be injected through the annular into the Aruma formation. In addition, the completion includes a real time downhole pressure gauge for the Khafji formation, to observe pressure changes during the injection cycles.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to thank Saudi Aramco management for their support and permission to present the information contained in this article. We also would like to acknowledge contributions from the Manifa CRI Team Members for their valuable input in making this a successful test, and to Drilling and Workover for executing the slurry injection testing program.
REFERENCES 1. Nagel, N.B. and Strachan, K.J.: Implementation of

Cuttings Reinjection at the Ekofisk Field, ISRM/SRM paper 47218, presented at the ISRM/SRM Eurock, Trondheim, Norway, July 8-10, 1996. 2. Sassen, A., Tran, T.N., Joranson, H., Meyer, E., Gabrielsen, G. and Tronstad, A.E.: Subsea Re-Injection of Drilled Cuttings Operational Experience, SPE paper 67733, presented at the SPE/IADC Drilling Conference, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, February 27 - March 1, 2001. 3. Guo, Q., Geehan, T. and Ulyott, K.W.: Formation Damage and its Impact on Cuttings Injection-Well Performance: A Risk-Based Approach on Waste Containment Assurance, SPE paper 98202, presented at the SPE International Symposium and Exhibition on Formation Damage Control, Lafayette, Louisiana, February 15-17, 2005. 4. Guo, Q., Dutel, L.J., Wheatley, G.B. and McLennen, J.D.: Assurance Increased for Drilling Cuttings Re-Injection in the Panuke Field Canada: Case Study of Improved Design, IADC/SPE paper 59118, presented at the IADC/SPE Drilling Conference, New Orleans, Louisiana, February 23-25, 2000. 5. Wilson, S.A., Rylance, M. and Last, N.C.: Fracture Mechanics Issues Relating to Cuttings Re-Injection at Shallow Depth, SPE paper 25756, presented at the SPE/IADC Drillling Conference, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, February 23-25, 1993.
CONCLUSIONS
1. Three possible injection zones were identified based on integrating log data, core data and geomechanical data: the LAS formation, and the Safaniya and Khafji, both members of the Wasia formation. 2. CRI pilot field testing at MNIF-ABC was successful, and all the three selected injection zones can provide suitable capacity for drill cutting disposal. 3. Tubing injection can be performed in all CRI zones with no problems about containment and uncontrolled fracture growth. 4. The presence of high leakoff zones in the lower part of Aruma provides assurance to control the risk of uncontrolled height growth. 5. The cap rock in the Rus formation and the high stress contrast in the LAS formation offer additional containment assurance. 6. The geomechanical model is based on inferred parameters and correlations. The validation of the model is applicable only in a certain region where it is assumed uniform properties exist. 7. It is recommended the calibration of the geomechanical model, with the proper injectivity test, be completed before the beginning of the CRI operations, especially if the injector well is far away from the wells analyzed in this report. 8. CRI well design must consider fracture pressures and injectivity potential.
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BIOGRAPHIES
Yousef M. Al-Shobaili is currently the Northern Onshore Fields Group Leader at the Reservoir Characterization Department. He joined Saudi Aramco in 1994 after receiving his B.S. degree in Petroleum Geology and Sedimentology from King AbdulAziz University, Jiddah, Saudi Arabia. During his career he has worked in several disciplines of the Exploration and Petroleum Engineering organizations. Yousefs experience covers several reservoir aspects, including reservoir evaluation and assessment, reservoir management and engineering assessment, petrophysical integration, reserves estimation and assessment, identifying new hydrocarbon from old fields, drilling operations and well planning, reservoir description, geomechanics and wellbore stability, log analysis and interpretation, and core description and integration. He has also trained several summer students, geologists, geophysicists, and reservoir engineers, and he developed an in-house log interpretation and petroleum geology training course. Yousef has authored and co-authored 18 technical papers in reservoir evaluation, reservoir description, geosteering, rock mechanics, reservoir management and dynamics and log/core petrophysics. He is the founder and the first president of the Saudi Petrophysical Society (SPS). Yousef attended and passed an intensive six month petrophysical and log evaluation Schlumberger program. He was the first worldwide non-Schlumberger employee to ever join this program. Kirk M. Bartko is a Senior Petroleum Engineering Consultant with Saudi Aramcos Petroleum Engineering Support Division. He received his B.S. degree in Petroleum Engineering from the University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY. Kirk joined Saudi Aramco in 2000 and he supports stimulation and completion technologies across Saudi Arabia. His experience includes 19 years with ARCO with various global assignments including Texas, Alaska, Algeria, and the Research Technology Center supporting U.S. and international operations. Kirk has authored and co-authored more than 36 technical papers on well stimulation, holds a patent on monitoring fracture pressures, and has been actively involved in the Society of Petroleum Engineers (SPE) since 1977. Philip E. Gagnard is a Petroleum Engineering Specialist with the Drilling & Workover Services Department (D&WOSD). Currently, he is the team leader for the Manifa Cuttings ReInjection (CRI) Project and an active member in the Manifa onshore waste management efforts. In 1970, Philip received his B.S. degree in Mathematics and in 1972 his M.S. degree in Ground Water Hydrology from the University of Illinois, Chicago, 16
IL. Earlier in his career, 1982-1986, he worked with the Saudi Aramco Hydrology Department. In 2000, Philip rejoined Saudi Aramco working with the Environmental Protection Department. He has 30+ years of diversified environmental and waste management experience across the oil production, solid and hazardous waste, transportation and consulting industries. Philips career has focused on groundwater resource impact evaluation, contaminant assessment, site remediation, terrestrial and marine hydrocarbon impacts, solid/hazardous waste management, waste treatment technologies, oil and gas industry waste issues, and regulatory compliance. Mickey Warlick is a Petroleum Engineering Specialist with the Manifa Reservoir Management Division and has been with Saudi Aramco for 7 years. In 1981, he received his B.S. in Petroleum Engineering from the New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology at Socorro, NM. Mickey joined Chevron USA Inc., and began work as a Reservoir Engineer in the Permian Basin located in west Texas and eastern New Mexico. There, he worked on diverse reservoirs ranging from shallow 2,000 ft oil reservoirs to 30,000 ft deep gas reservoirs. Mickey gained experience in working on primary, secondary and even CO2 tertiary processes. He then moved to the Over Thrust area of Wyoming where he gained firsthand experience in dealing with 20% H2S gas reservoirs that required utmost safety in drilling and workover operations. Later Mickey moved on to La Habra, CA where he worked in Chevrons international operations developing and deploying new field technologies. Just before his move to Saudi Arabia, Mickey transferred to Houston, TX where he worked as a Reservoir Simulation Engineer in Chevrons International Reservoir Simulation department. While in Houston, he earned his M.S. degree in Petroleum Engineering from the University of Houston, Houston, TX in 2001. Mickey joined Saudi Aramco in 2002, working as a Reservoir Engineer in the Zuluf field. When Saudi Aramco decided to bring the Manifa field on as one of its major increments, he was transferred there and is currently Team Leader for the Manifa reservoir of the Manifa field development. Ahmad Shah Baim is a Senior Drilling Engineer in Saudi Aramco and was fully involved in the planning of the Manifa Offshore Drilling program. He joined Saudi Aramco in 2005 and has 19 years of experience in the oil and gas industry. In 1988, Ahmad received his B.S. degree in Mechanical Engineering from Gannon University, Erie, PA.
Thermodynamic Analysis of Formation of Black Powder in Sales Gas Pipelines
Authors: Dr. Abdelmounam M. Sherik and Dr. Boyd R. Davis
ABSTRACT
The product of reactions between steel pipelines and some species in processed natural gas is a significant concern to the gas industry. The corrosion product, which is a mix of iron oxides, sulfides, and carbonates, has several impacts on pipeline operations and must be periodically removed by pigging the pipeline. The difficulty in understanding the mechanisms of the formation of this material comes in a large part from the nonuniform conditions, i.e., water dew point, and H2S, CO2 and O2 concentrations in the pipeline. This article provides an evaluation of the application of chemical thermodynamics to the formation of this material what is commonly known in the gas industry as black powder. Given the complex nature of the formation of black powder, it was decided to study the formation and stabilities of various iron phases, namely iron oxides, sulfides and carbonates, as well as elemental sulfur in sales gas pipeline environments. Our findings show that thermodynamics can be a useful tool to indicate what can, and cannot, possibly form under dewing conditions; however, compositional analysis of the powder can assist in directing the calculations. Due to these uncertainties, the results should be used as a guide to better understand the corrosion mechanisms inside the pipeline.
INTRODUCTION
The product of reactions between the steel of natural gas pipelines and components in processed natural gas is a significant concern to the gas industry. This corrosion product, commonly referred to as black powder, is a mix of iron oxides, sulfides and carbonates, which causes erosion in valves and must be periodically removed by pigging the pipelines1-4. Black powder samples collected from sales gas pipelines showed only the presence of iron oxides and carbonates, as can be seen in Table 14. The difficulty in understanding the mechanisms for formation of this material comes from the nonuniform conditions in the pipeline. Water content and dew points, H2S and CO2 concentrations, and the presence of oxygen will all have a significant impact. Since corrosion is thought to have occurred due to condensed water (liquid phase), the dew points under several
operating conditions were calculated to determine deleterious conditions. Furthermore, the composition and pH of such aqueous phases were calculated using various assumptions. EpH diagrams were then generated to determine what iron ion species would be predominant in the aqueous environment. One of the main challenges in the current thermodynamic analysis was understanding, in sales gas with oxygen ingress, the predominance of iron oxide phases (magnetite-Fe3O4 and FeOOH) in the collected black powder, knowing from the literature5-7 that FeCO3 would be the expected dominant species. This is reflective of the significant complexity of the corrosion problem resulting from changing conditions in the gas phase (such as oxygen ingress or changes in the H2S, CO2 and/or H2O levels), the effect of kinetics on the reaction of pipeline steel with the solution, and the subsequent potential conversion of reaction products in a dry environment (i.e., the conversion of FeCO3 to Fe3O4). An added complexity to the current analysis is that the black powder samples do not represent black powder that has formed under well-defined conditions (specific location and time) in the pipeline. They instead represent samples collected from the sum of black powder products that have formed at varying locations and times along the pipeline (i.e., water condensation might have occurred only at low points and for a few hours during the winter season, or oxygen ingress takes place at low-pressure points, etc.). All this makes of correlating the results of the current thermodynamic analysis with actual field X-ray diffraction (XRD) results quite a difficult task. This means that an attempt at quantitative analysis of the thermodynamics as they apply to the formation of black powder could be misleading as a result of the wide range of potential Main Compound Magnetite-Fe3O4 -FeOOH -FeOOH Iron Sulfides Siderite-FeCO3 Elemental Sulfur Approximate Average wt% 60 Trace amounts (< 2) 25 Not detected 10 5
Table 1. Composition of black powder as determined by XRD technique
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conditions and kinetic limitations on the reactions. Although, thermodynamics can be a useful tool to predict what can, and cannot, possibly form under dewing conditions. The fact that there is a wide range of products (iron oxides, carbonates and elemental sulfur) sampled from the pipelines indicates that this is not a homogeneous process that is controlled by thermodynamics. In other words, if the gas phase is relatively constant, thermodynamics would predict one stable phase for each of the nonmetallic components in the gas phase (i.e., S and C). The fact that there are all the above mentioned phases present means that there are regions of kinetic control in the pipeline. Thermodynamics can be a useful tool to predict what can, and cannot, possibly form under the point conditions representative of actual field parameters. Due to these uncertainties, the results should be used as a guide to better understand the corrosion mechanisms inside the pipeline.
SYSTEM DEFINITION
Prior to any thermodynamic analysis, it is important to define the terms of the calculations. Table 2 shows sales gas compositions and measured dew points as obtained from two spot analyses each4. Table 3 shows impurity levels and properties of sales gas4. These levels were used to set the conditions for the calculations outlined in the following sections of this article.
Assumption for the Analysis
There are two main assumptions made throughout this analysis.
CH4 and N2 were removed from the calculations and

replaced with Argon (Ar) so as not to impact on the reaction equilibrium. The sales gas would behave as an ideal gas (ideal gas behavior). This is validated by the dew point calculations, Eqn. 1, that match exactly when the ideal gas model is used, but are not comparable when a real gas model is used. One problem with thermodynamic calculations is that reactions that normally do not occur due to kinetic barriers cannot be prevented in the calculations without the removal of some species from the calculation. An important example of this is the reaction between oxygen and methane: 2O2 + CH4 = CO2 + 2H2O (1)
At pipeline temperatures, methane is very kinetically stable with respect to other gases. The extent of this stability will be determined in future experimental work, but it is reasonable to assume that the interaction of methane and nitrogen with other gases in the pipeline will be limited. It is not possible to conduct thermodynamic calculations with methane and nitrogen in the calculation due to this kinetic barrier to reaction (however, the reaction still takes place in the thermodynamic calculations). For this reason, it was determined that CH4 and N2 needed to be removed from the calculations and replaced with Ar so as not to impact on the reaction equilibrium. Since this article is intended to show the potential for thermodynamic calculations as they relate to black powder formation, this is one of the assumptions that must be made for this type of calculation to be done. The results of these calculations will be compared with experimental work currently underway on gas phase stability. Another example of this gas phase kinetic barrier issue is CO/CO2 equilibrium. At low (under 100 C) temperatures, CO and CO2 can exist together at any ratio despite thermodynamics stating that there would be a reaction between them to make elemental carbon. CO/CO2 gas blends in cylinders can be purchased that remain at the same ratio virtually indefinitely. Oxygen can be an important factor in sales gas pipeline corrosion. Oxygen ingress in gas lines can cause significant corrosion in small concentrations and combustion in larger amounts. A 1988 survey of 44 natural gas transmission pipeline companies in North America indicated that the gas quality specifications allowed maximum O2 concentrations ranging from 0.01 mol% to 0.1 mol% with typical value of 0.02 mol%6, 8. It has been shown that oxygen content of approximately 0.01 mol% has little effect on steel corrosion in the presence of stagnant water inside sales gas transmission pipelines, while 0.1 mol% produces fairly high Composition and Levels Properties of Sales Gas H2S 2.0 ppm and 6.0 ppm CO2 0.1, 0.5 and 1.6 mol% O2 0.01, 0.02 and 0.05 mol% Moisture (H2O) in gas 0.12 mg/L gas and 0.55 mg/L gas Ambient Temperature 15 C to 30 C Pipeline Pressure 720 psi and 900 psi
Table 3. Composition and properties of sales gas used in the current work
CH4
C2H6
C3H8
iC4 (IsoButane) 0.48 0.17
nC4 (normal butane) 0.83 0.30
iC5 (Isopentane) 0.20 0.10
nC5 (normal pentane) 0.16 0.09
C6 (Hexanes plus) 0.03 0.04
N2
78.81 8.12 85.34 7.26
3.01 0.79
7.38 5.78
Dew point C at 130 psi -19 0.0
Calculated water content 0.12 mg/l 0.55 mg/l
Table 2. Sales gas hydrocarbon composition and dew points
18
corrosion rates6, 8. This again points to the difficulty in making a quantitative analysis of the entire system. As a general rule of thumb, it has been recommended that operators of transmission pipelines should consider limiting maximum oxygen concentration to 10 parts per million by volume (ppmv) (0.001 mol%)6, 8. It is important to understand that O2, due to air ingression in the gas, will in reality, not be at equilibrium with the other gases in the methane stream, due to the low kinetics of methane reacting with oxygen at the operating temperatures. Oxygen cannot exist (thermodynamically) in a reducing environment such as sales gas as indicated by reaction (1), since it would react with methane. If oxygen were at equilibrium with the methane, the partial pressure of O2 would be undetectable in this reducing atmosphere, and CO2 and water concentrations would increase, (H2S would remain relatively unaffected). This means that the conditions indicated by the equilibrium gas composition (i.e., the Eh* and pH of the water or the equilibrium CO2 in the gas phase) will not reflect the true kinetically controlled situation. Therefore, any calculations or diagrams generated based on the gas phase equilibrium must be interpreted in light of the expected kinetics (i.e., that oxygen could remain in the system as a kinetically stable gas phase). Specific reactions in black powder production that are problematic with regards to the application of thermodynamics are outlined below. The ramification of the kinetic barriers is that it is difficult to accurately predict the equilibrium aqueous phase. Although, by suppressing reactions in the calculations that will not occur in the pipeline, a reasonable estimate of the aqueous phase can be made. This allows for a much more useful analysis of the iron reaction products, since EpH diagrams can be studied with the knowledge of the aqueous phase chemistry.
35 30
Dew Point (C)
25 20 15 10 5 0 0.0 Fact 900 psi Fact 720 psi Internet 900 psi Internet 720 psi 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Water Concentration (mg/L)

Fig. 1. Calculated dew points as a function of pipeline pressure and two different software packages assuming ideal gas with Ar substituting N2 and CH4.
the dew point, while pipeline pressure and H2O significantly affected dew point temperature.
Point Calculations
DEW POINT DETERMINATION

To demonstrate the validity of the calculations, the dew points were calculated for a range of conditions, Fig. 1. The operating temperature and pressure range were 15 C - 30 C and 720 psig - 900 psig, respectively. Dew point calculations considered both that the balance of the sales gas was N2 and CH4 (CH4/N2 = 15.67) or Ar for purposes of the calculations. It was determined that pressure has the largest effect on dew point, more than any other variable. Calculations were performed to determine if dew point temperature changes as a function of contaminant concentrations and pipeline pressure. Figure 1 shows the comparison between the results obtained from a commercially available software package and the dew point calculated using the alpha moisture system (http://www.dewpoint.com/calculate.html) dew point calculator. In all cases, the results are within about 2 C of each other. As expected, the impurities (H2S and CO2) had no significant effect on
Point calculations are thermodynamic calculations done to attempt to simulate the conditions in the precipitated water in the pipeline. They are most effectively used to identify reasonable ranges of pH or redox for EpH diagrams or to help better understand reaction mechanisms. All calculations are based on one liter of gas and are in units of moles. The output from the thermodynamic model gives the equilibrium gas phase and the aqueous condensed phase. By changing the values of CO2, H2S and O2, a range of values for pH, Eh, and aqueous species concentrations can be obtained. The concentration of aqueous species is important so that the EpH diagrams can be set to the correct values. Oxygen can be used in these calculations because methane and nitrogen have been replaced with Ar. This condition represents a sort of transient condition where O2 has ingressed into the pipeline, but does not react with methane due to kinetic constraints. In this way, a grid was set up to see the impact of changing gas conditions on the Eh and pH of the solution. The results of this (low and high CO2 content) are shown in Tables 4 and 5. The water concentration was selected at a maximum value of 0.55 mg/l. These point calculations indicate that CO2 will buffer the aqueous solution to a pH of about 4 typical of carbonate solutions. The addition of H2S in a reducing environment has little impact on the pH. The presence of oxygen also naturally drives up the Eh value, so there is the potential for localized increases of Eh along the pipeline due to oxygen ingress.
* Eh refers to the redox potential E of the solution, usually the Y axis on the EpH diagram (sometimes called an Eh-pH diagram).
19
O2 Concentration (mol%) 0 0.01 0.05 Eh (V) 0.562 0.944 0.954
0 pH 4.546 4.546 4.546
H2S Concentration (ppm) 2 Eh (V) pH -0.003 4.283 1.216 -0.205 1.227 -0.205
6 Eh (V) -0.003 1.237 1.24 pH 4.244 -0.558 -0.558
Table 4. Impact of changing gas concentrations on the aqueous phase (CO2 = 0.1 mol%, H2O = 0.55 mg/l, P = 720 psi, T = 15 C)
O2 Concentration (mol%) 0 0.01 0.05 Eh (V) 0.596 0.979 0.989
0 pH 3.944 3.944 3.944
H2S Concentration (ppm) 2 Eh (V) pH 0.024 3.893 1.231 -0.204 1.227 -0.204
6 Eh (V) 0.022 1.252 1.248 pH 3.882 -0.558 -0.558
Table 5. Impact of changing gas concentrations on the aqueous phase (CO2 = 1.6 mol%, H2O = 0.55 mg/l, P = 720 psi, T = 15 C)
The fact that there are no pH conditions that would be above about 5 is in line with the work by Sridhar et al.5, which used a range of conditions for their test, with CO2 at 10 psi and all conditions (except the one loaded with NaOH) showing a pH around 5. The results mentioned above reinforce the difficulties of studying the problem in isolation from its surroundings. These relatively highly acidic pH conditions are not encountered in the pipeline. The presence of iron in the system has a dramatic effect on the actual chemistry. The pH of the system is normally found to be between 5 and 6.5, due to the reaction of CO2 with iron. When iron is introduced into the calculation, FeCO3 precipitates, the pH increases to 5, and FeOH+ is found in the aqueous solution. This is much more in line with the actual field findings. The formation of Fe3O4 is thermodynamically possible but depends on the availability of iron to the system (ratio of iron to gas phase). This could help to explain the range of compounds found in the pipeline. The progression of product formation can be studied by looking at the calculated reaction products as iron is introduced into the system. In the presence of any Fe (given an oxygen free system), FeS2 is the first iron compound to form (at around pH ~4). FeCO3 forms next if the available sulfur is exhausted, which will increase the pH to above 5. The relative rates of these reactions are not known and are affected by the relative concentrations of the gases. It has been stated6 that when CO2 and H2S are both present in condensed moisture, the corrosion product that forms is a function of the partial pressure of both acid gases and temperature. Several investigators have suggested different CO2/H2S ratios, such as 200 and 500, which represent the change from predominately FeCO3 to FeS6. It should be noted that the preference for CO2 forming carbonate over H2S forming FeS (both reactants in aqueous form) is a kinetic phenomenon, and not based on thermodynamics. Thermodynamically, iron will preferentially react with S over CO2 at virtually any concentration
20
of reactants. The fact that FeCO3 is found preferentially at high levels of CO2/H2S indicates that the kinetic reaction for S is less than that for CO2 (perhaps due to a passivating film that occurs with sulfur) or due, as mentioned above, to exhaustion of S at the reaction site due to the slow dissolution of more H2S into the water (slow replenishment of S in the water). As with CO2, the calculations involving S as described are also kinetically controlled. The prediction of the formation of SO42- from thermodynamics is not what occurs in the field. Reactions of oxygen and H2S appear to be kinetically slow, and the preferential reaction is as per reaction (2). 2 H2S + O2 = 2 H2O + 2S (2)
EPH DIAGRAMS
EpH diagrams can be used to identify regions of pH and E (redox potential, or the oxidizing or reducing environment of the solution). These diagrams are often presented in a series with varying conditions of activity of one of the species. This is because, while EpH diagrams can be constructed for metals in water, when a nonmetallic element is introduced (in this case carbon or sulfur), another degree of uncertainty is added to the system. This has to be removed by setting the activity level or partial pressure of a compound containing that nonmetallic element. Providing a series of diagrams with no reference to the actual system has little value in understanding the mechanism of a reaction. For this reason, the point calculations that were performed in this work are useful in helping to determine reasonable concentrations of aqueous species for carbon and sulfur. As a baseline, the EpH diagram for water was constructed, Fig. 2. FeOOH, the data for which was entered into the commercial software package8, was not shown to appear. Conditions for its formation are not at present clear, but it can be assumed that it forms in the presence of oxygen via reaction (3), 2Fe + H2O(l) + 3/2 O2 = 2 FeOOH (3)
or through conversion of reaction products via reactions (4) and (5): 4FeS + 2H2O + 3O2 = 4FeOOH + 4S Fe3O4 + 3/2 H2O + 1/4 O2 = 3 FeOOH (although likely kinetically limited) (4)
(5)
This diagram is at 15 C, although the effect of temperature is negligible over the range that is experienced by the pipelines. The region of interest is between the two dashed lines. These lines indicate the region where water is stable. It is clear that with only pure water and a basic pH, it is possible to form Fe3O4, as shown by the region in Fig. 2. The progression is from elemental Fe, to FeO (or Fe(OH)2 as shown) to Fe3O4 and finally to Fe2O3 the most oxidized iron oxide. If the aqueous species were to be removed from the diagram, it would show each phase field layered on top of each other as the E(V) increases (becomes more oxidizing).
Influence of CO2 on the System
With the addition of CO2, the EpH diagram changes to that shown in Fig. 3 for a system with low CO2 in the gas phase (0.1 mol%). Here, because C is added to the system, there
1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.0 -0.2 -0.4
F eO H +
3+
Fe
T = 15 o C a (ions) = 10 -6
F e 2 O 3(s) F e 2+
must be a species selected that has a fixed concentration. This can either be a gas (i.e., CO2) or an aqueous species (i.e., HCO3-). HCO3- was selected, and a representative value was taken from the point calculations done in the last section. Note that the carbonate phase, FeCO3, is covered by the aqueous FeOH+ and Fe2+ fields. This only indicates the ionic concentration in the system, since the diagram is set to the typical 10-6 concentration for the sum of ionic species (if the total of all ionic species is at least 10-6, the predominant ionic species will be shown on the plot). To see the solid phases, the ionic species can be suppressed in the output, Fig. 4. This plot, without aqueous species shown, clearly demonstrates that FeCO3 is the significant phase in the E and pH range that is of interest. This supports the point calculations showing that FeOH+ is present with CO2 and has an influence on the pH of the system. Often, EpH diagrams are shown with the aqueous phase boundaries as dotted lines over the top of the solid phases. The concentration of aqueous species over a phase field gives an indication of the drive for corrosion, since corrosion will occur with greater intensity if the dissolved Fe ions are able to build to a high concentration before equilibrium is reached. For ease of discussion in this section, the concentration of aqueous species will be set at 0.001 so that the solid phase fields may be seen with the aqueous species. It is evident that Fe3O4 forms at pH values above about 6.5, but that the phase field overlaps the FeCO3 for a given pH, depending on the Eh of the system. This could explain why both FeCO3 and Fe3O4 are found in the black powder, since a pH of 6.5 or greater is found in laboratory tests at Saudi Aramco, and it is reasonable that the Eh could change depending on the availability of oxygen. Influence of H2S on the system:
Influence of H2S on the System
E(V)
-0.6 -0.8 -1.0 -1.2 0 2 4 6 8 10 F e (s)
F e 3 O 4(s) F e(O H ) 2(s)
The effect of H2S on the pipeline is highly dependent on the atmosphere in the pipeline and kinetics as mentioned,
14
12
Fig. 2. EpH diagram for Fe in water.
1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 T = 15 oC [HCO 3-] = 10-5 no ions shown
1 .8 1 .6 1 .4 1 .2 1 .0 0 .8 0 .6 0 .4 0 .2 0 .0 - 0 .2 - 0 .4 - 0 .6 - 0 .8 - 1 .0 - 1 .2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 F e (s )
FeO H +
F e 3+
T = 15 C -6 a ( io n s ) = 1 0
1.0 0.8 0.6
E(V)
0.4 0.2 0.0 -0.2 -0.4 -0.6 FeCO 3(s)
Fe 2O 3(s)
E(V)
F e 2 O 3 (s ) F e 2+
Fe 3O 4(s) Fe (s)
F e 3 O 4 (s )
-0.8 -1.0 -1.2 0 2 4
10
12
14
pH
Fig. 3. EpH diagram for Fe-C in water for low CO2 in gas phase.
pH
Fig. 4. EpH diagram for Fe-C in water for low CO 2 in gas phase (no ionic species shown).
21
1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1.0 0.8 0.6 T = 15 oC pH2S = 10 -8 a(ions) = 10-6
formed in the pipelines at varying conditions (thermodynamic and kinetic controlled regions) a complex task. Even so, thermodynamics can be a useful tool to predict what can, and cannot, possibly form using well-defined conditions (the point conditions provided by Saudi Aramco).
E(V)
0.4 0.2 0.0 -0.2 -0.4 -0.6 -0.8 -1.0 -1.2 0 2 4 6 Fe (s) Fe 2+
FeS 2(s)
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Fe 3O4(s)
FeOH
The authors wish to thank Saudi Aramco management for their support and permission to present the information contained in this article.
FeS (s)
REFERENCES
8 10 12 14
pH
Fig. 5. EpH diagram for Fe-S in water for pH2S = 10-8.
1. Sherik, A.M., Zaidi, S.R., Tuzan, E.V. and Perez, J.: Black Powder in Gas Transmission Systems, paper 8415, presented at the NACE Corrosion Conference, New Orleans, Louisiana, March 16-20, 2008. 2. Baldwin, R.M.: Black Powder in the Gas IndustrySources, Characteristics and Treatment, GMRC, Report No. TA97-4, May 1998. 3. Sherik, A.M.: Black Powder in Sales Gas Transmission Pipelines, Saudi Aramco Journal of Technology, Fall 2007, pp. 2-10. 4. Sherik, A.M.: Effects of Simulated Pipeline Processes on Black Powder Formation in Sales Gas Pipelines, Report No. DR-002/05-COR, April 2007. 5. Sridhar, N., Dunn, D.S., Anderko, A.M., Lencka, M.M. and Schutt, H.U.: Effects of Water and Gas Compositions on the Internal Corrosion of Gas Pipelines Modeling and Experimental Studies, Corrosion, Vol. 57, No. 3, 2001, pp. 221-235. 6. Kermani, B., Martin, J. and Esaklul, K.: Materials Design Strategy: Effects of H2S/CO2 Corrosion on Materials Selection, paper 06121, presented at the NACE Corrosion Conference, San Diego, California, March 12-16, 2006. 7. Lyle, F.F.: Carbon Dioxide/Hydrogen Sulfide Corrosion under Wet Low-Flow Gas Pipeline Conditions in the Presence of Bicarbonate, Chloride and Oxygen, PRCI Final Report PR-15-9313. 8. Majzlan, J., Grevel, K.D. and Navrotsky, A.: Thermodynamics of Fe Oxides: Part II. Enthalpies of Formation and Relative Stability of Goethite (FeOOH), lepidocrocite (FeOOH), and Maghemite (Fe2O3), American Mineralogist, Vol. 88, 2003, pp. 855-859.
oxygen does not react kinetically with H2S to create sulfates. This means that EpH diagrams can vary widely as to the fields of stability depending on the situation in the system. Figure 5 shows a simple EpH diagram using the pH2S as the basis for the calculation yields. This shows Fe3O4 in between FeS and FeS2. The Fe3O4 field is very narrow (it is only visible as a thicker line) but at lower H2S concentrations it is more predominate. This demonstrates that there is the likelihood for FeS and FeS2 to form depending on the redox potential. Since oxygen ingression will affect the redox potential significantly, and oxygen ingression is a relatively nonuniform event (sometimes minor, sometimes major), it is likely that both FeS and FeS2 will be found in a range of concentrations with one another. Both the case of CO2 and H2S demonstrate why a variety of solid material is found in black powder. Oxygen ingress can widely vary the Eh of the system and favor the formation of one compound over another. The nature of the ingress ranging in concentration and location leads to this nonuniform residue and complicates the overall analysis of its formation.
CONCLUSIONS
It is clear from this analysis that internal corrosion of pipelines and black powder formation in sales gas pipelines is a complex process that is not thermodynamically controlled however, thermodynamics can assist with our understanding of the underlying chemical processes. The fact that there is a wide range of products (iron oxides, iron carbonates and elemental sulfur) sampled from the pipelines indicates that this is not a homogeneous process that may not be controlled by thermodynamics. These products are mainly due to: (1) intermittent ingress of oxygen resulting from process upsets, and (2) the cyclical wet-dry conditions resulting from process upsets and seasonal temperature changes. This makes the attempt to correlate the iron phases obtained at well-defined thermodynamic conditions to the composition of the black powder
22
BIOGRAPHIES
Dr. Abdelmounam M. Sherik joined Saudi Aramco in 2004 and is currently working for Saudi Aramcos Research and Development Center (R&DC). Prior to joining Saudi Aramco, he held several research and engineering positions in Canada. Abdelmounam has over 20 years of professional experience in the areas of materials and corrosion. He received his B.S. degree in Materials Science and Engineering from Tripoli University, Tripoli, Libya and his M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in Materials and Metallurgical Engineering from Queens University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada. Abdelmounam has authored or co-authored more than 50 publications in corrosion of sales gas pipelines and nanostructured coatings. He is an active member of the National Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE), where he is the Chair of the 2010 Corrosion in Gas Treating Symposium and also the Chair of the Black Powder in Gas Pipelines Technology Exchange Group. Dr. Boyd R. Davis has worked as a consultant since 1997 in the area of computational thermochemistry and process development, and is President of Kingston Process Metallurgy Inc. The company, with 12 employees, focuses on lab-scale chemical process development for the metallurgical industry mainly in developing and advancing novel processes and understanding reaction mechanisms. He also has a second company called Kingston Metals & Materials, which produces high purity copper for the semi-conductor industry. Aside from his companies projects, Boyd maintains an active academic research program. Boyd volunteers his time to supervise graduate and undergraduate student theses and to teach in a first-year design course. He has authored over 20 technical papers and has eight patents and patent applications. Boyd is Programming Chair of the Extractive and Processing Division of The Metals, Minerals, and Materials Society and is active with the Metallurgical Society of CIM where he was awarded the Past Presidents' Memorial Medal in 2001 for service. In 1988, Boyd received his B.S. degree in Engineering Chemistry and in 1994 he received his M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in Metallurgical Engineering, all from Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada.
FALL 2009
23
Successful Utilization of Fiber Optic Telemetry Enabled Coiled Tubing for Water Shut-off on a Horizontal Oil Well in Ghawar Field
Authors: Ahmed K. Al-Zain, Jorge E. Duarte, Surajit Haldar, Saad M. Driweesh, Ahmed A. Al-Jandal, Faleh M. Al-Shammeri, Vsevolod Bugrov and Tashfeen Sarfraz
ABSTRACT
Water control is the key to prolonging well life for economical and efficient oil recovery. When water reaches certain levels, oil production profitability decreases dramatically and even goes to negative. One feasible option in this case is a rigless water shut-off (WSO) treatment, which involves an intensive process, starting from candidate selection and finishing with post-treatment well performance analysis. This kind of operation is more challenging for horizontal wells with open hole completion. Well A, a horizontal open hole producer with 2,440 ft of reservoir contact, was drilled and completed in November 2000. The last well production profile was determined by a Flow Scan Image (FSI) log, which showed 51% of water cut; the entry of most of the water was from the toe of the horizontal section. Based on economical and technical feasibility, fiber optic telemetry enabled coiled tubing (CT) was selected as an accurate and effective way to isolate the water producing interval, reduce water cut and enhance oil production. The advanced and intelligent CT enables real time downhole measurements via a fiber optic telemetry system. The system consists of dynamic interpretation software, fiber optic cable, and bottom-hole sensors, which provides surface readouts of the Casing Collar Locator (CCL) readings, a
Distributed Temperature Survey (DTS), temperature, and internal and external CT pressure measurements. Permanent zonal isolation, utilizing an inflatable packer with a cement plug above the packer, was successfully performed using the CT-conveyed fiber optic system. The availability of CCL, temperature and differential pressure readings enabled precise depth control, proper packer inflation and optimization of the cement design. This article highlights the application of a CT equipped with fiber optic advanced technology on a rigless WSO job. This article also discusses the WSO job design and execution challenges.
INTRODUCTION
Drilling horizontal wells has become the norm in many Saudi Aramco fields. As horizontal wells mature, the oil rate is reduced due to increasing water production, which dictates the need to perform water shut-off (WSO) jobs to sustain oil production. Performing a WSO on a horizontal well is considered a challenging task in the Ghawar field, the largest field in the world. Production profiles are run to determine the water producing intervals and to come up with the best methods to shut-off the watered out intervals. Inflatable packers provide a means of plugging off a well without the necessity
Fig. 1. Fiber optics in a carrier (FOC).
24
FALL 2009
of pulling out its production tubing. Due to the minimum restriction in the tubing, the selection of an inflatable packer is always limited1, 2. Traditionally, the WSO on a horizontal well requires coiled tubing (CT) intervention to isolate the water producing zone, using a through-tubing inflatable packer, and a cement cap with a spacer to reduce the cement slumping effect. When setting the packer, surface data has been deceptive. What actually happens downhole remains unknown. The uncertain results when bottomhole pressure (BHP) is estimated from surface pressure and depths measured from the CT surface mechanical counters are some common problems. The recent invention of optical fiber enabled CT allows us to mitigate these problems to a great extent3, 4.
WATER SHUT-OFF CASE HISTORY

Well A was drilled as a slanted open hole horizontal producer in 2000. The well is completed with a 6.125 horizontal section from 7,550 ft to a total depth (TD) of 9,900 ft. The production test obtained before performing the WSO job showed 7,200 barrels per day (BPD) total liquid with 51% water cut. A production profile indicated most water production was from 9,650 ft and below. Figure 3 shows the well production profile and well trajectory.
DESCRIPTION OF FIBER OPTIC ENABLED COILED TUBING

Optical fibers are widely used in communication and other applications. Fibers are used instead of metal wires because signals travel along them with less loss, and they are immune to electromagnetic interference. A fiber optic cable, which acts as a medium between an engineered downhole tool and a surface acquisition system, is injected into a CT reel. The fiber optic cable is enclosed and protected in a flexible yet very durable carrier, before its injection into the CT, Fig. 1. The fiber optic carrier (FOC) has an 1.8 mm (0.071) outside diameter (OD), making it non-intrusion to the CT internal diameter. It is very lightweight, equivalent to 1/20th of the weight of an electric cable. The material itself can withstand corrosive and harsh bottom-hole conditions and temperatures up to 300 F5.
Downhole and Surface Equipment
The system provides a real-time bottom-hole measurement for CT applications. It consists of a bottom-hole assembly (BHA), CT string with an internal fiber optic cable, and surface unit for monitoring and execution. This CT system has drop ball capability. Figure 2 shows the BHA with the following three elements that relate to CT fiber optic technology: CT head: This section includes an internal dimple connector. Electronic Package: This houses the downhole communications module, the battery to power the system and the downhole transducers for measuring bottom-hole temperature (BHT) and BHP, internal and external. Casing Collar Locator (CCL): The CCL has the ability to sense casing collars for depth correlation. Inside the Control Cabin, a surface acquisition unit with specialized software is utilized to acquire, display, monitor and record job parameters and assist in executing the job operations; consequently, enhancing the performance of the job using the real time data. The surface acquisition unit is also used to send commands to the tools, such as to change the sensitivity of the CCL during the job.
Fig. 2. Schematic of CT BHA.
Fig. 3. Well production profile and trajectory.
FALL 2009
25
DISCUSSION OF JOB OPERATIONS

The plan was to plug back the well to 9,200 ft to ensure proper WSO. A 2 open hole through-tubing inflatable packer was set at a depth of 9,360 ft and capped with 160 ft of cement on top of the packer to anchor it. The operations were performed rigless using the fiber optic CT. Below is a brief discussion of the operations.
Depth Correlation/Dummy Run
The objective of this run was to ensure wellbore clearance (for packer setting) and CT accessibility to the target depth. For this purpose, the BHA of the CT was run with a 2 OD tool, which is the maximum OD of the inflatable packer element. Depths were correlated using the CCL readings provided by the fiber optic CT against a reference log and a completion report. Another purpose for this run was to verify simulation results of the CT tubing forces. This enabled the operator to re-evaluate the friction coefficient of the wellbore, and determine if a sufficient slack-off weight would be available at the packer setting depth. The log in Fig. 4 represents the CCL signal at the tubing re-entry guide. The re-entry guide was used for depth correlation as the casing shoe is behind the tubing. The
guide per the completion report was at 7,579 ft; however, the CCL detected it at 7,586 ft, with a difference of 7 ft. Accordingly, the depth was adjusted to match the referenced CCL log and completion report. Following depth correlation, the CT was run in hole (RIH) to the target depth and the CT was flagged. In addition to depth correlation and drifting the well, the real-time CT weight indicator graph, Fig. 5, was utilized to evaluate the actual friction coefficients of the well. This allowed operators to determine whether sufficient weight could be set on the packer after inflation to ensure that the packer was properly set before the CT lockup. The actual weights experienced during this run were used to re-evaluate the simulated tubing forces and determine the actual compressive load available at 9,360 ft (packer depth). According to the analysis of CT forces, a compressive load of 1,500 lb was available prior to CT lockup. This compressive load was sufficient to test the anchoring force of the packer. On surface, this load corresponded to a loss of 5,500 lb.
Main Job Execution Setting Inflatable Packer
A through-tubing inflatable packer (element OD 2) was used. The objective of the second run was to RIH to 9,360 ft and set the inflatable packer. The setting depth was 9,360 ft and setting the packer at the proper depth was very important. The CCL tool was used in this run for depth control. The BHP was evaluated constantly while running in hole to avoid premature inflation of the packer. Another important parameter was the differential pressure at which the packer was set in place. First, the tool settings were adjusted based on actual BHP and BHT readings, which were obtained during the drift run. Second, the correct differential pressure measured by the fiber optic CT ensured that the inflation process was as per the design and in a controlled manner. Figure 6 depicts the execution plot while inflating the packer. The main highlights of the execution process for setting the packer at the desired depth were as follows: 1. The CT was run to a depth of 9,360 ft. The CT was initially run 100 ft below the desired depth and then pulled
Fig. 4. Unadjusted fiber optic enabled CT CCL log.
Fig. 5. Simulated vs. actual pickup and slack off of CT.
26
5. The next step was to increase the differential pressure to disconnect the packer from the CT. The disconnection occurred at 1,260 psi differential pressure. The differential pressure of 1,260 psi for disconnection, as actually measured downhole, was in close agreement to the designed differential pressure of 1,200 psi (less than +/- 10% manufacturing tolerance for the brass shear pins). 6. Once the pins were sheared, the circulation ports opened allowing the circulation pressure as well as the differential pressure to drop, indicating that the packer had been disconnected from the tool string.
Fig. 6. Fiber optic enabled CT execution plot while inflating the packer.
out to the target depth to keep the CT in tension; CCL was used to correlate depths to the re-entry tubing guide. 2. After dropping a ball down the CT, the differential pressure at the packer was monitored to track the ball to its seal. The pressure indicated positively that the ball was seated. The differential pressure then was raised in 200 - 300 pounds per square inch (psi) increments; once the pressure was at 700 psi, the packer was allowed to inflate in its own. While waiting for stabilization for 10 - 15 minutes, the BHT heated the packer and consequently the pressure inside of the packer continued increasing, Fig. 7. Realizing this behavior, controlling packer inflation was very important. Otherwise, the packer could be inflated improperly. Once the pressure and temperature were stabilized, the pumping was resumed carefully at points X and Y to complete the inflation of the packer. 3. Note: The downhole pressure and temperature data was also passed to the cement laboratory to verify the proper cement recipe. 4. To ensure that the packer was set in place, 2,000 lbs of weight was slacked down on the packer to ensure it was anchored into the wellbore. The CT did not move, and this indicated that the packer was set in place.
The CT was then pulled out of hole to change the BHA for the cement job. By this time, laboratory tests had been performed and the cement recipe had been adjusted to fit the actual bottom-hole condition.
Cement Job
The CT was run to the top of the packer and the cement was spotted as follows: Spacer (5 bbl each) was pumped ahead and behind the cement to avoid cement contamination while it passed through the CT string and also to clean up the wellbore, where the cement was placed. Cement (5.5 bbl) was pumped to cover 160 ft in the open hole. After the cement was spotted, the well was shut-in for 24 hours. This was to allow the cement to develop sufficient compressive strength. Following this, the CT was RIH to confirm the top of the cement. The top of the cement was found at 9,166 ft (5,000 lb slack-down weight), which was only 34 ft above the calculated desired depth of 9,200 ft.
BENEFITS OF USING FIBER OPTIC ENABLED CT

Fiber optic technology was utilized to ensure good service quality of depth control, packer setting and inflation process. The element design was adjusted as per actual BHP and BHT.
Fig. 7. Pressure and temperature behavior while setting the packer.

27
Oil rate, Water, WC% Choke MBD MBD Setting, in Before WSO 3.1 2.9 47.8 50 After WSO 6.6 0.6 8.4 50 Total Gain= Reduction= Reduction= 3.5 MBD 2.3 MBD 39.4%
Table 1. Post treatment production analysis showed a reduction in water cut by 79% and a gain in oil production of 112%
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to thank Saudi Aramco and Schlumberger management for their support and permission to present the information contained in this article. The authors would also like to acknowledge the efforts and contributions of Rifat Said of Saudi Aramco, and Wassim Kharrat and Adrian Weiss of Schlumberger.
The real time data and CT weight gave a strong indication that the packer was set in its place. The BHP was monitored to avoid pre-mature packer inflation. The cement recipe was formulated based on measured downhole temperature and pressure. The most beneficial use of differential pressure was while setting the packer; the actual differential pressure was relatively close to that of the design. The CCL was utilized to eliminate the error of CT mechanical depth measurement. This in turn helped ensure the depths were accurate and the operation was performed in the exact same intervals per design. Having the ability to know accurately the bottom-hole parameters helped to make better decisions.
SI METRIC CONVERSION FACTORS

bbl 1.5897 E-01 = m3 in 2.540 E-02 = m ft 3.048 E-01= m psi 6.894757 E+00 = kPa
REFERENCES
1. Al-Dhafeeri, A.M., Nasr-El-Din, H.A. and Al-Harith, A.M.: Evaluation of Rigless Water Shut-off Treatments to be Used in Arab-C Carbonate Reservoir in Saudi Arabia, SPE paper 114331, presented at the SPE Canadian International Petroleum Conference, Calgary, Alberta, Canada, June 2008. 2. Rangel, P.D., Sorman, I., Blount, C.G. and Woods, N.: Fiber Optic Enabled Coiled Tubing Operations on Alaskas North Slope, SPE paper 106567, presented at the SPE International Coiled Tubing Operators Association Conference, The Woodlands, Texas, March 2007. 3. Al-Umra, M.I., Saudi, M.M. and Al-Tameimi, Y.M.: Inflatable Enables Successful Water Shut-off in High Angle Wellbores in Ghawar Field, SPE paper 93261, presented at the SPE Middle East Oil & Gas Show and Conference (MEOS), Bahrain, March 2005. 4. Dashash, A.A., Al-Arnaout, I., Al-Driweesh, S.M., Al-Sarakbi, S.A. and Al-Shaharani, K.: Horizontal Water Shut-off for Better Production Optimization and Reservoir Sweep Efficiency, SPE paper 117066, presented at the SPE Saudi Arabia Section Technical Symposium and Exhibition, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, March 2008. 5. Graeme, R., Yusof, M.B., Ghani, J., Mokhtar, S. and Munro, J.: Improved Method for Underbalanced Perforating with Coiled Tubing in the South China Sea, SPE paper 113698, presented at the SPE International Coiled Tubing Operators Association Conference, The Woodlands, Texas, April 2008.
POST JOB WELL PERFORMANCE

The well was put back on production and the initial test results indicated these reductions, Table 1.
CONCLUSIONS
1. Reliable and real time data obtained from fiber optic enabled CT is a real breakthrough in most CT applications (WSOs, stimulations, perforations, etc.). Fiber optic telemetry enabled CT provides real time data for critical operational parameters. The data includes CCL, BHT, BHP and differential pressure. 2. This technology is a viable method to communicate directly and continuously downhole with wellbore, reservoir or tools conveyed via CT. A direct communication with downhole conditions avoids relying on calculated parameters from surface readings, which most of the time, are far from real downhole conditions. This will help operators to come up with the right decisions on-site. 3. CCL is a viable and efficient option for depth control as demonstrated in this article. 4. Real time pressure and temperature data enabled precise placement and proper inflation of the inflatable packer to shut-off water production as shown from the WSO case history. The BHP and BHT data was also used to validate the cement recipe. 5. Based on this successful experience, fiber optic enabled CT was used on six other WSO jobs. The technology is being pilot tested to optimize acid stimulation jobs on long horizontal and extended reach wells.
28
BIOGRAPHIES
Ahmed K. Al-Zain currently works as a Production Engineering Specialist in well treatments in the Southern Area Production Engineering Department (SAPED). He received his B.S. degree in 1989 in Petroleum Engineering from Tulsa University, Tulsa, OK. After his graduation, Ahmed joined Saudi Aramco as a Production Engineer and worked in various sandstone and carbonate major fields in the Southern area. He now has over 20 years of experience, mainly in production engineering as well as in reservoir and drilling engineering. Ahmed has published several technical papers on various topics, such as acid stimulation, scale inhibition, water compatibility, coiled tubing applications and automated well data acquisitions. Jorge E. Duarte is a Production Engineer working in the Gas Production Engineering Division. He has 13 years of oil field experience. In 1996, Jorge received his B.S. degree in Petroleum Engineering from the Universidad America, Bogota, Colombia. Surajit Haldar received both his B.S. degree in Chemical Engineering in 1989 and his MBA in 2006 from the Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, India. He has 20 years of work experience in the petroleum industry, including 8 years in research, development and consultancy work on well stimulation and water shutoff technology. Currently, Surajit is working as a stimulation and water shutoff champion for water and oil wells in the Southern Area Production Engineering Department (SAPED). Saad M. Al-Driweesh is a Production Engineering General Supervisor in the Southern Area Production Engineering Department (SAPED), where he is involved in gas and oil production engineering, well completion and stimulation activities. He is mainly interested in the field of production engineering, production optimization and new well completion applications. In 1988, Saad received his B.S. degree in Petroleum Engineering from King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals (KFUPM), Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. He has been working with Saudi Aramco for the past 19 years in areas related to gas and oil production engineering.
Ahmed A. Al-Jandal is a Petroleum Engineering specialist in the Southern Area Production Engineering Department (SAPED). He earned his B.S. degree in Petroleum Engineering from King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals (KFUPM), Dhahran, Saudi Arabia in 1986. Ahmed has been with Saudi Aramco for the past 25 years, where his experience includes working with production engineering on the oil and water injection wells in SAPED, and leading the specialist unit for the Oil and Water Well Treatment/ Stimulation Unit for the Southern Area Oil Operation (SAOO) fields. Currently, he is the Production Engineering Supervisor for the north Ghawar water injection wells. Faleh M. Al-Shammeri joined Saudi Aramco in 2003 as a Production Engineer working with the Southern Area Oil Operation (SAOO) organization. He has 6 years experience working in several fields, including Hawiyah, Shedgum and Ain Dar. During this time, Faleh handled various projects, such as the landing base, inactive wells, power saving and the high shut-in wellhead pressure wells (HIPS) project, in addition to his routine production operation activities. Faleh received his B.S. degree in Petroleum Engineering from King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia in 2001. Vsevolod Bugrov received his M.S. degree in Petroleum Engineering in 2003 from the Russian State university of Oil and Gas, Moscow, Russia. After graduation he started his career with Schlumberger as a Coiled Tubing Engineer. He has 6 years of experience in well intervention and stimulation services, including various applications of coiled tubing in Arctic and desert conditions. Currently, he works in Udhailiyah providing technical support for the Southern Area Production Engineering Department (SAPED) Coiled Tubing operations. Tashfeen Sarfraz is an Electronics Engineer working in Schlumbergers Coiled Tubing Services, Udhailiyah, Saudi Arabia. He is responsible for the technical design and execution of new technology operations, and was a member of the team that executed the first Water Shut-off campaign for Saudi Aramco in 2007. Tashfeen is a member of the Society of Petroleum Engineers (SPE) and has published several technical papers and articles. He has 5 years of experience, mainly in well intervention and stimulation services. In 2003, Tashfeen received his B.S. degree in Electronics Engineering from Ghulam Ishaq Khan University, Topi, Pakistan.
FALL 2009
29
Nonconventional Catalytic Process for Ultimate Removal of Organic Sulfur-Containing Compounds in Hydrocarbon Fractions
Authors: Dr. Farhan M. Al-Shahrani, Dr. Tiacun Xiao, Dr. Abdennour Bourane, Dr. Omer R. Koseoglu and Prof. Malcolm L.H. Green
ABSTRACT
Heightened concerns for cleaner air results in more stringent regulations on sulfur contents in transportation fuels that will make desulfurization more and more important. This has exerted strong pressure, not only on the refiners but also on governments and legislators. The sulfur problem is becoming more serious in general, particularly for diesel fuels, as the regulated sulfur threshold is rising and will likely require a virtually sulfur-free liquid fuel within a few years. Although conventional hydrodesulfurization (HDS) is still the preferred technology for producing the ultra clean fuels, other nonconventional methods, such as oxidative, radiative, extractive, membrane, adsorption, biodesulfurization and ultrasonic approaches have also gained interest in recent years due to the increased cost of revamping the existing lowpressure hydrotreating units. Most of the alternative technologies have not been shown to be economically viable on a commercial scale. Oxidative desulfurization technology, however, has progressed to the state where it is nearing commercialization. Oxidation chemistry represents an alternative route to diesel desulfurization that complements HDS chemistry. The integration of an oxidative desulfurization unit with a conventional hydrotreating unit can improve the economics of these regulation driven projects relative to current HDS technology. Of the nonconventional approaches to reduce the sulfur content in hydrocarbon fractions, such as adsorption, extraction, ionic exchange, biodesuflurization and oxidation, an oxidation desulfurization (ODS) catalytic system composed of sodium tungstate dihydrate (Na2WO4), aqueous hydrogen peroxide (30% H2O2) and acetic acid (CH3CO2H) has been found promising for deep removal of sulfur in diesel. From a chemistry point of view, the sulfur compounds are transferred to their corresponding sulfones, which can be preferentially extracted by polar solvents. By using ODS, the sulfur level in commercial diesel of 1,100 ppm has been reduced to less than 39 ppm, which meets the latest stringent environmental legislation enforcing the production of ultra low sulfur diesel (ULSD) (< 50 ppm). This article also covers some discussion about the ODS process itself and a proposed reaction mechanism.
30
INTRODUCTION
Sulfur in transportation fuels remains a major source of SOx, which contributes to a refinerys catalyst fouling, corrosion, air pollution and acid rain1, 2. Therefore, the threshold limit for sulfur levels in gasoline and diesel has already been regulated on a global level, including in Saudi Arabia, to less than 50 ppm of weight (ppmw) over the next few years1-4. The new environmental legislation puts both crude oil producers and oil fraction refineries under tremendous pressure to cope with the new regulations and to push for the production of ultra low sulfur diesel (ULSD). One school of thought is asking for certain revamping of the current hydrotreatment facilities in most refineries, while the other is on the side of exploring new technologies, which might involve either minor additions or even major grass root changes to the existing targeted facilities. Removal of sulfur from organic sulfur compounds in liquid fuels has long been achieved by hydrodesulfurizaion (HDS) using a Co-Mo/Al2O3 or a Ni-Mo/Al2O3 catalyst in the temperature range from 320 C to 360 C, and in the pressure range of 30 bar to 60 bar of H2 partial pressure4-6. In this process, which requires the presence of excess hydrogen, the sulfur atom is hydrotreated to form mainly H2S as shown in the reaction of ethanethiol: C2H5SH + H2 C2H6 + H2S The H2S evolved from the HDS is a toxic gas that needs further treatment to form elemental sulfur, a useful non-toxic yellow powder. According to its inventor, this process is called the Claus Process in which the gaseous sulfur is transformed into elemental sulfur (S8). Solvent extraction utilizing a solution of diethanolamine (DEA) dissolved in water is applied to separate the hydrogen sulfide (H2S) gas from the process stream. In this process, the H2S gas is trapped or dissolved in the DEA by bubbling a hydrocarbon gas stream containing H2S through the DEA solution. In general, conversion of the concentrated H2S gas into sulfur occurs in two stages: 1) Combustion of part of the H2S stream in a furnace, producing sulfur dioxide (SO2), water (H2O) and elemental sulfur (S): 2H2S + 2O2 SO2 + S + 2H2O
2) Reaction of the remainder of the H2S with the combustion products in the presence of a catalyst. The H2S reacts with the SO2 to form sulfur: 2H2S + SO2 3S + 2H2O As the reaction products are cooled, the sulfur drops out of the reaction vessel in a molten state, which can be stored. Sulfur-containing compounds that are typically present in hydrocarbonaceous fuels include aliphatic molecules, such as sulfides, disulfides and mercaptans, as well as aromatic molecules, such as thiophene, benzothiophene (BT), dibenzothiophene (DBT) and alkyl derivatives such as 4,6dimethyl-dibenzothiophene (DMDBT). Those latter molecules have a higher boiling point than the aliphatic ones and are consequently more abundant in higher boiling fractions. Conventional HDS technology can desulfurize aliphatic and acyclic sulfur-containing organic compounds on an industrial scale, as is the case in most refineries in the world. Aromatic DBT, and especially 4,6-alkyl-substituted DBTs, are difficult to convert to H2S due to the sterically hindered nature of these compounds on the catalyst surface5-7. For this reason, the removal of the DBTs by HDS, to give the desired low levels of sulfur in diesel, requires high temperature and H2 pressure conditions and subsequently a bigger reactor size, as well as an active catalyst. From an environmental and economic viewpoint, it is extremely desirable to develop an alternative, more energy-efficient desulfurization process for the production of virtually sulfur-free fuel. Reported deep desulfurization processes include, but are not limited to, selective adsorption6, extraction with ionic liquids7, oxidative desulfurization (ODS)8-11, biodesulfurization12, and other processes13. Due to a short reaction time at ambient conditions, high efficiency and selectivity, ODS combined with extraction is regarded to be among the promising processes in this regard. In this process, sulfurcontaining species like sulfides, BT, DBT and alkyl-related derivatives are transformed into their corresponding sulfoxides or sulfones species, which are then removed in a second step. Various studies on the ODS process have employed different oxidizing agents, such as NO214 tert-butyl hydroxide11 and H2O28-11. Hydrogen peroxide is commonly used as an oxidizing reagent due to its relatively low price, environmental compatibility and commercial availability. H2O2 is effective in the presence of a transition metal-based catalyst and in acid media8-11. Examples of transition metalbased systems are tungstophosphoric acid8, Na2WO4 + [(n-C4H9)4N]Cl15, K12WZnMn2(ZnW9O34)2 + [CH3(nC8H17)3N]Cl16, 2-NO2C6H4SeO2H17, hemoglobin18 and other transition metal-based oxides1, 2, 13. Herein we describe a simple and highly effective catalytic system for the oxidation of DBTs. The catalytic system was evaluated for the removal of sulfur-containing compounds in diesel19-25. Although, there is still room for improvement for
the catalyst and the process overall, which may have even better results of less than 10 ppm sulfur.
OXIDATION OF MODEL SULFUR COMPOUNDS

The catalyst system for the oxidation reaction is composed of sodium tungstate (Na2WO4, 0.2 g), acetic acid (CH3CO2H, 5 mL) and hydrogen peroxide (30% H2O2/H2O, 1 mL) as an oxidizing agent. In a round-bottom vessel, the oxidation reaction was carried out with separate model solutions of DBT and 4,6-DMDBT in octane (500 ppm S) at temperatures of 30 C, 50 C, 70 C and 90 C. In each run, the Na2WO4 catalyst was observed to dissolve gradually in the mixture, forming first an emulsion and then an opaque lower layer with time, Fig. 1. The opaque emulsion lower layer was observed to transfer gradually to form a white milk-like layer once the mixture temperature reached 70 C. At this temperature, a biphasic system was clearly observed, Fig. 2. In this biphasic system, the upper layer is clear, and has been proven to be the hydrocarbon layer (the octane). The lower layer is aqueous and milk-like and contains mainly water, acetic acid and some of the sulfones. Trace amounts of sulfone were also observed in the upper layer and most probably at the interface of both layers. Throughout the reaction, stirring was continuous, and the progress of the reaction was monitored periodically by withdrawing 0.1 mL aliquots of the upper hydrocarbon layer
Fig. 1. The first formation of the emulsion mixture.
Fig. 2. Photo of the flask showing a biphasic system formation at 70 C.

31
of the reaction mixture for GC-FID and other sulfur analysis. Similar quantities were also withdrawn from the lower layer. Every sample was immersed immediately in liquid nitrogen to suspend the oxidation reaction. Figure 3 shows the evolution of the chromatogram of DBT and 4,6DMDBT with the reaction temperature. It is observed that both DBT and 4,6-DMDBT are oxidized to the corresponding sulfones indicated as DBTO2 and 4,6DMDBTO2, respectively. It can also be observed that the conversion of the sulfur compounds into sulfones increases with temperature. Figure 4 shows the conversion of the sulfur compounds as a function of the temperature of the two model solutions after their ODS treatment to prove the need (or otherwise) for the sodium tungstate catalytic system. This conversion, at a different reaction temperature, was calculated using the normalized peak areas as obtained from the GC-FID chromatograms. Both DBT and 4,6-DMDBT reached their maximum full conversion at 70 C in less than an hour of reaction time. In the absence of Na2WO4, using similar amounts of H2O2/CH3CO2H, poor conversion was observed. Shiraishi et al.5 and Otsuki et al.26, have calculated the electron densities of sulfur atoms for DBT and 4,6-DMDBT at 5.758 and 5.760, respectively. Such trends have been attributed to two main factors: (a) reduced availability of the lone pair electrons, and (b) steric strain in the reaction products.
It is worth mentioning that this new ODS catalytic system efficiently reached full conversion of the sulfur compounds to sulfones without the addition of a phase transfer agent (PTA). Noyori et al. 27, previously reported the use of Na2WO4 with phosphoric acid and a quaternary ammonium salt promoter for the oxidation of diphenyl sulfide to give the corresponding sulfone. In the absence of the quaternary ammonium salt PTA, no oxidation was observed in their system.
OXIDATION OF A HYDROTREATED DIESEL

The new oxidation system was then tested on a commercial diesel sample supplied by Rabigh Refinery. The diesel high temperature (HT) boiling ranges of 250 C - 350 C has 1,100 ppm sulfur content. A selective sulfur detector, a pulse flame photometric detector (PFPD), was especially useful to monitor changes in the concentration of the different sulfur compounds existing in the diesel. In a series of extensive tests at various concentration levels of standard sulfur compounds, the sensitivity, linearity, and accuracy of the technique as applied to the range of sulfur compounds was established. The chromatogram in Fig. 5 shows the analysis of the HT diesel sample using GC-PFPD. In this chromatogram, only the most abundant sulfur compounds, according to their concentration, can be seen. A
BT
Benzothiophene (Internal Standard) Methyl ethyl benzothiophene Dibenzothiophene 4-Methyl dibenzothiophene 3-Methyl dibenzothiophene
MEBT Fig. 3. GC-FID chromatographs of model solutions upon ODS treatment. DBT 4-MDBT 3-MDBT
4,6-DMDBT 4,6-Dimethyl dibenzothiophene 1,4-DMDBT 1,4-Dimethyl dibenzothiophene 1,3-DMDBT 1,3-Dimethyl dibenzothiophene Tri-MDBT Tri-EDBT C3-DBT Fig. 4. The influence of ODS catalytic system on sulfur conversion of DBT () and 4,6-DMDBT (*) at different temperatures. Tri-methyl dibenzothiophene Tri-ethyl dibenzothiophene C3-Dibenzothiophene
Fig. 5. GC-PFPD chromatogram of the sulfur compounds in the HT diesel.
32
total of 79 different sulfur compounds were identified in this diesel, with DBT and its alkyl derivatives being the major sulfur compounds. In this chromatogram, the higher intensity peaks of compounds, such as 4,6-DMDBT, 4-MDBT and DBT were assigned for comparison with the fingerprint of standard samples analyzed under similar analytical conditions. The rest of the peaks were compared to several publications in which similar conditions and column specifications had been used. It can be noted from the chromatogram that the presence of DBT and its alkyls is predominant since conventional HDS techniques are unable to remove these refractory sulfur compounds. In these experiments, the BT was added as an internal standard before injection in the GC-PFPD. The known concentration was used to calculate the concentration of other sulfur compounds. The sulfur containing compounds in the diesel sample were observed to be oxidized to their corresponding sulfones, and these were further extracted with methanol, Fig. 6. The sulfur concentration was successfully reduced by ODS and then by extraction by more than 92% and 97%, respectively. In a reaction time of less than an hour, the total sulfur content in the treated diesel sample was reduced from 1,100 ppm to less than 39 ppm; this represents a total sulfur removal efficiency of 97%. The catalyst was mainly recovered in the aqueous lower layer and reused effectively for six consecutive new batches of ODS processes, topping up the hydrogen peroxide intake each time.
DISCUSSION OF THE ODS MECHANISM

The tungstate-based catalyst has been shown effective for the oxidation of the others into sulfones using H2O2 as the oxidant in a two-liquid phase system together with a phase transfer catalyst (PTC)16-18. Several mechanisms of ODS reactions have been proposed previously12, 13, 18. The homogeneous biphasic ODS system described above is simple and uses no PTA. Figure 8 is a detailed view of the reaction mechanism. Once the catalyst is mixed with the hydrogen peroxide and the diesel fuel in acetic acid, the biphasic catalyst system starts to form at room temperature. We suggest that WO42-anion reacts in two steps with two molecules of H2O2 in sequential substitution reactions; in each step a W=O group is replaced by a W (O2) group and H2O is displaced. The resulting peroxotungstate [(-O)2 W (O2)2] anion then reacts by sequential oxygen atom transfer to the sulfur of R2S to form R2SO (sulfoxide) then R2SO2 (sulfone), which can be extracted in the aqueous phase. The peroxotungstate can be regenerated on the interface between the two layers or in the
DISCUSSION ABOUT THE ODS REACTION

Generally, in the ODS reactions, the divalent sulfur atom of the organic sulfur compounds undergoes the electrophonic addition of oxygen atoms from the hydrogen peroxide to form the sulfone, i.e., hexavalent sulfur. The chemical and physical properties of sulfones are significantly different from those of fuel oil hydrocarbons. Therefore, they can be easily removed by conventional separation methods, such as distillation, solvent extraction, adsorption and decomposition10-13. Figure 7 is a schematic diagram of the process of the overall ODS reaction.
Fig. 7. The overall ODS reaction and a sketch of the biphasic system.
O S R1 R2 R1 S R2 R1
O S
R2
Sulfur concentration (ppm)
100 80
S
H3C S H3C
H3C S CH 3
Diesel Diesel After ODS After ODS After extraction

H3C
2 Oxygen atoms transfer reaction

Na+ O
O
Non polar Phase
Na+ O
W
S
VI
O
CH 3 H3C S
CH 3 H3C
Na+
O
O
W VI
Na+ O
O
60 40
S C 2H5
H3C
C 2H5 S C 2H5
H2 O
C 2H5
C 3H7
2H2O2
2H2O
Na+
20 0
CH 3
Na+
H O H
Na+ O
W
O
O
VI
O
Polar Phase
Na+ O
VI
O H
M EB T
4M D BT
D M D BT
D BT
BT Tr iM D BT
Tr iE D BT C3 D BT
BT
BT
two steps substitution 2of O by O 22

Sulfone Precipitate
D M
1, 4D
1, 3D
4,6
M D
2H2O
2H2O2
R 1=Aryl/CH3
R2=Aryl/CH3
Fig. 6. Changes in the concentration of the organic sulfur-containing compounds in HT diesel after the ODS treatment that was followed by methanol extraction.
Fig. 8. Proposed ODS reaction mechanism.

33
CONCLUSION
We conclude that, at modest temperatures and under atmospheric pressure, our ODS catalytic system, comprised of Na2WO4 H2O2 and acetic acid, is effective for removing most of the last few hundred ppm of HDS-persistent organic sulfurcontaining compounds in diesel. Therefore, it can be envisaged that an ODS unit would be added as a complementary post treatment unit to the current HDS facilities, Fig. 10. By achieving a sulfur content of less than 50 ppm in diesel, the current ODS process, when combined with extraction, has the potential to meet future environmental legislations1-4.
Fig. 9. Raman spectra of STDH (Catalyst) and DBTSTDH (Product).
Conventional HDS
H2S
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
ODS Catalytic System
H2 ULSD H D
Diesel Feed
O D S Extracti on Sulfones
Fig. 10. General scheme of ODS process post HDS unit.
The authors wish to thank Saudi Aramco management for their support and permission to present the information contained in this article. We would also like to thank Dr. Omer AbdulHamid, Mr. Khalil Al-Shafei, Dr. Bashir AlDabbousi and Mr. Richard Horner from Saudi Aramco for their fruitful discussions, directions and usual support. Thanks also to Dr. Sami Barri for the diesel analysis in the Imperial College. Many thanks as well to the management and colleagues at the Inorganic Chemistry Laboratory at Oxford University for their outstanding collaboration.
aqueous phase in the presence of an adequate supply of H2O2. Sulfone is known to be slightly more polar than sulfur compounds, so they will form a white precipitate. The whole process will result in a biphasic solution in which the upper layer becomes almost sulfur-free diesel. The tungstate anion has the normal tetrahedral structure. Figure 9 shows the Raman spectroscopy of the catalyst before and after the ODS reaction. The Raman stretching above 900 cm-1 is usually attributed to the W=O stretching while the W-O bend vibration is around 320 cm-1 20-22. The standard STDH has bands at 928 cm-1, 890 cm-1, 836 cm-1 and 331 cm-1 in its ordinary tetrahedral structure. After the ODS reaction, the new bands are seen at 970 cm-1, 950 cm-1, 895 cm-1 and 312 cm-1, which suggest the presence of different forms or more than one peroxotungstate system. The electrophilicity of the peroxotungstate intermediate is much higher than that of H2O2 so it will participate effectively in the oxidation of sulfur atoms. The ligation on the W center would increase the reactivity of the peroxoligands, and the metal center (W) has an unchanged oxidation number of VI throughout the whole process. The sulfur compound in the form of R2S is nucleophilic due to the presence of two lone pairs of electrons on the sulfur, which can be donated to form bonds with oxygen from the peroxotungstate. The tungstate catalyst is soluble in the acetic acid solution and forms a biphasic catalyst system. The role of the acetic acid in this reaction may be to increase the dispersion of the catalyst and to promote and possibly to protonate oxo and peroxo groups of the tungstate system9-11, 14, 19, 25.
34
REFERENCES
1. Yang, R.T., Hernandez-Maldonado, A.J. and Yang, F.H.: Desulfurization of Transportation Fuels with Zeolites under Ambient Conditions, Science, Vol. 301, No. 5,629, 2003, pp. 79-81. 2. Gosling, C.D., Gembicki, V.A., Gatan, R.M., Cavanna, A. and Molinari, D.: The Role of Oxidative Desulfurization in an Effective ULSD Strategy, (UOP LLC), Chemindix, Bahrain, 2004. 3. Turaga, U.T. and Choudhary, T.V.: Desulfurization and Novel Process for Removal of Sulfur from Hydrocarbons, (ConocoPhillips Company, USA), Application: WO, 2006, p. 31. 4. Berti, V. and Iannibello, A.: Hydrodesulfurization of Petroleum Residues: Principles and Applications, 1975, p. 322. 5. Shiraishi, Y., et al.: Desulfurization of Light Oil by Reaction of Sulfur Compounds with Chloramine T Resulting in Sulfimides Formation, Chemical Communications, Vol. 14, 2001, pp. 1,256-1,257. 6. McKinley, S.G. and Angelici, R.J.: Deep Desulfurization by Selective Adsorption of Dibenzothiophenes on Ag+/SBA15 and Ag+/SiO2, Chemical Communications, Vol. 20, 2003, pp. 2,620-2,621. 7. Bosmann, A., et al.: Deep Desulfurization of Diesel Fuel by Extraction with Ionic Liquids, Chemical Communications, Vol. 23, 2003, pp. 2,494-2,495.
8. Yazu, K., Makino, M. and Ukegawa, K.: Oxidative Desulfurization of Diesel Oil with Hydrogen Peroxide in the Presence of Acid Catalyst in Diesel Oil/Acetic Acid Biphasic System, Chemistry Letters, Vol. 33, No. 10, 2004, pp. 1,306-1307. 9. Campos-Martin, J.M., Capel-Sanchez, M.C. and Fierro, J.L.G.: Highly Efficient Deep Desulfurization of Fuels by Chemical Oxidation, Green Chemistry, Vol. 6, No. 11, 2004, pp. 557-562. 10. Garcia-Gutierrez, J.L., et al.: Ultra-Deep Oxidative Desulfurization of Diesel Fuel with H2O2 Catalyzed under Mild Conditions by Polymolybdates Supported on Al2O3, Applied Catalysis, A: General, Vol. 305, No. 1, 2006, pp. 15-20. 11. Wang, D., et al., Oxidative Desulfurization of Fuel Oil, Part I. Oxidation of Dibenzothiophenes using Tert-Butyl Hydroperoxide, Applied Catalysis, A: General, Vol. 253, No. 1, 2003, pp. 91-99. 12. Yu, B., et al.: Deep Desulfurization of Diesel Oil and Crude Oils by a Newly Isolated Rhodococcus Erythropolis Strain, Applied and Environmental Microbiology, Vol. 72, No. 1, 2006, pp. 54-58. 13. Song, C. and Ma, X.: New Design Approaches to UltraClean Diesel Fuels by Deep Desulfurization and Deep Dearomatization, Applied Catalysis, B: Environmental, Vol. 41, Nos. 1-2, 2003, pp. 207-238. 14. Tam, P.S., Kittrell, J.R. and Eldridge, J.W.: Desulfurization of Fuel Oil by Oxidation and Extraction. Part 1. Enhancement of Extraction Oil Yield, Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, Vol. 29, No. 3, 1990, pp. 321-324. 15. Stec, Z., et al.: Oxidation of Sulfides with H2O2 Catalyzed by Na2WO4 under Phase-Transfer Conditions, Polish Journal of Chemistry, Vol. 70, No. 9, 1996, pp. 1,121-1,123. 16. Neumann, R. and Juwiler, D.: Oxidations with Hydrogen Peroxide Catalyzed by the [WZnMn(II)2(ZnW9O34)2]12- Polyoxometalate, Tetrahedron, Vol. 52, No. 26, 1996, pp. 8,781-8,788. 17. Reich, H.J., Chow, F. and Peake, S.L.: Seleninic Acids as Catalysts for Oxidations of Olefins and Sulfides using Hydrogen Peroxide, Synthesis, Vol. 4, 1978, pp. 299-301. 18. Klyachko, N.L. and Klibanov, A.M.: Oxidation of Dibenzothiophene Catalyzed by Hemoglobin and other Hemoproteins in Various Aqueous-Organic Media, Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology, Vol. 37, No. 1, 1992, pp. 53-68.
19. Xiao, T., Shi, H., Al-Shahrani, F.M. and Green, M.: Hydrocarbon Recovery from Sulfones Formed by Oxidative Desulfurization (ODS) Process, paper IP244561539, April 20, 2008. 20. Al-Shahrani, F.M., Xiao, T., Martinie, G. and Green, M.: Catalytic Process for Deep Oxidative Desulfurization of Liquid Transportation Fuels, WO 2007103440, U.S. Pat. Appl. Publ. 2007, 35 pp. 21. Martinie, G.M., Al-Shahrani, F.M. and Dabbousi, B.O.: Diesel Oil Desulfurization by Oxidation and Extraction, U.S. 2007051667, U.S. Pat. Appl. Publ. 2007, 9 pp. 22. Martinie, G.D., Al-Shahrani, F.M. and Dabbousi, B.O.: Process for Treating a Sulfur-Containing Spent Caustic Refinery Stream using a Membrane Electrolyzer Powered by a Fuel Cell, U.S. 2006254930, U.S. Pat. Appl. Publ. 2006, 12 pp. 23. Martinie, G.D. and Al-Shahrani, F.M.: Reactive Extraction of Sulfur Compounds from Hydrocarbon Streams, WO 2005066313, PCT Int. Appl. 2005, 24 pp. 24. Al-Shahrani, F.M., Xiao, T., Llewellyn, S., et al.: Desulfurization of Diesel via the H2O2 Oxidation of Aromatic Sulfides to Sulfones using a Tungstate Catalyst, Journal of Applied Catalysis, B: Environmental, Vol. 73, 2007, pp. 311-316. 25. Al Shahrani, F.M.: Oxidative Desulfurization of Diesel Fuels, Ph.D. thesis, 2008, University of Oxford Press, Oxford, UK. 26. Otsuki, S., Nonaka, T., Takashima, N., et al.: Energy Fuels, Vol. 14, 2000, p. 1,232. 27. Noyori, R., Aoki, M. and Sato, K.: Green Oxidation with Aqueous Hydrogen Peroxide, Chemical Communications, Vol. 16, 2003, pp. 1,977-1,986.
FALL 2009
35
BIOGRAPHIES
Dr. Farhan M. Al-Shahrani rejoined Saudi Aramcos Research and Development Center (R&DC) in August 2008 after his successful completion of a 4 year advanced degree program at the University of Oxford, Oxford, UK. Farhan first joined Saudi Aramco in 1993 in the College Degree Program Non-Employee (CDPNE) program. In 1998 he received a third honor B.S. degree in Industrial Chemistry from King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals (KFUPM), Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Since that time, he joined the R&DC and worked in various units, including advanced instrument, crude evaluation, process, geochemistry and the environmental unit. In 2003, Farhan received his M.S. degree in Chemistry, also from KFUPM as a second honor. Under the supervision of Prof. Malcolm L.H. Green, Farhans Ph.D. thesis research focused on oxidative desulfurization of diesel fuels, which resulted in the filing of two international patents. To date, he has five registered patents and more than 12 peer-reviewed papers. While in Oxford, Farhan was able to launch a Saudi Oxford Society that he voluntarily led for two consecutive years. Moreover, he worked as the chairperson of the scientific committee for the 2nd International Saudi Innovation Conference hosted last June by the University of Leeds. Farhan is a member of the American Chemical Society (ACS) and the prestigious Royal Society of Chemistry (RSC). Dr. Tiacun Xiao earned his Ph.D. degree in Heterogeneous Catalysis from the Chinese Academy of Science, Beijing, China in 1993. As an Associate Professor at Shandong University in China, he spent the next 6 years collaborating on both petrochemical and environmental projects with Sinopec, the Shandong Provincial Government and the World Bank. In 1999, Tiacun went to Oxford University and joined Prof. Malcolm Green's Wolfson Catalysis Center as a Royal Society BP Amoco Research Fellow. Since then, he has been appointed a Visiting Professor at the Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing, China, a Lecturing Professor at the Eastern China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, China and a Guest Professor at the Guizhou University, Guiyang, China. He has published over 100 papers on catalysis, filed seven patents and received many awards for his research both in China and in the UK. Recently and jointly with Prof. Green, Tiacun was able to launch the Oxford Catalysis Group as a new spin-off company of the University of Oxford.
Dr. Abdennour Bourane is a Research Scientist at the Research and Development Center (R&DC). He is leading activities within the Clean Fuels project of the Downstream and Strategic Program. Prior to joining Saudi Aramco he worked at the Institute of Research on Catalysis and Environment at Lyon (IRCELyon), France and at the Chemical Engineering Department of Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS. Abdennour has more than 20 publications in international peer-reviewed journals. Abdennour received his Ph.D. degree in Chemistry from the University of Lyon, Lyon, France. Dr. Omer R. Koseoglu is a Research Science Consultant at the Research and Development Center (R&DC). He is leading the Clean Petroleum Fuels project of the Downstream and Strategic Program. Omer has a Ph.D. degree in Chemical Engineering from the University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada; a M.S. degree in Chemistry from Brock University, St. Catharines, Ontario, Canada; and a B.S. degree in Chemical Engineering from Gazi University, Ankara, Turkey. Prior to joining Saudi Aramco, he worked for CONOCO, Inc. at the Technology Development Center in Ponca City, OK, IFP North America/Hydrocarbon Research, Inc. (HRI); and Shell Canada Limited at the Oakville Research Center. Omer has numerous publications and is a registered professional engineer. Professor Malcolm L.H. Green was Professor and Head of Inorganic Chemistry at Oxford University from 1989-2003. He then became an Emeritus Research Professor. Malcolm is also the co-founder of the Oxford Catalysis Group. He received a B.S. and Ph.D. degree from London University, London, UK, the latter in 1959. Malcolm carried out research at Cambridge University and then at Oxford University in organotransition metal chemistry, homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysis and, more recently, the chemistry of carbon nanotubes. He has over 700 publications and was elected Fellow of the Royal Society of Chemistry in 1985.
36
Innovative Solution for Drilling Pre-Khuff Formations in Saudi Arabia Utilizing Turbodrill and Impregnated Bits
Authors: Gabriel D. Carrillo, Usman Farid, Michael Albrecht, Perry Cook, Nouman Feroze and Kenneth Nevlud
ABSTRACT
The abrasive pre-Khuff sandstones, combined with high downhole temperatures and the propensity for bottom-hole assembly (BHA) and bit sticking, present a uniquely hostile drilling environment. These limit run durations and the ability to optimize the rate of penetration (ROP) with the use of conventional rotary assemblies, positive displacement mud motors (PDMs)/conventional turbodrills and/or rotary steerable systems. Catastrophic damage or loss of drill strings, poor hole quality and logging problems are common, even with the advancements in polycrystalline diamond compact (PDC) bit technologies. Of the systems listed above, historically turbodrilling systems have best addressed the high temperatures and the abrasive nature of the pre-Khuff formations and held the potential for drilling economics optimization, but they have been unsuccessful in addressing bit sticking challenges. The development of best practices produced only marginal results because they require surface intervention, and therefore do not fully address sticking problems (in particular, bit sticking). The engineering challenge was to develop a downhole device that automatically engages and imparts sufficient drill string torque to maintain bit rotation. The turbodrill device disengages when conditions return to normal and returns the operation to high productivity drilling without surface intervention. The turbodrill device, coupled with advancements in BHA design, stabilizer and jar placement along with formation characterization and drill bit technology, is the solution to bit sticking incidents. Presented with this advancement in turbodrilling technology, the Operator/Service Company team has completed trials using this technology and presents data that supports the use and benefits of anti-sticking technologies. With this success, the team has regained focus on drilling optimization and reset the goal for single run-casing point to casing point.
INTRODUCTION
Saudi Aramco continually seeks ways to improve drilling efficiencies through the difficult pre-Khuff formations. This article is about a fortuitous trial of last resort that has delivered favorable results.
In Saudi Arabia, pre-Khuff formations (Unayzah, Jauf, Tawil, Sharawra, Qusaiba, Sarah, Qasim and Saq) are encountered at depths between 13,000 ft and 17,000 ft. These strata primarily comprise sandstones interbedded with shales, limestone, dolomite, anhydrite and siltstones. Sandstones with some siltstone predominate in the top Unayzah strata downward through the Qusaiba. At the bottom, the Sarah can also include some interbedded shale. The Unayzah and Jauf are generally characterized by hard, abrasive sandstones interbedded with shale and siltstone. Unconfined compressive strengths can reach 40,000 psi with internal angles of friction ranging from 25 to 75. Hardness, abrasiveness, toughness, irregularity in size and orientation of rock constituents, and problems with sticking all contribute to a significant challenge and expense associated with drilling in the pre-Khuff formations1-3. High wear rates on bits and bottom-hole assembly (BHA) components present a significant potential for premature equipment failures, limit bottom rotating time, and necessitate long and frequent trips. The Upper pre-Khuff (Unayzah to Jauf) strata are the most difficult of the pre-Khuff formations to drill. These strata typically consist of very irregular, fine to coarse grained pebbles and conglomerates that can vary significantly in their dimensions and hardnesses (both in adjacent wells and at different depths in a particular well), and the Jauf formation may also contain pyrite. Pre-Khuff reservoirs are an important source of present-day Saudi Arabian nonassociated gas production. Saudi Arabia is progressively moving toward a significant increase in gas production. The expected growth is primarily for domestic fuel and petrochemical feedstock, although Saudi Arabia is also a large exporter of natural gas liquids (NGLs). To meet these goals, significant portions of Saudi Aramco drilling assets have been directed toward pre-Khuff onshore and offshore gas exploration and development during the past several years. Saudi Aramco aggressively seeks drilling solutions that mitigate inefficiencies. This article describes drilling the preKhuff sections in two offshore trial wells, which will be called Trial Well 1 and Trial Well 2 in this article. A total of 11 turbodrill with diamond impregnated bit runs, during 661 rotating hours, had four principal goals:
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Decreasing trip frequency. Decreasing bit and BHA component failures that lead to fishing. Increasing productive, on-bottom bit life. Increasing the rate of penetration (ROP) through use of high efficiency downhole drives and analytically engineered BHAs. Historically, vertical turbodrill runs through the pre-Khuff formation have been unsuccessful because of their inability to transmit rotary torque to the bit when sticking events occur4. Still, a turbodrill paired with a specially designed diamond impregnated drill bit promises a favorable response to all of the above goals. Although the bit sticking problems clearly remained in everyones mind, interest in the tool remained as a result of its potential for durability and productivity in the event the sticking problems could be prevented5. This article begins with an offshore well, Trial Well 1, at a point where pre-Khuff problems had become acute. The well has had a troubled history. At a depth of 16,617 ft in the Unayzah formation, a twist-off occurred, necessitating a sidetrack. The sidetrack was started at the top of the Unayzah at a depth of 16,200 ft with a positive displacement mud motor (PDM) and polycrystalline diamond compact (PDC) bit. Saudi Aramcos pre-Khuff drilling is typically achieved with PDC bits drilled with rotary power. Because of the sidetrack, however, PDC with rotary was not possible in Trial Well 1. The assembly could not, of course, negotiate the change of direction at the sidetrack. The utilization of a down drive system increases the rotational speed and torque delivered to the drill bit, while isolating these increased forces from the drillstring. The drillstring rotary speed and torque required to drill effectively is reduced. This reduces the stress and tortuosity induced on BHA components and improves drillstring reliability. At Unayzah depths in Trial Well 1, temperatures of 340 F were encountered. These temperatures cast doubt on reliability expectations for key PDM rubber components. Turbodrills easily withstand much higher temperatures, and in spite of past bit-sticking problems, there was little to lose: It was an opportunity for the evaluation of innovative turbodrill technology.
wear. This makes long drilling runs a typical and expected result. The vendor has spent years matching diamond impregnated bit performance and run life to the turbodrill. Diamond impregnated bit cutting structures with increased blade heights enable the incorporation of larger volumes of diamond material, thus longer bit life, into turbodrill bit cutting structures6. Bit aggressivity can be increased with use of larger diamonds in the impregnation mix (and vice versa) and/or modified by changing the number of blades. Cutting structure geometries also enhance nose and shoulder durability (and bit run life) without interfering with gauge protection. Thermally stable polycrystalline (TSP) inserts are positioned on the gauge and shoulders to ensure the bit has the capability to drill a gauge hole in hard and abrasive rock, and increase durability and wear resistance in the shoulders. Incorporated PDC cutters in the cone area improve ROP. While a matched bit and turbodrill promised long run life, bit sticking presented what seemed an insurmountable problem. If jarring was required to free a stuck bit attached to a turbodrill, there was a high probability of damage to the turbodrill requiring a tool replacement trip.
DEVELOPMENT OF MECHANICAL RECOVERY FROM STICKING

While every effort was made to optimize performance and durability potentials for all parts of the drilling system, preKhuff turbodrilling could be successful only if bit sticking events were avoided. Some months prior to the Well 1 problems, the vendor ran a series of development trials on a new optional tool feature that allows drillstring torque to be directly applied to a drill bit mounted on a turbodrill. The purpose of this device is to prevent the bit sticking, and it had shown solid potential during the initial prototype tests. This tool feature was disclosed and Saudi Aramco agreed to a trial. The device works as follows: If, while drilling ahead in rotary, the turbodrill drive shaft (attached to the bit) begins to slow/stall, a locking clutch (LC1) mechanism automatically (with no intervention from the surface) engages and transmits string torque via the drive shaft to the bit to prevent the stall. As most sticking originates during times in which a turbodrill is stalled, the clutch will prevent most incidents of bit sticking. Subsequently, as sticking forces are overcome, the need for string torque decreases, and the LC1 automatically disengages (again without surface intervention) and returns the system to high productivity turbodrilling. In turbodrilling conditions in which the potential for bit sticking is a significant operational risk, the LC1 showed promise as a very useful innovation, and a turbodrilling trial commenced using the innovative feature. At the time of the Saudi Aramco trial, experience with the LC1 was limited to about 1,800 hours of field testing. Based on performance data derived from this testing, Saudi Aramco and the vendor elected to mitigate the risk of a catastrophic bit sticking event by limiting the operational on-bottom run time to
TURBODRILL AND MATCHED BIT CHARACTERISTICS

Turbodrills running diamond impregnated drill bits are normally an excellent combination in hard, abrasive materials. Diamonds easily cut through all hard rock. Although diamond exposure in a diamond impregnated drill bit is quite small, the high rotating speeds of the turbodrill (1,000 rpm to 1,200 rpm or more) produce attractive ROPs because the number of rotations is so high. Turbodrills are similar to aircraft engines. Power is produced by rotating vanes that are subjected to very little
38
80 hours. This time period was sufficient to provide both engineering application and fiscal justification for the trial, which would determine future use of the turbodrilling assembly equipped with the locking clutch device. For now, summarizing ahead, it can be mentioned that the turbodrills equipped with the LC1 produced no drilling disruptions of any kind, including bit sticking or locking clutch equipment failure.
OFFSET WELL
Well 1 could not be used for offset comparison to the Trial Well 1 sidetrack because it had not reached sufficient depth. Saudi Aramco, therefore, selected another offshore pre-Khuff well for comparative evaluation to the Trial Well 1 sidetrack. In this article, the offset is referred to as Offset Well. In the Offset Well, the top of the Unayzah begins at 16,416 ft, and TD 17,970 ft. The Offset Well was drilled with 17 rotary runs using PDC bits.
TRIAL PROGRAM
Key Saudi Aramco goals for a turbodrilling trial were: Operational cost reduction, mitigation in the required number of trips, avoidance of downhole component failures, increased on-bottom drilling time, and an evaluation of turbodrilling performance in hard, high temperature preKhuff rock. On historical turbodrill runs, Saudi Aramco has had a number of bit sticking problems and almost quit using turbodrills across the pre-Khuff. The intervening years brought stabilization engineering and development of matched diamond impregnated bits designed for drilling efficiency and for extended run durations. Turbodrilled hole quality and straightness are greatly influenced by BHA design. To ensure optimization, the vendors engineers in Houston used proprietary BHA simulation software to model critical rpm and stabilizer placement. Rig hydraulic equipment and drilling fluid characteristics are another key factor in turbodrill optimization. Available pump pressures and flows are optimized to turbodrill requirements with proprietary software used by on-rig turbodrill supervisors prior to runs and regularly during drilling. Turbodrilling crews are, obviously, the controlling influence on tool performance. The turbodrilling supervisor is responsible for training the rig crew on drilling safety and procedures, and ensures there is no deviation from procedure during operations. This supervisor also works closely with the Mud Engineer to be aware of changes to the mud and reoptimize the tool when changes occur. The crews help prevent accidents of all types, including bit sticking, and ensure better optimized drilling performance.
TRIAL WELL 1 SIDETRACK

The Trial Well 1 sidetrack begins at a depth of 16,200 ft and was competed at 16,394 ft. This portion of the well is not included in summaries that are shown below. High bottom-hole temperatures (approximately 350 F) are a problem at pre-Khuff depths. Because of temperature, PDMs have unsatisfactory operational life and are not suitable for drilling in these sections. Moreover, the utilization of a downhole drive system, which does not allow drillstring torque to be transmitted to the bit, disqualifies PDMs and conventional turbodrills alike from drilling potential bit sticking sequences. The wish to avoid the reoccurrence of catastrophic experiences with rotary drilling on the original well, combined with the incompatibility of a PDM, resulted in the turbodrill being the sole remaining alternative. Thus, a 434 turbodrill equipped with a locking clutch, and a matched diamond impregnated bit was selected, subject to the 80 hour drilling limit described above. Trial No. 1 goals included: An evaluation of turbodrilling performance and reliability, operational cost reduction in hard, high temperature pre-Khuff drilling, mitigation in the required number of trips, avoidance of downhole component failures and increased on-bottom drilling time. The first turbodrill trial run began at a depth of 16,394 ft. This tool drilled 377 ft in 73 hours. As indicated by surface torques during the run, bit sticking events did occur and were overcome by engagement of the locking clutch. There were no problems disruptive to drilling attributed to the turbodrill. As a result, Saudi Aramco approved continuation of the trial, on a run-by-run basis, to a TD of 17,900 ft. A PDC bit on rotary drilled 127 ft in a formation that was not conducive to efficient penetration by a diamond impregnated bit.
Trial No. 1 Run Summary
ORIGINAL WELL 1
The original Well 1 is an offshore well. The well targets a pre-Khuff reservoir drilled with PDC bits and rotary. The well has had a troubled history. At a depth of 16,617 ft, well short of the planned total depth (TD), in the Unayzah Formation, a twist-off occurred that necessitated continuing the well via a sidetrack that begins at the top of the Unayzah formation (16,200 ft). This sidetrack was to become turbodrilling Trial Well 1.
A total of 1,379 ft (six runs total, including five turbodrill runs and one PDC bit in rotary run) were drilled at an average ROP of 5.18 ft/hr. All bits were in good condition at the end of their respective runs. The hole condition was good, and there was no spiraling. High temperatures had no adverse effect on the turbodrill durability or performance. No loss of productive time was attributable to bit sticking or problems with either the turbodrills with LC1s or the matched diamond
39
impregnated drill bits during any of this group of trial runs. Favorable results were achieved for all trial goals.
in the Trial Well 1 sidetrack, and results for both trials are, accordingly, beneficiaries of added credibility.
TRIAL WELL 2
Based on the favorable results in the Trial Well 1 sidetrack, Saudi Aramco authorized continuation of the turbodrill with LC1 trials in the pre-Khuff sections of Trial Well 2. The 80 hour drilling limit was continued. Primary goals for Trial Well 2 were the same as for the Trial Well 1 sidetrack. Of additional importance, Saudi Aramco wanted to determine whether or not the favorable Trial Well 1 results could be consistently expected, and both the Offset Well and the Trial Well 1 sidetrack served as offsets for Trial Well 2.
Trial No. 2 Run Summary
CONCLUSIONS
1. During this trial, there were no events in which bit sticking or BHA problems resulted in lost on-bottom drilling time. 2. The high temperature pre-Khuff environment had no adverse effect on turbodrill durability or performance. 3. Turbodrills equipped with the LC1 locking clutch and matched diamond impregnated bits drilled 11 runs. In addition, three PDC runs are included for a total of 3,863 ft drilled in comparable pre-Khuff sections in two trial wells, Table 1. 4. During these runs there were no events causing downtime related to either turbodrills or drill bits. 5. Turbodrills equipped with the LC1 were tripped from the well after a maximum of 80 on-bottom hours. Based
Required Trips
A total of 2,357 ft (eight runs total, including six turbodrill runs) were drilled at an average ROP of 4.9 ft/hr. Two PDC bits on rotary, between the first and second turbodrill runs, drilled 171 ft. A 60 ft core run between the fifth and sixth turbodrill runs is not included in feet drilled. As with the first trial, hole condition was good, and no nonproductive time was attributable to either turbodrills with LC1s or the matched diamond impregnated drill bits during the runs. Trial Well 2 results are exceptionally consistent with those produced Runs Days Footage Days/ Ft/Day Ave. 1,000 Ft Ft/Run 17 36.8 1781 20.7 48.4 104.8 6 8 22.5 35.3 15.6 2357 14.9 15.0 67.1 66.7 251.0 294.6
20
17
16
12
8
8
Offset Well Trial Well 1 ST Trial Well 2

Table 1. Summary data
Offset
Fig. 2. Required trips.
Trial 1
Trial 2
25
20.7
20
Days / 1,000 Feet
14.9
15
15.0
10
Offset
Fig. 1. Typical condition of post-run drill bits. Fig. 3. Days per 1,000 ft drilled.
Trial 1
Trial 2
40
350
294.6
300
251.0
250
Ave. Feet / Run
200
150
104.8
100
50 Fig. 6. Comparative depth vs. days. 0
Offset
Fig. 4. Average ft drilled per run.
Trial 1
Trial 2
80 70 60
67.1
66.7
Ave. Feet / Day
48.4
50 40 30 20 10 0 Fig. 7. Comparative depth vs. days (including coring).
Offset
Fig. 5. Average ft per day.
Trial 1
Trial 2
10. Feet drilled per day are 38% higher for the turbodrill, and impregnated bit combination than for the offset well. Again, this result is a positive trial result, Fig. 5. 11. Figures 6 and 7 show drilling performance comparison between offset and Trial Wells with and without coring runs. 12. It can be concluded from the study of reduction in days per 1,000 ft drilled, and for the required number of runs that turbodrilling with the innovative locking clutch and impregnated bits produced important fiscal benefits. In conclusion, the turbodrill locking device innovation had a very positive impact on the vertical pre-Khuff drilling program through two well trials. Saudi Aramco, in conjunction with Smith International, continues to seek and expand the applications for the concept while significantly increasing value through optimization of the turbodrilling system.
on positive trial results, the limit on drilling time is correctly established. 6. All diamond impregnated bits were tripped from the well in excellent condition after a maximum of 80 hours. One bit was reused with good results. All bits possessed additional life/value and their respective run lives could have been extended, Fig. 1. 7. The turbodrill and impregnated bit combination reduced the tripping required by the offset well by more than 50%. This is a positive result for the trial goal pertaining to tripping, Fig. 2. 8. Days per 1,000 ft drilled are 28% lower for the turbodrill and impregnated bit combination than for the offset well, Fig. 3. This result contributes positively to trial goals. 9. The impregnated drill bits more than doubled the feet drilled by PDC bits in the offset well. This contributes to a positive result for the trial goal of increasing time on-bottom, Fig. 4.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to thank Saudi Aramco management for their permission to publish this article. Special thanks to W.H. Wamsley, for his valuable assistance and support in the preparation of this article.
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REFERENCES
1. Simpson, M.A., Zhou, S. and Nordquist, D.G.: Drilling Challenges and Recent Advances of Pre-Khuff Wells, Saudi Arabia, presented at the SPE Technical Symposium of the Saudi Arabia Section, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, June 7-9, 2003. 2. Simpson, M.A., Zhou, S., Treece, M. and Rondon, C.: Optimal Horizontal Drilling of Hard and Abrasive Unayzah Sandstones, SPE/IADC paper 85331, 2003. 3. Simpson, M.A., Zhou, S., Treece, M., et al.: Breakthrough Horizontal Drilling Performance in Pre-Khuff Strata with Steerable Turbines, SPE paper 90376, 2004. 4. Internal Report, Definition of Bit Sticking Problem with Turbine in Pre-Khuff Sands, Drilling Technology Unit, Drilling and Workover Engineering Department, Saudi Aramco, circa 1998. 5. Nordquist, D. and Zhou, S.: An Interim Report on Bit Sticking Problem and Recommended Solutions, Internal Report, Saudi Aramco, October 2001. 6. Simpson, M.A., Roed, A.H., Al-Shammari, H.A. and Hoekstra, D.: Rotary Application of Low Matrix Strength Impregnated and TSP Cutter Bits to Unayzah Sandstone Drilling, SPE/IADC paper 77223, 2002.
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BIOGRAPHIES
Gabriel D. Carrillo began working for Saudi Aramco in 2007. He received his M.S. degree in Petroleum Engineering from Texas A&M University, College Station, TX. Since 1994, he has worked for ExxonMobil, BP America around the world, and several small independent companies in South America, where his jobs included Field Service Technician, Rig Supervisor and Drilling Engineer. Currently Gabriel works in the Exploration Drilling Department where he monitors daily activities and plans upcoming events in a highly offshore profile well. Usman Farid is an Engineering Supervisor in Saudi Aramcos Exploration Drilling Department. He began working with the company in 2002 and over 23 years experience in rig drilling in the field, as well as in the office, up to the Drilling Superintendent level. Usman also worked as a Fishing Engineer and Sr. Drilling Instructor prior to joining the company. His job includes covering all engineering aspects from planning to completion for high profile HPHT offshore gas exploration wells currently being drilled. Usman graduated with a double B.S. degree in Math and Physics and Petroleum Engineering from the University of Engineering & Technology, Lahore, Pakistan. He also has an International Trainer certificate from the Northern Alberta Institute of Technology, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. Michael Albrecht works for Smith Neyrfor in Saudi Arabia as a Drilling Product Manager. He started his career with Norward Energy in 1995, working in Canada and the USA. In 2000, Mike took an overseas position in Kazakhstan as a Safety Supervisor implementing safe work practices with TCO and Parker Drilling. He joined Smith Neyrfor in 2004 as a Turbodriller working primarily in Canada, and later took a position as a Drilling Product Manager for the Middle East in 2006. Mike has worked in several countries worldwide, including the Middle East, and has 14 years of oil field experience. He is currently based in al-Khobar, Saudi Arabia and has worked closely with the Saudi Aramco Exploration Group and the Joint Venture Operators on overseeing Turbine Operations and Sales.
Perry Cook is the Middle East Area Manager for Smith Drilling & Evaluation, responsible for the turbodrill product line. Perry started his oil field career with Baker Hughes, working for 7 years in the drilling fluids sector in the areas of technical research and field operations. He joined Smith Neyrfor in 2002 and has subsequently held field, technical, coordination and management positions in the UK, the U.S., Kazakhstan and Saudi Arabia. Perry is currently based in Abu Dhabi supporting all aspects of turbodrill business development throughout the Middle East. In 1995, he received his B.S. in Biotechnology from the University of East Anglia, Norwich, UK. Nouman Feroze is a Petroleum Geologist working as a Senior Sales Engineer for Smith Bits, based in AlKhobar, Saudi Arabia, where he serves Saudi Aramcos Exploration Group and Joint Ventures Operators. He started his career with Sperry Sun, Pakistan and worked 2 years as a mud logger, then he joined Smith Bits and worked in various locations in the Middle East. Nouman has a total 11 years of oil field experience. He received his B.S. degree in Geology in 1994, and in 1996 he received his M.S. degree in Petroleum Geology (Gold Medalist), both from the University of Karachi, Karachi, Pakistan. Nouman is an active Society of Petroleum Engineers (SPE) member. Kenneth Nevlud is a Mechanical Engineer with Smith Neyrfor, where he is currently the Manager of the Neyrfor Sustaining Engineering Group. He started his career with Smith International in 2000, spending 2 years with GeoDiamond focusing on bit design before pursuing turbine design with Smith Neyrfor. In 2000, Kenny received two B.S. degrees, one in Mechanical Engineering and the other in Mathematics, from The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX.
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Evaluation of Wellbore Stability during Drilling and Production of Open Hole Horizontal Wells in a Carbonate Field
Authors: Dr. Hazim H. Abass, Mickey Warlick, Cesar H. Pardo, Mirajuddin R. Khan, Dr. Ashraf M. Al-Tahini, Dr. Dhafer A. Al-Shehri, Dr. Hameed H. Al-Badairy, Yousef M. Al-Shobaili, Dr. Thomas Finkbeiner and Satya Perumalla
ABSTRACT
Drilling horizontal wells is a common practice for Saudi Aramco in most of its oil and gas reservoirs in Saudi Arabian clastic and carbonate fields. The field at hand, with its two reservoirs, is no exception in regards to these field development plans. While previously all wells in this field were cased and perforated, during the planning stage for increasing production, the question was raised whether an open hole horizontal well completion is feasible over the life of the field (i.e., when taking near-wellbore drawdown and far field production-induced reservoir depletion into consideration). The direct benefit would be that an open hole completion greatly reduces the development costs for the 300+ production wells planned for the field. A rock mechanics study was undertaken to provide a comprehensive understanding of the wellbore stability of open hole horizontal wells throughout their life span, from drilling through production during field development. Two objectives identified for the study were: 1) assessment of wellbore stability and critical drawdown rates during production to avoid well collapse, and 2) the optimal well deviation, azimuth and required mud weight during drilling to minimize wellbore instability problems. To increase the accuracy of the results and greatly reduce uncertainty, cores from both reservoirs were retrieved to provide representative samples of the formations of interest. A testing program was undertaken to determine the static and dynamic mechanical properties, compressive rock strength, rock failure characteristics and thick wall cylinder strength. The effect of water on rock strength was tested as well, to evaluate if water encroachment poses additional risk to the mechanical integrity of the formation. In addition, the required geomechanical model in particular in-situ stress field, magnitude and direction was determined from several data sources: stress-induced wellbore failure analyses (from oriented caliper and wellbore image log analyses), microfrac testing, direct pore pressure measurements, wireline log data, and analysis of the general regional stress information for the area surrounding the field. The study showed that an open hole completion is feasible for most well azimuths in both reservoirs. Although, it was determined that the tar-bearing intervals of both reservoirs are not competent enough to be completed open hole due to the
44
risk of wellbore collapse. The recommendation was therefore to avoid the tar-bearing intervals and to consider casing those zones as applicable. The rock strength showed minimal effect as a result of exposure to water; therefore, water flooding will not be a concern from a wellbore integrity point of view. A field-specific compressive rock strength-wireline sonic log correlation was developed and calibrated with results from the lab tests. The flank wells tolerate more drawdown pressure than crest wells, due to higher rock strength in the flank. Additionally, it is recommended that the wells be drilled in the direction of minimum principal horizontal stress (hmin), to maximize borehole stability and minimize required mud weights during drilling and completion. The results from this extensive study were incorporated into Saudi Aramcos reservoir management decision tree.
INTRODUCTION
Wellbore instability problems are being experienced during the drilling of horizontal wells in highly stressed formations, such as shale, unconsolidated sandstone and weak carbonates. The instability problems can range from a simple washout to total collapse of the hole, and these problems are related to the mechanical properties (strength and deformation under stress), the drilling fluids properties, the in-situ stress field, and timedependent deformation. Open hole completion may be possible in weak carbonate if the in-situ stress field is not critical in terms of magnitude and mode (normal, strike-slip or inverse). For example, a rock mechanics study on a shallow carbonate formation in Saudi Arabia has revealed unconfined compressive strengths less than 2,000 pounds per square inch (psi); however, the results of wellbore caliper monitoring as a function of production time showed no changes in wellbore size, and therefore all horizontal wells were completed open hole1. Over the past years, drilling extended-reach wells with long open hole intervals has increased markedly in the industry, and Saudi Aramco has taken a lead role in these activities. For the difficult drilling campaigns associated with drilling these long-reach wells, oil-based mud (OBM) systems have been the industry choice for difficult drilling. Their application has been typically justified on the basis of borehole stability, fluid loss, filter cake quality, lubricity and temperature stability.
Water-based muds (WBM) are attractive replacements from a direct cost point of view. Past efforts to develop improved WBM for shale drilling have been hampered by a limited understanding of the drilling fluid/shale interaction phenomenon. This limited understanding has resulted in drilling fluids designed with non-optimum properties to prevent the onset of borehole instability. The structure of the oil field analyzed in this study is a conventional northwest trending asymmetric anticline. To develop the field to its target production, Saudi Aramcos reservoir management team planned to drill a number of horizontal wells to ensure maximum reservoir contact (MRC). Because the mechanical integrity of the wellbore for an open hole completion strategy is of critical importance, Saudi Aramco decided to have a geomechanics evaluation conducted to understand if and how well integrity can be maximized through utilization of the right mud weights and well directions, so that stable conditions during drilling and production would be guaranteed. The objective was to evaluate the feasibility of open hole completion; therefore, the wellbore stability throughout the life span of the well was the focus of the study. Additionally, it is important to optimize the mud weights during drilling to minimize wellbore instabilities, and to recommend optimal well orientations and maximum values for drawdown and depletion to allow for a stable well throughout the production phase. Therefore, the objective of the study was to combine the knowledge of reservoir and material properties with a detailed analysis of the present-day in-situ stress field to assess under what conditions, during drilling and production, mechanical rock failure may occur at the wellbore wall and become so severe that it would no longer be manageable.
RESERVOIR CHARACTERIZATION FOR WELLBORE INTEGRITY ANALYSIS

Creating a circular hole and introducing drilling and completion fluids to an otherwise stable formation is the reason for a series of phenomena that can result in wellbore instability, casing collapse, perforation failure and sand/solids production. The circular hole causes a stress concentration that extends to a few wellbore diameters away from the hole. This stress concentration, which differs from the far-field stresses, could exceed the formation strength, resulting in failure. The circular hole also creates a free surface that removes the natural confinement, which can, depending on the mechanical properties of the formation, reduce formation strength and trigger inelastic and time-dependent failure. Therefore, a circular hole causes several important effects around a wellbore: 1) creation of a stress concentration field, 2) removal of the confinement condition, and 3) inelastic and time-dependent displacement caused by creating a free surface. Additionally, when a wellbore is actively loaded (pressure in the wellbore is less than the reservoir pressure) or passively loaded (pressure in the wellbore is higher than the reservoir pressure), another stress effect could cause wellbore failure.
Wellbore failure that triggers solids production may be compressive, tensile, cohesive or a combination of all three. The compressive failure occurs during drilling where the rock cannot withstand the concentration of hoop stress around the hole. In addition, when cementation materials deteriorate due to mud filtrate exposure, the problem can be exacerbated. The calculation of mud weight to prevent compressive failure will be presented in this article. Typically, the failed zone is oriented in a specific direction relative to the in-situ stress field; therefore, the well orientation can be selected to maximize wellbore stability during drilling and production. A geomechanics study was initiated to predict wellbore stability during drilling, completion and production. The basis for making successful and accurate predictions lies in the understanding of a sound geomechanical model. The constituents of the geomechanical model are three principal stresses (vertical stress, maximum principal horizontal stress, and minimum principal horizontal stress), pore pressure and mechanical rock properties. When the horizontal stresses are not equal (a frequent condition in the Earths crust), a stress anisotropy is created, and wellbore instability can be pronounced as wells are direction and deviation sensitive. Pore pressure is another important parameter in the geomechanical model as most failure criteria depend on effective stress. When all these parameters are known, a geomechanical model can be created and subsequently utilized for evaluation of wellbore stability. In this study, data from 11 wells were used to determine the in-situ stress field (magnitude and direction), and the reservoir pressure. The analyzed data include in-situ pore pressure tests, wireline logs (including electrical FMI/FMS image logs) and laboratory results from rock mechanical tests (triaxial compression as well as thick wall cylinder tests). The approach for predicting wellbore stability is then based on a comprehensive understanding of the present-day geomechanical model of the field, verified and calibrated against drilling experiences (i.e., indication of mechanical well instability in wells previously drilled in the field and target formations). The latter information is acquired and compiled from drilling and completion reports. Problems encountered during drilling are classified into different categories, such as tight hole, pack off, washing, reaming and more. Based on drilling experience for a specific mud weight in a given well trajectory, the generated geomechanical model is verified and calibrated to mechanical failure in the wellbore (stress induced borehole breakouts, hole washouts, etc.) in such a way that it robustly and accurately predicts compressive and tensile failure around given wellbores.
PORE PRESSURE
Pore pressure within the Earths crust plays a vital role in managing wellbore stability during drilling and production, governing stress magnitudes (e.g., the fracture gradient, among others). The overall effect of pore pressure changes is influenced by the rock behavior, including pore and bulk
45
compressibility often discussed under stress path response of reservoir. As pore pressure changes with time during the life cycle of a field due to production and injection processes, stress magnitudes (including the fracture gradient) change accordingly. These production/injection induced stress changes may influence the stability of a wellbore as well as cause compaction and subsidence on the field scale in some cases. The pore pressure in the formations of interest, as derived from direct measurements in offset wells, at present is approximately hydrostatic with no significant overpressure detected. In Reservoir A, current pore pressure is 3,980 psi, and will be depleted appreciably to 3,000 psi, in 2024 and to 2,000 psi in 2035. In Reservoir B, current pore pressure is 3,832 psi, and it will be depleted to 3,200 psi in 2024 and to 2,500 psi in 2035. The corresponding gradients from these values were used as the current and future pore pressure conditions in the two reservoirs for wellbore stability analyses during drilling and production.
respect to depth taken from many wells revealed an overburden gradient of 1.04 psi/ft at the level of the reservoirs.
MINIMUM HORIZONTAL PRINCIPAL STRESS

Only very limited information on the minimum principal stress (hmin) was available, since no leakoff tests (LOT) or extended leakoff tests (XLOT) were conducted in the reservoirs. One injectivity test was performed in Reservoir B at 8,265 ft, and we utilized the maximum pressure reached from this test as a proxy for the least (or minimum) horizontal principal stress, with an equivalent gradient of 0.75 psi/ft.
MAXIMUM HORIZONTAL PRINCIPAL STRESS

Similarly to the in-situ stress orientation, interpreted borehole breakouts from the FMI log were utilized to constrain the magnitude of the maximum principal horizontal stress (i.e., Hmax). The analyzed breakout width and orientation, as well as hmin from the injectivity test and the UCS, were utilized to estimate the magnitude of Hmax. The analysis resulted in an average value of 0.97 psi/ft as a lower bound and 1.07 psi/ft as an upper bound in the field. Therefore, the present-day insitu stress field can be characterized as a transitional normal to strike-slip faulting system, such that Hmax v > hmin.
IN-SITU STRESS ORIENTATION

An available electrical image log (i.e., FMI) for this study from one well was rigorously calibrated, verified and dynamically normalized to provide optimal image quality. The purpose of the wellbore image analysis was to identify and characterize stress-induced wellbore failure, such as stress-induced borehole breakouts and drilling-induced tensile fractures. Wellbore breakouts are enlargements of the wellbore wall, with 180 spacing caused by localized shear failure where the circumferential hoop stress is most compressive and exceeds the uniaxial compressive strength (UCS) of the rock. In vertical wells, breakouts always form in the direction of the least principal horizontal stress (hmin)2, 3. In deviated wells, however, the position of breakouts is a function of the wellbore trajectory and the stresses acting on the well4. Therefore, when wellbore failures can be detected, their occurrence and characteristics (i.e., azimuthal width) can be used to constrain in-situ stress magnitudes, effective rock strength and stress orientations. Drilling-induced tensile wall fractures occur where the circumferential hoop stress may become tensile and exceed the tensile strength of the rock. They also form symmetrically in the borehole wall 90 from the orientation of the breakouts (i.e., in vertical wells in the direction of the maximum principal horizontal stress, Hmax)5. Statistical analysis of a wellbore failure indicated a mean value for the orientation of the Hmax as N25E with a marginal error of 10. This estimated azimuth for Hmax strikes obliquely to major fault trends found in the field, and it is consistent with the regional stress trend.
ROCK MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

For a successful drilling and completion strategy in poorly consolidated formations, it is vital to determine the mechanical properties of the formation. The following properties are needed to provide recommendations on wellbore azimuth, mud weight window during drilling, completion design, and wellbore stability prediction during production: 1) Static and Dynamic Youngs modulus (E) and Poissons ratio (v), 2) UCS, 3) Cohesive strength (c), 4) Internal friction angle (), and 5) Hollow cylinder strength (HCS). An experimental testing program was initiated to derive some of the parameters listed above. Samples of
18,000 16,000 14,000 12,000
Stress (Psi)
10,000 8,000 6,000 4,000 2,000
OVERBURDEN
The vertical in-situ stress (v) was derived from bulk density wireline log data that were acquired from the surface down to the reservoir levels. Integration of the density data with
46
-0.01
-0.005
0.005
0.01
0.015
Strain
Fig. 1. Stress-strain curves from a single stage triaxial test.
Fig. 2. Mohr circles and Coulomb failure line (left) from the samples tested in single stage mode (right) - the resulting rock mechanical parameters are shown in box on top left.
Sample # S-02 S-03 S-04 LA-07 LA-08 LA-09 S-06 S-07 S-08 S-10 S-11 S-12 MO-36 MO-26 MO-27 RM-3D MA-28 MO-32 MA-23 RM-4D RM-2D MO-46 MO-47 MO-48 MO-49 MO-50 MO-51
Depth (ft) 8,153.3 8,153.7 8,153.8 8,212.4 8,213.2 8,213.4 8,335.9 8,336.2 8,336.4 8,369.7 8,370.1 8,370.3 8,734.2 8,734.7 8,734.9 8,735.2 8,735.7 8,736.9 8,739.8 8,742.9 8,743.4 8,765.2 8,765.4 8,765.8 8,807.1 8,807.2 8,807.4
Bulk Density (gm/cc) 2.64 2.65 2.67 2.08 2.12 2.10 2.35 2.31 2.25 2.48 2.50 2.44 1.97 2.02 2.10 2.00 2.13 2.06 2.21 2.40 2.37 2.37 2.35 2.42 2.93 2.93 2.91
Confining Young's Poisson Peak Friction Shear Porosity Pressure Modulus Ratio Strength UCS Angle Cohesion Angle % PSI (PSI) (PSI) (PSI) (Degrees) (PSI) (Degrees) 2.0 747.9 6.705E+06 0.386 25,466 22,736.8 41.7 5,101.6 65.8 1.5 1,456.7 7.596E+06 0.333 31,424.5 0.8 2,944.2 7.133E+06 0.346 36,887.8 15.4 717.9 6.287E+05 0.358 1,861 237.2 22.8 78.9 56.4 15.0 1,459 8.776E+05 0.265 3,537.1 14.2 2,917.9 9.003E+05 0.324 3,571.2 11.2 722.6 1.333E+06 0.098 4,041.4 2,462.2 21.8 832.8 55.9 11.3 1,463 1.308E+06 0.065 5,659.7 12.5 2,905.9 8.516E+05 0.235 5,085.8 6.5 735.4 4.152E+06 0.201 10,461 9,038.2 25.9 2,827 58 5.9 1,458.5 4.970E+06 0.258 13,448.4 7.7 2,912.9 4.753E+06 0.243 16,254.9 24.3 2,906.3 2.079E+06 0.205 5,509.4 458.8 21.9 155 56 15.9 733.1 1.312E+06 0.201 2,028.3 15.3 1,455.9 1.798E+06 0.223 3,721.6 16.7 729.4 1.011E+06 0.174 2,125.8 830.3 11.3 340.3 50.7 14.5 2,905.6 1.500E+05 0.132 5,111 16.7 153.4 4.968E+05 0.500 975. 8.4 154.4 7.994E+05 0.366 1,251.3 1,803.9 18.7 646.5 54.4 5.6 2,904.3 2.656E+06 0.472 6,690.7 1.4 1,455.2 2.041E+06 0.312 5,445.6 0.1 726 3.127E+06 0.323 7,587.3 15,319.8 42.7 3,357.8 66.3 0.1 1,465.1 2.470E+06 0.246 7,789.2 0.1 2,909.4 3.276E+06 0.245 12,664.8 0.3 724.7 6.807E+06 0.217 19,258.2 15,298 42.7 3,346.1 66.4 0.5 1,454.5 7.105E+06 0.238 22,638 0.8 2,905.4 9.855E+06 0.075 30,523.5
Table 1. A summary of rock-mechanical testing results
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1 diameter by 3 length were plugged horizontally from a full core (4 diameter) and tested in a single and multistage fashion. Confining pressures for these tests were selected to simulate the stress and pressure conditions in the vicinity of the wellbore (i.e., 5 MPa, 10 MPa and 15 MPa). The multistage procedure implies that an earlier loading cycle is unloaded when the rock sample approaches failure at a given confining pressure and the same sample is reloaded under the subsequent higher confining pressure.
Triaxial Compression Tests
microscope (ESEM) and energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) tests, to understand the nature of these samples. The results revealed that high-sulfur tar was mainly found between the oolites, and no tar was found in the micropores of CaCO3 within the oolites, Fig. 4. The tar seems to be like cementation materials to the oolitic groups; thereby reducing the mechanical strength of the formation. Therefore, the tarbearing zones are not competent enough to be completed open hole due to the risk of wellbore collapse. The recommendation is to avoid as much as possible the tarbearing intervals or consider casing those zones as applicable.
Weak samples were tested in a single stage, conducted on three plugs, Fig. 1. The triaxial testing results were modeled by Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion. This criterion postulates that failure occurs when shear stress at a given plane reaches a critical value related to the formation frictional resistance, and is given by: (1) Equation 1 shows three components: cohesion (c), effective normal stress (n) and friction (tan ). Shear failure breaks the rock along shear planes. Equation 1 may be described in terms of the principal stresses as follows: (2) The factors UCS and are coefficients for the linearization and should be determined experimentally. The failure envelope is determined from many Mohr circles. The envelope of these circles represents the basis of this failure criterion, Fig. 2. A summary of the rock mechanical testing results of core samples taken from both reservoirs are shown in Table 1.
ROCK-STRENGTH MODEL
It is important to characterize an entire formation in terms of its compressive rock strength to evaluate wellbore stability during drilling, completion and production. Figure 5 shows lab result correlations between the UCS and porosity, or the UCS and the inverse of compressional velocity. Since core plugs are generally obtained from a limited portion of the reservoir only, it is imperative to establish empirical correlations between rock properties (as determined in the laboratory) and log data to obtain tools for formation strength characterization along the entire reservoir in a given wellbore. Sonic log data and the UCS lab results were utilized to obtain a transform for rock strength, which provides a continuous rock strength profile of the reservoir section, Fig. 6. The following transforms were the basic relations for the functions appearing in Fig. 6: UCS = 366,842 e(-0.0624t) (Reservoir A) UCS = 20.244 (t)2 3302 (t) +135,741 (Reservoir B) The units for UCS are in psi and t (compressional sonic interval transit time) is in sec/ft. Although the strength model is derived based on one well, it can be applied to other areas
20,000 5,000
THICK WALL CYLINDER (TWC) TESTING

Thick wall cylinder tests were performed on core samples of 1 diameter with a 0.5 diameter hole drilled exactly in the center. The axial and confining stresses are simultaneously increased during the test (i.e., the sample is loaded hydrostatically). The axial stress, confining pressure, axial strain and radial strain are monitored during the test. Loading continues until complete sample failure occurs or the maximum loading stress (governed by the loading frame) is reached. The thick-walled cylinder test provides a simulated condition of the near wellbore formation being stressed as the near wellbore reservoir pressure is decreased. The resulting elastic/plastic deformations around the wellbore as a function of the effective-stress increase can be modeled to determine the critical reservoir pressure at which wellbore failure is initiated. Figure 3 shows selective thick wall cylinder tests. The lowest failure stress of about 4,000 psi was observed in tar-bearing samples, as shown in the top right graph of Fig. 3, which depicts a collapse of the inner hole. Therefore, two tests were performed: environmental scanning electron
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Confining Pressure, psi
15,000
4,000 3,000 2,000 1,000 0

Axial Strain Radial Strain
10,000
5,000
0 0 0.001 0.002
0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005
Strain
25,000 20,000 15,000 10,000 5,000 0 0 0.002 0.004 0.006
Strain
20,000
15,000
10,000
5,000
0 0 0.001 0.002 0.003
Strain
Strain
Fig. 3. Four thick wall cylinder tests performed on selective samples.
within the reservoir. Therefore, the sonic log is a tool that can be used as a proxy for rock strength at any location. The logbased strength correlations can be statistically evaluated to find average wells as minimum/maximum values and distribution functions of rock strength. Based on the developed correlations, it was found that Reservoir B appears relatively weaker than Reservoir A. Furthermore, there is a trend of increasing rock strength from the crest to the flanks. Reservoir B exhibits narrow P10 (10th percentile) and P50 (50th percentile) ranges 2,000 psi to 3,000 psi and 2,500 psi to 4,950 psi, respectively, while the same range for Reservoir A is 2,500 psi to 4,500 psi and 3,750 psi to 7,700 psi. Figure 7 shows the UCS distribution functions across Reservoirs A and B as derived using sonic log velocities and lab strength data. Great variability depicting rather strong (UCS >10,000 psi) as well as rather weak (UCS < 2,000 psi) intervals are apparent. Also, Reservoir A appears generally stronger than Reservoir B.
WELLBORE STABILITY DURING DRILLING (UNDEPLETED AS WELL AS DEPLETED CONDITIONS)

The geomechanical model previously developed and discussed was utilized as a basis to predict minimum required mud weights during drilling and completion of the reservoir
Rock Strength Correlation - UCS-Porosity
16,000
12,000
UCS, psi
8,000
4,000
0 0% 4% 8% 12% 16%
Porosity
15,000 12,000
UCS, psi
9,000 6,000 3,000 0 40 50 60 70 80
Inverse Com pression Velocity, micro-sec/ft

Fig. 5. Lab-data correlations of UCS as a function of porosity (top), and 1/Vp (bottom).
Fig. 4. Tar-bearing sample showing the dark phase, which is tar between the oolites.
Fig. 6. Continuous UCS profiles for Reservoir A (left) and Reservoir B (right).
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Fig. 7. UCS distribution functions across Reservoir A (left) and Reservoir B (right).
formation under present-day pore pressure conditions. We conducted the wellbore stability analysis also for depleted pressure conditions assuming a depletion development scenario. The plan predicts a decrease of Reservoir As porepressure from an average current value of ~3,980 psi to 3,000 psi in 2024 (P = 980 psi) in response to production (as discussed above). As reservoir pressure declines due to production, the total horizontal stresses decline as well. Commonly, the stress path (i.e., change of stress with change of pore pressure) in a given reservoir can be established with repeated extended leakoff or minifrac tests. Since these data were not available, we calculated the stress changes by assuming poroelastic reservoir behavior. This poroelastic model is two-dimensional and assumes a relatively flat, extensive (i.e., length >> width) reservoir with constant overburden stress. For the horizontal principal stress changes, we consider coupling between pore pressure and total stress depending upon the value of Poissons ratio as well as Biots coefficient. This results in S/P = 0.67 for Poissons ratio of 0.25 and Biots coefficient of 1.0.
with a high tendency for failure, while cool colors show a low failure tendency. These diagrams are constructed at an average depth for Reservoir A. Figure 8 also shows an example of this diagram assuming average rock strength, UCS = 8,000 psi, for the initial Reservoir A pressure of 3,980 psi and at a depleted condition of 3,000 psi. Generally, highly deviated and horizontal wells oriented along Hmax (i.e., N25E) require higher mud weights than those drilled normal to hmin (i.e., N115E). In addition, wells deviated up to 30 can be drilled in any direction with more or less the same mud weight (i.e., less sensitive to well azimuth). The directions of horizontal wells with special focus are shown by the white circles: N25E, N55E, N70E, N85E and N115E. The color scale in the diagrams was set so that it spans the same range of mud weights to better compare the changes in mud weights as a result of production. We also indicate the direction of Hmax.
WELLBORE STABILITY DURING PRODUCTION

If the reservoir pressure is reduced in response to depletion, the effective stress within the rock formation increases according to the effective stress concept. A Mohr-Coulomb material with strain hardening model was developed to be used in the finite element modeling. Triaxial tests that exhibited shear failure without compaction, characterized by an increase then a decrease in volumetric strain, were selected to establish the material model which describes the entire loading part of a sample in the elastic and plastic domain until the peak stress at failure. This material model was then used to simulate the thick wall cylinder tests to construct a generic material model that describes the weakest parts of the reservoir. The empirical
MINIMUM MUD WEIGHT PREDICTIONS

For the stability analysis, we constructed lower hemisphere stereographic projections, Fig. 8, that enables the prediction of minimum required mud weights for wells of arbitrary deviation and orientation to maintain well integrity at a specific depth. The colors indicate failure tendency in terms of required mud weights to restrict wellbore failure to a critical breakout width (i.e., 90 for vertical wells and 30 for the horizontal wells; for intermediate hole inclinations, it is linearly interpolated). Warm colors indicate orientations and deviations
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relationship between Youngs Modulus and UCS was obtained from the results of lab tests and incorporated in the finite element model to evaluate rock plastic strains under different pressure drawdown scenarios. A critical total plastic strain was considered as a criterion to evaluate wellbore integrity under a given depletion mode. A critical total plastic strain was determined and calibrated with the thick wall cylinder tests. The failure criterion derived indicated that failure initiation occurs at a plastic strain of 15 millistrain, and complete hole failure (i.e., collapse) results when the plastic strain is 20 millistrain. The P10 rock strength value was selected in the finite element simulation, which is 4,500 psi for Reservoir A and 2,000 psi (Crest well) to 3,000 psi (Flank wells) for Reservoir B. The simulations were conducted utilizing present-day pore pressure values as well as those predicted for 2024 and in 2035. We ran simulations for well azimuths parallel to Hmax, and hmin, as well as intermediate azimuths between Hmax and hmin directions of N85E, N70E and N55E. Furthermore, we investigated three different pore-pressure levels of Reservoir A: 3,980 psi (present day), 3,000 psi and 2,000 psi. In general, we found that the most favorable well orientation under any drawdown and depletion condition is N115E, which is parallel to hmin and the least favorable well orientation under any drawdown and depletion condition is N25E, which is parallel to Hmax.
For horizontal wells parallel N115E (in direction of hmin), we find: At present-day reservoir pressures, horizontal wells parallel to N115E (in direction hmin) are predicted to have solids-free production and a stable borehole even at 2,500 psi drawdown. When reservoir pressure reaches 3,000 psi, horizontal wells parallel to N115E (in direction of hmin) will produce solids free if drawdown is limited to 900 psi; borehole collapse, however, is not expected unless the drawdown exceeds 2,500 psi. When reservoir pressure reaches 2,000 psi, horizontal wells parallel to N115E (in direction of hmin) are predicted to produce some solids at any drawdown; borehole collapse, however, is not expected unless the drawdown exceeds 800 psi. For horizontal wells with azimuth N70E - N250E, we find: At present-day reservoir pressures, horizontal wells parallel to N70E are predicted to produce solids free if drawdown is limited to 1,875 psi; borehole collapse, however, is not expected unless drawdown exceeds 2,500 psi. When reservoir pressure reaches 3,000 psi, horizontal wells parallel to N70E are predicted to produce some solids at any drawdown; borehole collapse, however, is not expected unless drawdown exceeds 1,850 psi.
Fig. 8. Lower hemispheric projection showing required mud weights to prevent excessive wellbore failure and collapse for wellbores of arbitrary deviation and orientation drilled into Reservoir A with an assumed rock strength of UCS = 8,000 psi at an initial condition of reservoir pressure = 3,980 psi (left), and at a depleted condition of reservoir pressure = 3,000 psi.
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When reservoir pressure reaches 2,000 psi, horizontal wells with N70E azimuth are predicted to collapse at any drawdown. Following are results for horizontal wells with azimuth N25E - N205E (in direction of Hmax), the least favorable well orientation under any drawdown and depletion:
At present-day reservoir pressures, horizontal wells parallel to N25E (in direction of Hmax) are predicted to produce solids free if the drawdown is limited to 900 psi; borehole collapse, however, is not expected unless the drawdown exceeds 2,500 psi. When reservoir pressure reaches 3,000 psi, horizontal wells parallel to N25E azimuth (in direction of Hmax) are predicted to produce some solids at any drawdown; wellbore collapse, however, is not expected unless the drawdown exceeds 900 psi. When reservoir pressure reaches 2,000 psi, horizontal wells with N25E (parallel to Hmax) azimuth are predicted to collapse at any drawdown. Figure 9 shows the results as highlighted above in terms of plastic strain vs. drawdown for the different pore pressure conditions and well azimuths.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The geomechanical model for the Reservoir A field is a transition between normal and strike-slip faulting systems (Hmax v > hmin), with vertical stress of ~150 pcf - 151 pcf, minimum horizontal stress (hmin) estimated to be ~106 pcf, maximum horizontal stress estimated to be ~145 pcf - 155 pcf and hydrostatic pore pressure level (64.4 pcf) at reservoir level. A rock strength correlation between UCS and sonic velocity has been established. 2. The mud weight required to prevent breakout generation and maintain wellbore stability during drilling was determined, as it is important to obtain a gauged hole during drilling for a maximum wellbore stability during production. Minimum mud weights required to drill a horizontal well in Reservoir A at initial reservoir pressure are 64 pcf - 65 pcf for a well parallel to hmin direction and 68 pcf - 70 pcf for a well parallel to Hmax direction. These mud weights will proportionally reduce when the reservoir is depleted to 3,000 psi. The minimum mud weights required to drill a horizontal well in depleted conditions are 56 pcf - 57 pcf for a well parallel to hmin direction and 61 pcf - 62 pcf for a well parallel to Hmax direction. 3. The tar-bearing zones are not competent enough to be completed open hole due to the risk of wellbore collapse. The recommendation is to avoid as much as possible any tar-bearing intervals or consider casing those zones as applicable.
Fig. 9. Plastic strain vs. drawdown for five different well azimuths considered in this project (shown with different colors). The orange and red horizontal lines, respectively, represent the critical plastic strain values for which solid production initiates and becomes severe (i.e., hole is predicted to collapse). (a) Present-day pore pressure of 3,980 psi, (b) Reservoir pressure of 3,000 psi, (c) Reservoir pressure of 2,000 psi.
4. Open hole completion is possible in non-tar zones and the most favorable well azimuth is N115E, which is the direction of hmin . A horizontal well drilled at this direction will be stable even at 2,500 psi drawdown at present-day pore pressure conditions in Reservoir A.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to thank Saudi Aramco management for their support and permission to present the information contained in this article.
BIOGRAPHIES
Dr. Hazim H. Abass is a Petroleum Engineering Consultant at the Exploration and Petroleum Engineering Center - Advanced Research Center (EXPEC ARC) of Saudi Aramco. His research area of interest is applied rock mechanics in petroleum engineering, especially in hydraulic fracturing, wellbore stability, sand production, perforation and stress dependent reservoirs. Before joining Saudi Aramco in 2001, he worked for 2 years at the North Petroleum Company in Iraq, 1 year at the Colorado School of Mines, 9 years at the Halliburton R&DC in Duncan, OK and 5 years as Halliburtons representative to the PDVSA R&DC in Los Teques, Venezuela. Hazim holds nine U.S. patents, has authored more than 35 technical papers and contributed to three industrial books. He is a member and the Technical Editor of the Society of Petroleum Engineers (SPE) Production & Facilities and is a member of the International Society for Rock Mechanics (ISRM). Hazim received the 2008 SPE Middle East Regional Award of Production and Completion. In 1977, Hazim received a B.S. degree in Petroleum Engineering from the University of Baghdad, Baghdad, Iraq. He received his M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in 1987 in Petroleum Engineering from the Colorado School of Mines, Golden, CO. Mickey Warlick is a Petroleum Engineering Specialist with the Manifa Reservoir Management Division and has been with Saudi Aramco for 7 years. In 1981, he received his B.S. in Petroleum Engineering from the New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology at Socorro, NM. Mickey joined Chevron USA Inc., and began work as a Reservoir Engineer in the Permian Basin located in west Texas and eastern New Mexico. There, he worked on diverse reservoirs ranging from shallow 2,000 ft oil reservoirs to 30,000 ft deep gas reservoirs. Mickey gained experience in working on primary, secondary and even CO2 tertiary processes. He then moved to the Over Thrust area of Wyoming where he gained firsthand experience in dealing with 20% H2S gas reservoirs that required utmost safety in drilling and workover operations. Later Mickey moved on to La Habra, CA where he worked in Chevrons international operations developing and deploying new field technologies. Just before his move to Saudi Arabia, Mickey transferred to Houston, TX where he worked as a Reservoir Simulation Engineer in Chevrons International Reservoir Simulation department. While in Houston, he earned his M.S. degree in Petroleum Engineering from the University of Houston, Houston, TX in 2001. Mickey joined Saudi Aramco in 2002, working as a Reservoir Engineer in the Zuluf field. When Saudi Aramco decided to bring the Manifa field on as one of its major increments, he was transferred there and is currently Team Leader for the Manifa reservoir of the Manifa field development.
REFERENCES
1. Salamy, S.P., Faddagh, H.A., Ajmi, A.M., Lauten, W.T. and Mubarak, H.K.: Methodology Implemented in Assessing and Monitoring Hole Stability Concerns in Open Hole Horizontal Wellbores in Carbonate Reservoirs, SPE paper 56508, presented at the SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Houston, Texas, October 3-6, 1999. 2. Zoback, M.D., Moos, D., Mastin, L. and Anderson, R.N.: Wellbore Breakouts and In-Situ Stress, J. Geophys. Res., Vol. 90, 1985, pp. 5,523-5,530. 3. Moos, D. and Zoback, M.D.: Utilization of Observations of Wellbore Failure to Constrain the Orientation and Magnitude of Crustal Stresses: Application to Continental, Deep Sea Drilling Project and Ocean Drilling Program Boreholes, J. Geophys. Res., Vol. 95, 1990, pp. 9,3059,325. 4. Peska, P. and Zoback, M.D.: Compressive and Tensile Failure of Inclined Wellbores and Determination of In-Situ Stress and Rock Strength, J. Geophys. Res., Vol. 100, No. 7, 1995, pp. 12,791-12,811. 5. Ahmed, M.S., Finkbeiner, T. and Kannan, A.: Using Geomechanics to Optimize Field Development Strategy of Deep Gas Reservoirs in Saudi Arabia, SPE paper 110965, presented at the SPE Saudi Arabia Technical Symposium, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, 2007.
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Cesar H. Pardo has 22 years of experience with E&P companies. He joined Saudi Aramco in 2006 and worked for 1 year for the Gas Reservoir Management Department (GRMD) as a Senior Reservoir Engineer. In April 2007 Cesar was moved to the Manifa Reservoir Management Division (MRMD) where he currently works as a Petroleum Engineer Specialist. In 1987 he began working at Ecopetrol (the Colombian state company) where he worked for 4 years in drilling, workover and production technology engineering. In 1990 Cesar joined Shell Colombia (Hocol) as a Workover Engineer. In 1992 he was promoted to a Production Technology Engineer and successfully designed and implemented a fracturing campaign for 30 producer wells and an ESP and gas lift campaign for over 70 wells. In 1996 Cesar was promoted to a Reservoir Engineer, working in Classical Reservoir Engineering and Numerical Reservoir Simulation with Eclipse, and he performed an OFM study, identifying new infill drilling and workover opportunities. In 2002 he was promoted to a Senior Reservoir Engineer and given the additional responsibility as a Team Leader (Asset Manager Deputy), he prepared and coordinated the Field Development Plan (FDP) for a heavy oil field. In 2004 Cesar was promoted to Reservoir Engineering Network Leader for the whole company in Colombia, he coordinated and prepared the new Hocol books for forecast and reserves, coordinated calculation procedures and coordinated the annual reserves review and auditing for 2 years. Cesar received his B.S. degree in Petroleum Engineering from the Universidad de America, Bogot, Colombia. Mirajuddin R. Khan is a Geologist working in the Exploration and Petroleum Engineering Center Advanced Research Center (EXPEC ARC). Since joining Saudi Aramco in 1991, he has been serving as the Senior Rock Mechanics Laboratory Experimentalist. Mirajuddin received his B.S. degree in 1984 and his M.S. degree in 1985, both in Petroleum Geology from the University of Karachi, Karachi, Pakistan. His interests are rock mechanics applications in petroleum engineering. Mirajuddin is a member of the Society of Petroleum Engineers (SPE) and has published several technical papers. Before joining Saudi Aramco, Mirajuddin worked as Teaching Assistant for 1 year and then received a Research Scholarship to work as a Research Scholar for 2 years at the University of Karachi. His awards include the 2004 Recognition Award of the Engineering & Operations Services of Saudi Aramco.
Dr. Ashraf M. Al-Tahini is a Senior Petroleum Engineer at the Exploration and Petroleum Engineering Center Advanced Research Center (EXPEC ARC) of Saudi Aramco. His areas of interest include geomechanics and rock physics, as he is currently involved in leading several vital projects in the area of fracturing and sand control. In 1996, Ashraf received his B.S. degree in Chemical Engineering from King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals (KFUPM), Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. He received his M.S. degree in 2003 and his Ph.D. degree in 2007, both in Petroleum and Geological Engineering, from the University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK. During the 12 years of his career and education, he has presented and published many technical papers. Ashraf has also received many awards, including the Society of Petroleum Engineers (SPE) paper mention award in 2008 for the Reservoir Geology and Geophysics Session, the second place award for the SPEs U.S. Rocky Mountain Mid Continent Ph.D. paper contest in 2004 and the University of Oklahoma Rock Mechanics Award for 2003 and 2006. In 2001, he received the best paper and presentation award during the Saudi Aramco Technical Exchange Conference in Dhahran. Ashraf was the Chairman of the 2009 SPE Saudi Arabia Section Technical Symposium and Exhibition and currently he is the Chairperson of the SPE Saudi Arabia Section. He is a member of SPE, the Society of Exploration and Geophysics and the American Rock Mechanics Association. Dr. Dhafer A. Al-Shehri is currently the Manifa Subsurface Team Leader with Northern Area Reservoir Management. Since joining Saudi Aramco in 1996, he has worked as an Engineer, an Engineering Supervisor, and General Supervisor for Drilling & Workover Engineering, Reservoir Management and Production Engineering. Dhafer also acted as the Chief Technologist, Drilling Technology Team, Exploration and Petroleum Engineering Center - Advanced Research Center (EXPEC ARC). Dhafer holds B.S. and M.S. degrees from King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals (KFUPM), Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, and a Ph.D. from Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, all in Petroleum Engineering. Prior to joining the company, he was a Petroleum Engineering professor at KFUPM. As an active member of the Society of Petroleum Engineers (SPE), he has authored many technical papers on various topics and chaired the local 1998 SPE Technical Symposium.
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Dr. Hameed H. Al-Badairy is a Senior Laboratory Scientist at the Research & Development Center (R&DC) of Saudi Aramco. He received his Ph.D. degree in Materials Science and Engineering from Liverpool University, Liverpool, UK. Hameed has over 15 years of academic and industrial experience in the fields of materials science and electron microscopy. Prior to joining Saudi Aramco he worked for 13 years as a Senior Research Associate at the Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Liverpool University. Hameed has published more than 60 technical papers and is a member of the National Association of Corrosion Engineering (NACE), Institute of Materials, Minerals and Mining (IOM3), North West & Liverpool Engineering Society and the Technical Committee of the 13th Middle East Corrosion Conference and Exhibition (13MECC). He has presented his work at over 30 national and international conferences and has been an invited keynote speaker in four international conferences. Yousef M. Al-Shobaili is currently the Northern Onshore Fields Group Leader at the Reservoir Characterization Department. He joined Saudi Aramco in 1994 after receiving his B.S. degree in Petroleum Geology and Sedimentology from King AbdulAziz University, Jiddah, Saudi Arabia. During his career he has worked in several disciplines of the Exploration and Petroleum Engineering organizations. Yousefs experience covers several reservoir aspects, including reservoir evaluation and assessment, reservoir management and engineering assessment, petrophysical integration, reserves estimation and assessment, identifying new hydrocarbon from old fields, drilling operations and well planning, reservoir description and geomechanics and wellbore stability, log analysis and interpretation, and core description and integration. He has also trained several summer students, geologists, geophysicists and reservoir engineers, and he developed an in-house log interpretation and petroleum geology training course. Yousef has authored and co-authored 18 technical papers in reservoir evaluation, reservoir description, geosteering, rock mechanics, reservoir management and dynamics, and log/core petrophysics. He is the founder and the first president of the Saudi Petrophysical Society (SPS). Yousef attended and passed an intensive six month petrophysical and log evaluation Schlumberger program. He was the first worldwide non-Schlumberger employee to ever join this program.
Dr. Thomas Finkbeiner is the Regional Technical Advisor (EAME) for GeoMechanics International (GMI). He began work there as a specialist in reservoir geomechanics and a consultant for the petroleum industry in wellbore stability and in-situ stress. In 2001, Thomas was assigned to the Middle East, India, and Pakistan as Director to develop, coordinate and manage GMIs services to regional operators and clients. In the summer of 2004, Thomas relocated to Dubai, U.A.E. and opened GMIs regional office to run all Europe, Africa and Middle East operations. In 1994, Thomas received his M.S. degree in Geophysics, and in 1998, he received his Ph.D. degree, also in Geophysics, both from Stanford University, Stanford, CA under the supervision of Prof. Mark Zoback (a renowned expert in geo- and rock mechanics). He has over 10 years of industry experience in geomechanics and related applications, such as wellbore stability during drilling and production, fluid migration and more. Satya Perumalla is a Senior Geomechanics Specialist, working with GeoMechanics International (GMI) since 2007, and has diverse experience in making connections between geomechanics and drilling problems. He has over 12 years of experience working in the oil and gas industry as a Consultant, working at various levels, supporting well engineering and sub-surface interests of various operators, i.e., Shell, BG and Total, etc., in the Middle East, Africa and India. Satya received his M.S. degree in Applied Geology from the Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee, India.
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The Use of Multistage New Technology to Complete and Stimulate Horizontal Wells: Field Case
Authors: Hassan M. Al-Hussain, J. Ricardo Solares, Hamad M. Al-Marri and Carlos A. Franco
ABSTRACT
This article summarizes the results from the deployment of a multistage completion and acid fracturing treatment in the first field trial conducted in a Saudi Arabian gas producer. The main objective of the field trial was to ascertain the effectiveness of this state-of-the-art technology in properly stimulating long horizontal gas producers, and therefore use it to help severely damaged or underperforming wells achieve their maximum potential. The secondary objective was to evaluate the ability to connect the main Khuff-C producing zones through hydraulic fracturing, and therefore ascertain the viability of this technology as a potential alternative for duallateral completions in certain parts of the field. Drilling problems necessitated the reduction of the total horizontal well from the originally planned 5,000 ft to a final length of 3,835 ft. Moreover, mechanical problems encountered while setting the multistage completion reduced the total horizontal length open to flow to 1,440 ft only, leaving 2,394 ft isolated and unable to flow. As a result, the number of fracture stages originally planned at six had to be reduced to only three, but stimulation operations were implemented trouble-free with a good number of lessons learned that will be applied in future applications of the technology. Nevertheless, the initial performance of the well compares favorably with that of two other non-stimulated horizontal gas producers with better reservoir quality and more reservoir contact, a clear indication of the successful stimulation effect achieved with the job. This technology offers significant potential to improve the productivity of underperforming horizontal producers and help them achieve their maximum potential.
BACKGROUND
The ability to effectively stimulate underperforming or severely damaged horizontal gas producers has become highly important, considering that a significant number of existing horizontal producers fit into this category. As the number of horizontal gas producers will continue to increase in the future, it is imperative to maximize well productivity through the implementation of effective completions and technologies. To that effect, the Gas Production Engineering Department (GPED) recommended
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and worked in partnership with the Gas Reservoir Management Department (GRMD) to field test a new stateof-the-art completion technology, named multistage1-6, as the best available option to ensure effective stimulation of the entire horizontal length in wells whose performance is below expectations for one reason or another. This technology offers the ability to selectively stimulate zones, and the possibility of replacing dual-lateral completions in certain areas of the field where connecting two pay zones may be possible through hydraulic fracturing. The multistage completion technology provides the ability to perform multiple fracture treatments, targeting different zones in an open hole completion in one single operation. Setting a multistage completion is similar to setting a liner, so open hole packers are run on conventional casing to segment the reservoir with hydraulically activated sleeves isolating the frac ports placed between each set of packers. During fracturing operations, balls are dropped from the surface to shift the sliding sleeves, open the frac ports, and isolate previously fractured stages. Gas producer Well-MSX was the first pilot well selected to test this new technology. The well was originally planned as a dual-lateral completion targeting two producing zones, so one of the objectives of the pilot test was to determine the feasibility of connecting the two zones through a hydraulic fracture treatment. The other key objective was to increase the well productivity in comparison to a non-stimulated condition. If proven successful in reducing the number of dual-lateral completions in certain areas of the field, the new technology would result in significant drilling cost savings by reducing the drilling time. Drilling Well-MSX as a dual-lateral completion would have required approximately 120 rig days. Instead, the well was drilled as a single lateral and set with a multistage completion in 76 rig days, thereby reducing the total well cost by approximately $1.2 million ($41 K/day), including the cost of the new completion. This article evaluates the initial post-stimulation performance of the well in comparison with the initial performance of offset horizontal producers with similar reservoir properties. Long-term production key performance indicators and well performance will be closely monitored once the well is tied-in to the gas plant so that proper conclusions and way forward recommendations can be issued.
DRILLING AND COMPLETION HISTORY

The original plan was to drill Well-MSX with a 5,000 ft single lateral in the Khuff-C reservoir, but because of excessive torque nearing the limit of the bottom-hole assembly (BHA) connections, the drilling engineering department decided to stop drilling short of the target depth. Therefore, the well was drilled to a total depth (TD) of 16,385 ft measured depth (MD) and a total horizontal length of 3,835 ft. While running the multistage completion, the assembly became stuck and backed off at 14,048 ft, approximately 2,337 ft short of the target depth. Then the assembly parted at the setting tool depth of 9,144 ft during attempts to free it up. The setting tool was successfully fished, but it was not possible to dislodge the assembly, so the decision was made to set all eight packers at their present depth and complete the well. Therefore, the well was left with the 2,394 ft bottom drilled section inaccessible and unable to flow to the wellbore, and with only approximately 1,440 ft of net horizontal reservoir contact. There are plans in place to either perforate the bottommost pup joint, or mill out the bullet nose re-entry guide of the multistage completion to gain access to the 2,394 ft of currently inaccessible open hole net pay section, to increase the well productivity even further. Figure 1 shows the final configuration of the well and the points chosen to perform the acid frac stimulation through the completed lateral section.
STIMULATION TREATMENT
Due to the problems encountered during the completion operations, the number of acid fracturing stages had to be reduced from the original six planned to only three. The first frac port, at a depth of 13,978 ft, was opened ahead of the treatment by pressuring up the completion to 4,000 psi, and then a step rate injection test was performed ahead of the first frac stage for calibration and fracture parameters estimation purposes. The bottom-hole formation breakdown pressure was estimated at 8,706 psig and the closure pressure at 7,507 psig. The first stage fracture treatment was then successfully bullheaded down the tubing at a maximum rate of 94 barrels per minute (BPM) and a maximum treating pressure of 11,700 psig. A total of 167,000 gal of treatment fluids, including acid and pad, were pumped during this stage. The second frac port, at a depth of 13,470 ft, was opened ahead of the treatment by dropping a 2 ball and pressuring up the tubing to 3,600 psi. The second stage fracture treatment was then successfully bullheaded down the tubing at a maximum rate of 108 BPM and a maximum treating pressure of 11,579 psig. A total of 194,000 gal of treatment fluids were pumped during this stage. The third and final stage was pumped through the frac port at a depth of 12,655 ft with a total fluid volume of 243,222 gal. All three stages were pumped with three alternating stages of borate cross-linked gel and 28% hydrochloric (HCl) emulsified acid, followed by leakoff control acid, adopting the same methodology successfully used in stimulation of vertical producers. Figures 2 through 4 show the pumping schedule performance monitored during each one of the three acid frac stages.
PRODUCTION PERFORMANCE POST ACID FRAC STIMULATION

The well was opened shortly after the stimulation treatment at an initial 1664 choke setting, then slowly opened up to a maximum 9264 choke setting over a 54 hour flow period. The maximum gas rate recorded was 67 million standard cubic feet per day (MMscfd) at a flowing wellhead pressure (FWHP) of 1,980 psig. The well was then flowed at two other choke
Fig. 1. Final well completion after multistage was run in the hole.
Fig. 2. Pumping schedule performance for first acid frac stage at 13,978 ft.
Fig. 3. Pumping schedule performance for second acid frac stage at 13,470 ft.
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Fig. 4. Pumping schedule performance for third acid frac stage at 12,655 ft. Fig. 7. Porosity comparison against high gas producer condensate wells.
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
0 10 20 30 40 50
4000 3600 3200 2800 2400 2000 1600 1200 800 400 0 60
Elapsed Time, Hrs

Production Gas Rate Flowing Wellhead Pressure
Fig. 5. Gas production performance monitored during 54 hours of cleaning up period.
Wellhead Pressure, Psig.
Gas Rate, MMscfd.
Fig. 8. Radial displacement comparison.
Fig. 6. Permeability comparison against high gas producer condensate wells.
settings to obtain data to build an inflow performance curve, and it flowed at 42 MMscfd at a FWHP of 2,930 psig on a 1 choke setting, and at 21 MMscfd at a FWHP of 3,400 on a 42 64 choke setting. Figure 5 shows the well performance during the flow back period. The performance of the well was compared with that of two other non-stimulated horizontal gas producers with similar reservoir quality characteristics to ascertain the effectiveness of the stimulation treatment in Well-MSX. Therefore, a comparison was made with Well-NMS1, a dual58
lateral non-stimulated offset gas producer, and Well-NMS2, a single lateral non-stimulated gas producer which exhibited similar productivity to Well-MSX during its flow back period. The two horizontal wells were selected for comparison purposes because they were two of the highest producers in the field, and the vertical well was also one of the highest vertical producers. A reservoir quality comparison was conducted first in an effort to normalize and correlate well performance with reservoir conductivity (Kh). Figure 6 shows a permeability distribution comparison between Well-NMS1, Well-NMS2 and Well-MSX. The Figure also shows the highest average permeability distribution in Well-NMS1 throughout most of the horizontal section; Well-NMS2 shows the second highest and Well-MSX the lowest. Figure 7 shows a porosity distribution comparison between the same gas producer wells. The Figure also shows the highest average porosity distribution in Well-NMS2 throughout most of the horizontal section; Well-NMS1 shows the second highest, and Well-MSX the lowest. Finally, Fig. 8 shows a comparison of net intervals open to flow in the three compared horizontal wells. WellNMS1 is a dual-lateral with a maximum combined horizontal reservoir contact of 9,298 ft, Well-NMS2 is a single lateral with a maximum horizontal reservoir contact of 4,546 ft, and
Well
Interval, ft
WELL-MSX WELL-MSX WELL-NMS1 (U) WELL-NMS1 (L) WELL-NMS2
12,550-16,385
(3,835 of total horizontal section)
Reservoir Conductivity (Kh, md-ft) 1,370 780 3,466 2,474 4,310

Fig. 10. Multilateral model built to simulate reservoir IPR for Well-NMS1 gas condensate producer well.
12,550-13,991
(1,440 of zone open to flow only)
11,523-16,135
(4,610 of upper lateral)
12,480-16,990
(4,510 of lower lateral)
11,930-16,364
(4,434 of total horizontal section)
Table 1. Kh comparison for high producer horizontal wells
Fig. 9. Initial gas rate performance comparison.
Well-MSX is a single lateral with a maximum effective horizontal reservoir contact of only 1,440 ft, because the other 2,394 ft horizontal interval is temporarily isolated and unable to flow. Therefore, the reservoir contact open to flow in Well-NMS1 is six times higher than in Well-MSX, and three times higher in Well-NMS2. From the above data it was possible to calculate the Kh for the three comparison wells, Table 1. The data shows that the Well-NMS2 reservoir conductivity is five times higher than the conductivity of the zone open to flow in Well-MSX, whereas the conductivity of the Well-NMS1 combined laterals is 7.5 times higher than the Well-MSX conductivity. Consequently, based on total reservoir contact and quality of reservoir, both Well-NMS2 and Well-NMS1 should be expected to produce significantly better than Well-MSX. Figure 9 compares the performance of the four wells used for this study during their initial flow back period. The data shows that Well-MSX and Well-NMS2 were the highest producers and flowed at almost the same rate of 65 MMSCFD, but WellNMS2 achieved the same rate at higher FWHP, indicating a better performer. On the other hand, Well-MSX produced at a higher rate than Well-NMS1 at similar FWHPs. The preliminary results clearly show that the stimulation treatment in Well-MSX was very successful in enhancing the productivity of the well; despite the fact that the well has only 20% of the reservoir conductivity and 33% of the reservoir contact than Well-NMS2, it achieved a similar performance.
Fig. 11. Calculated IPR from multilateral reservoir model for Well-NMS1 gas condensate producer well.
Moreover, Well-MSX outperformed Well-NMS1 despite the fact that it has only 13% of its reservoir conductivity and 15% of its reservoir contact. Further modeling using the nodal system analysis was conducted to match recorded well performance and reservoir data, and then construct inflow performance relationship (IPR) curves for forecasting purposes. Multilateral models were constructed and multiple sensitivity runs were made throughout this process. The type of model used reduces the uncertainties associated with using a traditional horizontal model, resulting in more accurate calculations. Figure 10 shows a graphical representation of the Well-NMS1 two-branch multilateral model used to calculate the IPR, Fig. 11. A one-branch lateral model was implemented to build the IPR for WellMSX and Well-NMS2. Figure 12 summarizes all the IPRs calculated for these three horizontal wells. As expected, the curves show much higher absolute open flow potential in Well-NMS1 and Well-NMS2, because of their significantly longer horizontal sections than Well-MSX. Despite the much higher flow potential exhibited by both Well-NMS2 and Well-NMS1, Well-MSX productivity index (PI) is comparable or better than the index of the other two producers. Figure 13 shows the estimated PI for each of the three wells used in this study for FWHPs ranging from 1,000 psi to 3,000 psi.
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ANALYSIS OF STIMULATION BENEFITS

A final study was conducted to quantify the productivity enhancement and financial benefits obtained from the implementation of the multistage technology in Well-MSX. The quantification of the productivity enhancement benefits was accomplished by assessing and comparing the following three cases by combining nodal system analysis and material balance equations: Case 1: Predicted Well-MSX performance with the entire drilled horizontal section open to flow but not stimulated.
Case 2: Actual Well-MSX performance after setting a multistage completion and implementing only three acid fracture stages. Case 3: Predicted Well-MSX performance if the multistage completion had been set to cover the entire drilled horizontal section and six acid fracture stages had been implemented as originally planned. Figure 14 compares the IPR curves built for each of the above listed cases. A single-branch multilateral model was built to evaluate Case 1, whereas a fracture model was built to evaluate Case 3. The analysis results showed that Well-MSX would have reached the highest absolute open flow potential if the entire drilled horizontal length had been stimulated and the lowest potential if the well had not been stimulated. Data from the vertical lift performance curves derived from the IPR curves, Fig. 14, were used to perform material balance calculations, using the MBAL software, to forecast cumulative gas production for each of the three evaluated cases. All sensitivity runs were made assuming that the well would be flowed at the maximum rate, with an average FWHP of 1,200 psig until unable to produce at natural flow conditions, due to reservoir pressure depletion. The sensitivity runs showed that the stimulation treatment increased the well productivity twofold and will result in a forecasted net gas and condensate recovery increment of 10 billion standard cubic feet (BSCF) and 230 million standard barrels (MMsbbl), respectively, over the recovery from a nonstimulated condition. Moreover, the data also showed that increasing the number of stimulation stages would have resulted in a rate increase, but only marginal net recovery increment. The quantification of the financial benefits derived from the implementation of the stimulation treatment in Well-MSX was obtained by performing an incremental economic analysis comparing the cumulative production profiles of Case 1 (total horizontal length open to flow without stimulation) and Case 2 (current condition: only 1,440 ft of horizontal length open to flow after stimulation). For the purposes of the analysis, Case 1 was considered the base case and Case 2 the incremental case. The analysis was conducted using an in-house tool, which incorporates production profiles over a maximum 15 year life, the capital cost of the cases evaluated, operating expenses, and corporate pricing guidelines. The cost increment of the multistage completion and stimulation treatment in Well-MSX is reflected in the following results: The stimulation treatment will increase the net present value (NPV) of the well by approximately $13 MM by the end of its productive life, which is about 1.5 times higher than the NPV of the non-stimulated well. The total cost of the stimulated well will be paid out in less than 5 months, while the cost of the non-stimulated well will be paid out in 11 months.
Fig. 12. Calculated IPR from multilateral reservoir model for Well-MSX, WellNMS1 and Well-NMS2.
Fig. 13. Calculated productivity indexes for Well-MSX, Well-NMS1 and Well-NMS2.
Fig. 14. Calculated IPRs for three cases on Well-MSX well productivity evaluation.
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The return on investment of the stimulated well is 1.2 times higher than the return of the non-stimulated well. The investment cost per MMSCFD produced from the stimulated well is lower than the cost for the nonstimulated well. Overall, the stimulated well is significantly more profitable than the non-stimulated well, which clearly shows and confirms the benefits obtained from the treatment.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to thank Saudi Aramco management for their support and permission to present the information contained in this article, with special thanks to Mohammed Al-Sowayigh, M.A. Al-Khawajah, M.A. Al-Muhareb, Hassan Al-Jubran, Francisco Garzon and Jairo Leal. Without their valuable input and support, these developments would not have been possible.
REFERENCES CONCLUSIONS
Actual post-stimulation performance data from Well-MSX clearly showed that the treatment was highly successful by significantly increasing the productivity of the well, in spite of the fact that not all job objectives were achieved, due to mechanical problems encountered while setting the multistage completion. All the analyses and comparisons described in this article clearly indicated that the initial performance of Well-MSX was similar or better than the initial performance observed in other horizontal gas producers, with significantly better reservoir quality and conductivity, and longer horizontal length, than Well-MSX. With only 20% of the Kh and 33% of the horizontal length of Well-NMS2, one of the best current horizontal producers, Well-MSX achieved the same initial rate. Moreover, Well-MSX achieved a higher rate than dual-lateral horizontal producer Well-NMS1, which has almost eight times higher conductivity and seven times more horizontal length. The results from the different analyses also showed that the post-stimulation results from Well-MSX would have been even better if the entire drilled horizontal section could have been stimulated and open to flow as planned. Considering that all analyses were conducted assuming maximum flow conditions throughout the life of the well, and that the well will be produced at a lower sustainable gas rate for proper reservoir management, the data suggests that the well in its present condition will be an excellent performer. Completing the well with the multistage assembly and performing multiple acid fracture treatments will result in an incremental cumulative gas recovery of 10 BSCF and 230 MMsbbls of condensate over a non-stimulated condition. It will also result in a $13 MM higher net present value over the life of the well, and a much faster payout. The overall success of the implementation of this new technology strongly supports additional field trials to ascertain its viability. The post-stimulation performance of Well-MSX also supports considering working over the current number of severely damaged, underperforming horizontal producers to stimulate them effectively so that they can achieve their maximum potential. 1. Seale, R., Athans, J. and Themig, D.: An Effective Horizontal Well Completion and Stimulation System, SPE paper 101230, presented at the International Petroleum Exhibition and Conference, Abu Dhabi, U.A.E., November 5-8, 2006. 2. Lohoefer, D., Athans, J. and Seale, R.: New Barnett Shale Horizontal Completion Lowers Cost and Improves Efficiency, SPE paper 103046, presented at the Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, San Antonio, Texas, September 24-27, 2006. 3. Seale, R., Donaldson, J. and Athans, J.: Multistage Fracturing System: Improving Efficiency and Production, SPE paper 104557, presented at the Eastern Regional Meeting, Canton, Ohio, October 11-13, 2006. 4. Themig, D. and Athans, J.: Effective Stimulation of Horizontal Wells - A New Completion Method, SPE paper 106357, presented at the Technical Symposium of Saudi Arabia Section, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, May 21-23, 2006. 5. Seale, R. and Athans, J.: Using Open Hole Horizontal Completion Technology to More Efficiently Complete Vertical Wells, SPE paper 107930, presented at the Rocky Mountain Oil & Gas Technology Symposium, Denver, Colorado, April 16-18, 2007. 6. Seale, R.: An Efficient Horizontal Open Hole Multistage Fracturing and Completion System, SPE paper 108712, presented at the International Oil Conference and Exhibition, Veracruz, Mexico, June 27-30, 2007.
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BIOGRAPHIES
Hassan M. Al-Hussain is a Petroleum Engineer working in the Gas Production Engineering Department (GPED) in Udhailiyah. Prior to joining Saudi Aramco in 2006, Hassan received his B.S. degree in Petroleum Engineering from King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals (KFUPM), Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. J. Ricardo Solares is a Petroleum Engineering Consultant and a Supervisor with the Southern Area Production Engineering Department (SAPED) in Udhailiyah. He has 25 years of diversified oil industry experience. Throughout his career, Ricardo has held Reservoir and Production Engineering positions with Arco Oil and Gas and BP Exploration, while working in a variety of major carbonate and sandstone reservoirs located throughout the worlds major hydrocarbon provinces in the Middle East, the Gulf of Mexico, Alaska and South America. Since joining Saudi Aramco in 1999, he has been involved with a variety of technical projects and planning activities as part of large gas development projects. Ricardo manages a team responsible for the introduction and implementation of new technology, issuing operating standards, stimulation and production optimization activities, and completion design. His areas of expertise include hydraulic fracturing and well stimulation, all aspects of production optimization, completions and artificial lift design, pressure transient and inflow performance analysis, completions design, and economic evaluation. In 1982 Ricardo received his B.S. degree in Geological Engineering and in 1983 he received his M.S. degree in Petroleum Engineering, both from the University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX. He also received an MBA in Finance from Alaska Pacific University, Anchorage, AK in 1990. He received the 2006 Society of Petroleum Engineers (SPE) Regional Award in the area of Management and Information, and a SPE Technical Editor award for his work on the Editorial Review Committee. Ricardo has also published over 20 SPE papers and articles in a variety of international technical publications.
Hamad M. Al-Marri is a Superintendent in the Southern Area Production Services Department (SAPED) in Udhailiyah. He started his career in 1991 with Southern Area Producing and later joined the College Degree Program to pursue his B.S. degree in Chemical Engineering from Tulsa University, Tulsa, OK, graduating in 1999. Upon returning to Saudi Aramco, Hamad worked as a Plant Engineer. In 2002, he received his M.S. degree in Petroleum Engineering, also from Tulsa University. Since that time, Hamad has been through various assignments with oil and gas production engineering, drilling and workover, and reservoir engineering. He was a team member in many key projects, including the HDGOSP-3 field development and affiliated intelligent field (I-Field) infrastructure construction. Prior to his current position, he was a Gas Production Supervisor charted to support the landmark development of the HWYH Gas Plant 800 Increment. Hamad has published and co-authored several SPE and GIS papers. Carlos A. Franco is a Petroleum Engineer working for the Gas Production Engineering Department (GPED) in Udhailiyah. He joined Saudi Aramco in 2006 as a Petroleum Engineer working in production, stimulation, coiled tubing operations and mineral scale strategy. Carlos experience includes working for 10 years as a Production and Reservoir Engineer for BP in Colombia operations, 3 years for Petrleos del Norte in Colombia as a Reservoir Engineer, 3 years for Baker Chemical as a Stimulation Engineer and 3 years for Petrocol Colombia as a Reservoir and Production Engineer. He received his B.S. degree in Petroleum Engineering from the Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Medellin, Colombia. Carlos has been an author or co-author of over 12 papers on formation damage and aspects of oil field organic and mineral scales.
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Revitalization of Old Asset Oil Fields into I-Fields

Authors: Dr. Mohammed N. Al-Khamis, Konstantinos I. Zormpalas, Hassan M. Al-Matouq and Saleh M. Al-Mahamed
ABSTRACT
Recent evolution in oil field technologies has instigated a great revolution in the oil and gas industry all over the world, leading to the emerging development of intelligent fields (IFields)1-4. The integration of I-Field technologies, whether downhole or at surface coupled with communication networks, along with sophisticated simulation and monitoring applications, has led to significant advancements not only in monitoring and control capabilities, but also in decision making processes5. Therefore, the overall system upgrade has resulted in an enhancement of the field surveillance, which will lead to higher levels of oil production. A comprehensive redevelopment and I-Field transformation of three elderly remote onshore oil fields in Saudi Arabia has taken place where extensive drilling and workover programs have been reinitiated to complete both oil production and peripheral water injection wells, equipping them with the latest downhole production technologies. The project has also involved construction of new oil and gas processing and water injection facilities, which are being linked with the wells via a state-of-the-art fiber optic communication network for controlling both subsurface and surface parameters and data surveillance in real-time. Further integration of I-Field components, such as Permanent Downhole Monitoring Systems (PDHMS), Smart Well Systems, Multiphase Flow Meters (MPFM), Single Phase Flow Meters, pressure and temperature sensors with specially tailored monitoring, and simulation software, has facilitated the development and implementation of optimized production and injection strategies. This article will discuss the development strategy for the three fields, sharing the lessons learned from this project. Moreover, examples, such as well performance monitoring and validation, crude blend assessment and assurance and reservoir pressure mapping, which are all being performed in real-time, will be presented. In addition, this article will illustrate how the integration of I-Field components has effectively helped in optimizing the production from a portfolio of developed reservoirs.
infrastructure in fluid processing facilities and pipeline networks. Historically, the production from the AFK fields started in the early 1960s, but the fields were shut-in between 1983 and 1990 due to the low demand for oil in the international markets. Production resumed from only two fields for about three years during the Gulf crisis in the early 1990s. Production from all of the producing reservoirs was supported then by gravity injection, since existing facilities did not have power water injection capability. All produced associated gas was flared at that time too, since there were no gas handling facilities. Furthermore, the original development strategy for the three fields was based on individual field production schemes, where each field had its own oil processing facility and produced a distinctive crude grade, Fig. 1. Saudi Aramco has recently embarked on the development of several fields, including the AFK fields, with an aim to transform the elderly and remote fields into state-of-the-art intelligent fields (I-Fields) equipped with proper handling facilities for oil, water and gas6-9. The new AFK project mainly consists of a twofold plan. The first part calls for the drilling of new wells, both oil producers and water injectors. The newly drilled water injection wells are part of a planned peripheral water injection program to ensure adequate pressure maintenance in AFK reservoirs. The second part calls for the implementation of I-Field components in the fields
INTRODUCTION
The Abu Hadriya, Fadhili and Khursaniyah (AFK) complex consists of three fields that share common surface
Fig. 1. AFK fields showing old and new processing facilities.
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infrastructure, which will enhance the automation and communication network of downhole equipment with surface facilities. In addition to the twofold development plan, a new processing facility to handle 500,000 barrels oil per day (MBOD) of Arabian Light crude blend, a new gas plant to process 1 billion cubic feet per day (BCFD) of sour gas from this increment, as well as from other nearby fields, a water injection plant with a capacity of 1.1 billion barrels of water per day (BBWD) to support reservoir pressures and a complete infrastructure of flow line networks to interconnect the three fields with the centralized processing facility have been built. Moreover, the new facility setup has the capability of comingling different crude streams from the three fields to yield different crude grades. The newly drilled wells of the redevelopment project have been completed with up-to-date downhole and surface production technologies to monitor and optimize their producing performance. These include Remotely Operated Chokes and Diversion Valves, Emergency Shut-down Systems (ESDs), Permanent Downhole Monitoring Systems (PDHMS), Compact Multiphase Flow Meters, Electric Submersible Pumps (ESPs) and Smart Well Completions (SWCs). All these technologies have been connected at surface with a fiber optic network and a state-of-the-art Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) system to provide real time data acquisition and monitoring of these technologies for instant decision making. Table 1 shows the number of the individual components of modern technologies used in the redevelopment phase of the AFK fields. The challenges of the AFK fields, and therefore the decision to implement the I-Field concept, are the remoteness of these fields from existing infrastructure, and the complexity of the crude blend where 11 reservoirs with different crude grades will be produced to yield a distinctive required crude grade. These challenges necessitate a transformed development to facilitate reservoirs and facilities monitoring in real time. In the following sections, several examples will be discussed to demonstrate how the integration of these innovative technologies has enabled Saudi Aramco to revitalize the old AFK assets into modernized I-Fields. Modern Technologies Pressure and Temperature Transmitters Remotely Operated Chokes Remotely Operated Diversion Valves Permanent Downhole Monitoring System (PDHMS) Emergency Shut-down Systems (ESD) Multiphase Flow Meters (MPFM) Orifice Flow Meter Electrical Submersible Pumps (ESP) Smart Well Completions (SWC)
Table 1. Modern production technologies installed in AFK fields
DATA MANAGEMENT
Real-time data captured from the AFK fields is delivered to desktop applications by a series of different components that constitute the infrastructure of data management10, Fig. 2. Data transmitted by instrumentation systems in any well site starts its path from the Remote Terminal Unit (RTU). The RTU communicates data collected from site systems to SCADA servers that represent the central processing and control system in the field. Plant Information (PI) servers then handle the archival of data; they form the data source for enterprise database and applications.
Field Data Network
The RTU of each well site exchanges data telegrams with the SCADA system over a fiber optic based data communication network called Open Transport Network (OTN). This network consists of three OTN rings for the three fields and supports a total of 90 well sites. Each ring is configured to be in loopback mode for self-healing if any OTN node fails to communicate because of power outage or any other reason. Before reaching the SCADA system, the three OTN rings of the AFK fields meet together in a redundant OTN switch located in the Control Center Room (CCR) of the processing facility.
SCADA System
The local network of the SCADA system is based on three redundant servers, the Front End Processor (FEP) server, SCADA server and database server. The FEP server acts as the interface between the RTUs and the SCADA server. There are two redundant FEP servers and each one can support 60 RTUs. Data coming from the OTN network is scanned by the FEP server and passed to the SCADA server, where all data processing and calculations are handled. The SCADA server holds the online database process image that contains the current status of field data and control commands sent to the RTUs. In addition to holding the setup information of SCADA displays and configurations, the database server is used for
No. 751 154 227 48 70 25 93 17 4

Fig. 2. Data management infrastructure.
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long-term data storage. It archives data received from the process image using an external Storage Area Network (SAN). It receives data in a predefined Basic Cycle and computes the values of higher cycles (i.e., hours, days, years, or any definable period) either by averaging or totalizing. Each cycle specifies a limited lifetime for keeping the archived data. This lifetime and other cycle parameters are defined in what is called an archive plan and any reading can be associated with a predefined archive plan. This long-term archiving is the basis for SCADA historical data reports and trend graphs.
Data Historian and Applications
FIELD MANAGEMENT
Given the rate at which the I-Field concept has been nurtured during the last decade, countless benefits and improvements in oil and gas production operations can now be realized. As mentioned earlier, the general scope of the AFK field project was to bring these three assets, which were at a standstill, to a modernized facility that will enhance and optimize the overall operation of these fields. The following section highlights some of the major features of this project.
Control Capabilities
Real-time data acquired by the SCADA system is forwarded by a PI interface node, which resides on the SCADA network, to the area PI system on the corporate network, Fig. 2. This area PI cluster is a high processing server that archives data received from the AFK fields, as well as other fields in the same area. The PI system delivers real-time data to the engineers desktop through user-friendly Windows based graphical displays while providing more efficient long-term data archiving and powerful data processing and management. Area PI systems are also interfaced with the corporate database, where many enterprise petroleum engineering applications are then utilized to process and manipulate real-time data stored in this database.
The proper integration of I-Field components, such as MPFMs, has enabled accurate measurements of well production rates from the 11 developed reservoirs of the three AFK fields, which in turn has ensured correct blending of the various crude grades. At the same time, this integration has enabled proper production allocation for every well, which is very crucial for reservoir simulation. Furthermore, the use of Remotely Operated Chokes (ROCs) and SWCs to adjust well rates, as well as to switch them to test headers, has facilitated prompt control of individual wells without the need of field operator support, Fig. 3. Since wells are spread over a geographical distance of more than 50 km by 30 km, without this facilitation it would have been extremely difficult to
Fig. 3. Flow of AFK field wells is remotely controlled.

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at the same time tangible cost savings have been realized from the utilization of information from I-Field components and methodologies. Furthermore, this successful approach has minimized our dependency on costly wireline surveys, and improved the safety of our field operations by considerably decreasing human interaction.
Optimizing Well Performance
Fig. 4. Real time reservoir pressure mapping.
adjust the crude blend and implement optimized production and injection strategies. Furthermore, the system has another unique control feature where individual well sites, and even each individual field can be remotely shutdown via the activation of both surface and subsurface safety valve systems in case of an emergency. The latter feature was deemed necessary due to the close proximity of the sour crude producing AFK fields to a national public highway and other nearby support and industrial facilities.
Real-Time Reservoir Surveillance
Real-time reservoir pressure management was also an important task considered during the planning and implementation phases of the AFK fields development. Since all three fields are under pressure maintenance using peripheral water injection patterns, close monitoring of reservoir pressure is very crucial to ensure that the implemented production and injection strategies are appropriate at all times and to make timely adjustments in these strategies as deemed necessary. In general, there are two sources for reading reservoir pressures: real time data from the installed 31 PDHMS and 17 ESP systems, and estimated reservoir pressure data from flow simulation models. Integration of these two reservoir data sources with the field management data mapping package has enabled us to generate real-time reservoir pressure maps. Figure 4 shows snapshots of isobaric maps representing times before and after the production and injection startups. These maps can therefore be constantly evaluated for reservoir pressure propagation and used to make necessary production and injection rate adjustments to ensure proper reservoir sweeps. As a result of this approach, reservoir surveillance has improved significantly. The decision making process has been advanced from the normal six month period to real-time, and
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Incorporating I-Field technologies in the AFK fields has facilitated optimization of the performance of both oil production and water injection wells. For example, networking real time reservoir data and remote control instruments from the field, coupled with monitoring and surveillance systems, has enabled fine-tuning of both the production and injection rates in a remarkably short time. This has accelerated the decision making process to meet these targets, and at the same time has assured that the set production and injection strategies are fulfilled at all times, Fig. 5. In addition, the system can display the life statistics of the total number of active wells, shut-in wells, overproducing or injecting wells, and underproducing or injecting wells. Moreover, the performance of all the wells is further optimized by an automated multi-rate test validation technique using commercial flow simulation software. This procedure involves modeling the results of rate tests performed in the field to track changes in reservoir pressures, and well productivity or injectivity with time without the need for conducting costly Pressure Transient tests, Fig. 6. By establishing this process, engineers were able to closely monitor reservoir pressure changes around the wells, and accordingly adjust the distribution of the water injection volumes in the various developed reservoirs to achieve the best reservoir sweep.
Fig. 5. Reservoir view showing real time well status.
Operation Enhancement
As highlighted earlier, one of the challenges in this project is the complexity of the crude blend where 11 reservoirs with different crude grades ranging from 24.1 API to 38.6 API will be produced, and a meticulous blending process must take place to yield a distinctive grade of Arabian Light crude. Therefore, it is imperative to establish a mechanism that will ensure that the crude properties from the AFK fields meet the required specifications at all times. Consequently, real time monitoring and control are essential elements when it comes to production allocation and in turn to appropriate crude blending. For instance, by controlling in real time the physical flow of oil from a system of wells or even an entire reservoir, one can allow lighter or heavier fractions to be produced, which in turn will govern the outcome of the API crude density of the final blend.
Injection Wellhead Pressure (psig)
3000
Multi-Rate Well Model

2500
2000
1500
For this objective, the monitoring surveillance systems are also utilized to continuously assure the crude grade quality. The system provides active hot-links for each field or reservoir and a tree map representation showing the total production, injection and supply rates as compared to the recommended targets, as well as some Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) and Key Operating Parameters (KOPs) enabling engineers to constantly monitor the performance of the wells and the quality of the blended crude by estimating the blended produced crude grade, Fig. 7. Aside from monitoring the wells and fields performance, the systems can also monitor the performance of rotating equipment, such as ESPs, corrosion inhibitor units, Cathodic Protection and field data communication and generate customizable reports of all gathered data. Figure 8 shows an example of an extracted report, while Fig. 9 shows an example of a well completed with ESP where the pump limits are being configured and monitored by the system to flag any abnormality in the proper pump operation. In this later case, the pump diagnosis can be performed in real time, enabling engineers to adjust the pump settings when necessary. This in turn has enabled the proper operation of the ESPs within the equipment operational envelope for optimum performance, which will also eventually prolong the life of the equipment.
1000
CONCLUSIONS
The project of revitalizing the AFK complex of fields utilizing I-Field technologies was driven by the need to modernize and optimize a facility that was below its potential. Saudi Aramco management realized the opportunity to enable previously identified reserves to come
500
5,000
10,000
15,000
20,000
25,000
30,000
Injection Rate (BWPD)

Fig. 6. Multi-rate test validation using flow simulation models.
Fig. 7. Views from the monitoring surveillance system showing some key performance parameters.
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Fig. 8. Sample of the generated customizable reports.
Fig. 9. Real time ESP parameters monitoring and control.
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onstream quickly in an operation with remote control and surveillance that allowed fast decision making toward the optimization of the entire process, from the wellhead to the pipeline transportation system. The factors that mandated the revitalization of AFK assets into I-Fields can be summarized as follows: Construction of a central and modern facility, designed to handle the produced fluids from all three fields, and become a substitute for the old individual facilities in each field. Capability of water injection in all three fields to support reservoir pressure. Capacity to process produced sour gas and avoid flaring. The need to produce a certain crude blend from a mixture of 11 crude grades from different reservoirs among the three fields, and to implement I-Field methodologies to assure crude quality compliance. Ability to remotely control key parameters and monitor vital equipment in real-time to optimize the flow of hydrocarbons from the fields to the processing facility, which are spread over a geographical distance of more than 50 km by 30 km. Minimization of human interaction associated with field operations in a source crude producing environment.
4. Adeyemi, O.S., Shryock, S.G., Sankaran, S., Hostad, O. and Gontijo, J.: Implementing I-Field Initiatives in a Deepwater Green Field, Offshore Nigeria, SPE paper 115367, presented at the SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Denver, Colorado, September 21-24, 2008. 5. Burda, B., Crompton, J., Sardoff, H. and Falconer, J.: Information Architecture Strategy for the Digital Oil Field, SPE paper 106687, presented at the SPE Digital Energy Conference and Exhibition, Houston, Texas, April 11-12, 2007. 6. Al-Kaabi, A.O., Al-Afaleg, N.I., Pham, T., et al.: HaradhIII: Industrys Largest Field Development using Maximum Reservoir Contact Wells, Smart Well Completions and I-Field Concept, SPE paper 105187, presented at the 15th SPE Middle East Oil & Gas Show and Conference, Bahrain, March 11-14, 2007. 7. Al-Arnaout, I.H., Al-Driweesh, S.M. and Al-Zahrani, R.M.: Production Engineering Experience with the First I-Field Implementation in Saudi Aramco at Haradh-III: Transforming Vision to Reality, SPE paper 112216, presented at the SPE Intelligent Energy Conference and Exhibition, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, February 25-27, 2008. 8. Al-Malki, S., Al-Buraikan, M.M., Abdulmohsin, R.A., Aheyd, R. and Al-Hamzani, H.: I-Field Capabilities Enable Optimizing Water Injection Strategies in Saudi Arabian Newly Developed Oil Fields, SPE paper 120835, presented at the SPE Saudi Arabia Section Technical Symposium, Al-Khobar, Saudi Arabia, May 10-12, 2008. 9. Al-Dossary, F.M., Al-Ghamdi, A.A. and Al-Ahmari, A.S.: Experiences and Benefits Gained through Implementation of the First Intelligent Field in Saudi Aramco (Qatif Field), SPE paper 118008, presented at the Abu Dhabi International Petroleum Exhibition and Conference, Abu Dhabi, U.A.E., November 3-6, 2008. 10. Al-Dhubaib, T.A., Almadi, S.M., Shenqiti, M.S. and Mansour, A.M.: I-Fields Data Acquisition and Delivery Infrastructure: Case Study, SPE paper 112201, presented at the SPE Intelligent Energy Conference and Exhibition, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, February 25-27, 2008.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to thank the Northern Area Production Engineering and Well Services management of Saudi Aramco for their support and permission to present the information contained in this article. Acknowledgment is also extended to the AFK Fields Development Team for their support in this study. This article was presented as SPE paper 126067 at the SPE Saudi Arabia Section Technical Symposium, al-Khobar, Saudi Arabia, May 9-11, 2009.
REFERENCES
1. Sengul, M. and Bekkousha, M.A.: Applied Production Optimization: I-Field, SPE paper 77608, presented at the SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, San Antonio, Texas, September 29 - October 2, 2002. 2. Ouimette, J. and Oran, K.: Implementing Chevrons I-Field at the San Ardo, California, Asset, SPE paper 99548, presented at the SPE Intelligent Energy Conference and Exhibition, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, April 11-13, 2006. 3. Cramer, R.: Back to the Future - A Retrospective on 40 Years of Digital Oil Field Experience, SPE paper 111478, presented at the SPE Intelligent Energy Conference and Exhibition, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, February 25-27, 2008.
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BIOGRAPHIES
Dr. Mohammed N. Al-Khamis is a Production Engineering Supervisor with the Ras Tanura Production Engineering Division. He has 9 years of academic experience and more than 17 years of work experience in various departments within Saudi Aramco, and has published and presented numerous technical papers and research reports. In 1988, Mohammed received his B.S. degree and in 1995 he received his M.S. degree, both in Petroleum Engineering from King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals (KFUPM), Dhahran, Saudi Arabia and in 2003, he received his Ph.D. degree in Petroleum Engineering from the Colorado School of Mines, Golden, CO. Konstantinos I. Zormpalas joined Saudi Aramco in 2006 and has been involved with the Safaniya field while working in the Northern Area Production Engineering & Well Services Department (NAPE&WSD). Prior to joining Saudi Aramco, he was the Production Engineer of a field in the Sahara desert in Algeria, and worked throughout the project from the commissioning phase of the Central Processing Facility for oil and gas, to start-up for first oil and to the full field development. Konstantinos has 16 years of production engineering experience in production optimization, well completions, artificial lift, well testing and workovers. He has had numerous international postings in the United States, Argentina, Germany, Russia, Algeria and Qatar. Konstantinos graduated in 1992 from Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, MS with both his B.S. and M.S. degrees in Petroleum Engineering.
Hassan M. Al-Matouq is a Computer Engineer with the Northern Area Technical Support Department. He has 5 years of experience in computer applications development and petroleum engineering systems. Hassan participated on the commissioning and startup team of the Abu Hadriya, Fadhili and Khursaniyah (AFK) fields development project. Hassan received his B.S. degree in Computer Engineering from King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals (KFUPM), Dhahran, Saudi Arabia in 2004. Saleh M. Al-Mahamed is a Petroleum Engineer working for the Northern Area Production Engineering and Well Services Department (NAPE&WSD) in the Abu Hadriya, Fadhili and Khursaniyah (AFK) fields. He received his B.S. degree in Petroleum Engineering in 2007 from the University of Louisiana at Lafayette, Lafayette, LA. Saleh joined Saudi Aramco in 2002.
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Varies, but an average of 2,500-3,500 words, plus illustrations/photos and captions. Maximum length should be 5,000 words. Articles in excess will be shortened.
What to send
Submit these separately. Do not place in the text. Positioning in the text may be indicated with placeholders. Initial submission may include copies of originals; however, publication will require the originals. When possible, submit both electronic versions, printouts and/or slides. Color is preferable.
File formats
Send text in Microsoft Word 6.0/95 or higher (do not submit UNIX files) via e-mail or on disc, plus one hard copy. Send illustrations/photos and captions separately but concurrently, both as e-mail or as hard copy (more information follows under Format).
Procedure
Illustration files with .EPS extensions work best. Other acceptable extensions are .TIFF, .JPEG and .PICT. Illustrations in PowerPoint are also acceptable.
Permission(s) to reprint, if appropriate
Notification of acceptance is usually within three weeks. The article will be edited for style and clarity and returned to the author for review. All articles are subject to the companys normal review. No paper can be published without a signature at the manager level or above.
Format
Previously published articles are acceptable but can be published only with written permission from the copyright holder.
Author(s)/contributor(s)
Please include a brief biographical statement.

Submission/Acceptance Procedures
No single article need include all of the following parts. The type of article and subject covered will determine which parts to include.
Working title Abstract
Usually 100-150 words to summarize the main points.

Introduction
Papers are submitted on a competitive basis and are evaluated by an editorial review board comprised of various department managers and subject matter experts. Following initial selection, authors whose papers have been accepted for publication will be notified by e-mail. Papers submitted for a particular issue but not accepted for that issue will be carried forward as submissions for subsequent issues, unless the author specifically requests in writing that there be no further consideration. Papers previously published or presented may be submitted.
Submit articles to:
Editor
Different from the abstract in that it sets the stage for the content of the article, rather than telling the reader what it is about.
Main body
May incorporate subtitles, artwork, photos, etc.

Conclusion/summary
The Saudi Aramco Journal of Technology Room 2240 East Administration Building Dhahran 31311, Saudi Arabia Tel: +966/3-873-5803 Fax: +966/3-873-6478 E-mail: william.bradshaw.1@aramco.com.sa
Submission deadlines
Assessment of results or restatement of points in introduction.

Endnotes/references/bibliography
Use only when essential. Use author/date citation method in the main body. Numbered footnotes or endnotes will be converted. Include complete publication information. Standard is The Associated Press Stylebook, 39th ed.
Issue
Spring 2010 Summer 2010 Fall 2010 Winter 2010
Abstract submission deadline

December 2, 2009 March 3, 2010 June 1, 2010 September 1, 2010
Release date
March 31, 2010 June 30, 2010 September 30, 2010 December 31, 2010
FALL 2009
73
Additional Content Available Online at: www.saudiaramco.com/jot
USE OF ADVANCED NONCONVENTIONAL TECHNOLOGY TO IMPROVE FLOW PROPERTIES, UPGRADING/DESULFURIZING HEAVY AND HIGH SULFUR CRUDE
Dr. M. Rashid Khan, Emad Naji Al-Shafei and Dr. Nicholas E. Leadbeater
ABSTRACT
The nonconventional technology of microwave irradiation was studied to desulfurize heavy crude oil and to treat tight emulsion. The desulfurization treatment aimed to reduce the sulfur content, thereby improving the price differential of heavy crude oil sales. The treatability of tight emulsion is aimed to increase the crude oil separation from water in less time, with no chemical additions.
EVALUATION OF NEW STIMULATION TECHNIQUE TO IMPROVE WELL PRODUCTIVITY IN A LONG, OPEN HOLE HORIZONTAL SECTION: CASE STUDY
J. Ricardo Solares, Carlos A. Franco, Hamad M. Al-Marri, Francisco O. Garzon, Khalid S. Asiri, H.A. Saeed, Wael M. Omairi and Guillermo A. Izquierdo
ABSTRACT
Saudi Aramco has significantly increased the number of horizontal gas producers over the past five years in an attempt to maximize well productivity through maximum reservoir contact (MRC), while reducing the need for hydraulic fracturing stimulation, commonly required in most vertical producers. Although the majority of horizontal producers have met expectations, a few of these did not, due to formation damage during drilling operations. The highly heterogeneous nature of the reservoir resulted in low porosity and permeability in different areas of the field, destabilization and precipitation of mineral and organic scales in the tubulars and formation, and condensate banking effects.
MINIMIZING WELLBORE DAMAGE IN A SANDSTONE RESERVOIR USING EFFECTIVE MUD MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
Dr. Ali S. Rabba, James E. Phillips, Saleh M. Al-Ammari and Monir Mohamed
ABSTRACT
Causing formation damage in sandstone reservoirs through poor drilling fluids management is a crucial factor that can affect well productivity. An integrated team assigned to manage the drilling of horizontal producers for field development, developed a mud management plan to monitor drilling fluid properties and maintain mud system specifications to minimize formation damage in the fields sensitive sandstone reservoir. This article discusses the implementation of the engineered oilbased drill-in fluid (DIF), particle size monitoring, and drilling and completion methods designed to minimize reservoir formation damage and help maximize well productivity.
WELL TEST ANALYSIS IN NATURALLY FRACTURED GAS CONDENSATE RESERVOIRS BELOW DEW POINT PRESSURE
Ahmed M. Al-Baqawi and Bandar H. Al-Malki
ABSTRACT
Gas condensate reservoirs below dew point pressure have been an area of interest for many studies in the petroleum industry seeking to properly answer questions surrounding the impact on well performance when the reservoir pressure falls below dew point pressure. Many of the studies have concentrated on the effects of liquid condensate drop-out in homogeneous reservoirs. This article focuses on the gas condensate drop-out impact in naturally fractured (dual porosity) carbonate reservoirs and the effects on well test analysis interpretations due to the changing oil/gas relative permeabilities in the appearing composite zones around the wellbore below dew point pressure.
74
REAL-TIME GEOLOGY/PETROPHYSICS IN COMPLEX CARBONATE RESERVOIRS

Ramsin Y. Eyvazzadeh, Rami H. BinNasser and David G. Kersey
ABSTRACT
Geosteering technology has played a key role in enhancing hydrocarbon production and recovery in many reservoirs throughout the world. Traditionally, Logging While Drilling (LWD) measurements are used to determine petrophysical parameters, such as porosity and hydrocarbon saturation to geosteer wells in the reservoir. In many complex carbonate reservoirs, fluid flow characteristics are generally difficult to predict and the most porous intervals are not always the best reservoirs, as intervals of equivalent porosity can exhibit large variations in permeability. Additionally, changes in depositional and digenetic environments provide for a complex geology that poses challenges in well placement.
OPEN HOLE SIDETRACK: A TRANSFORMATION IN DRILLING DUAL LATERAL KHUFF RESERVOIR GAS WELLS IN THE KINGDOM OF SAUDI ARABIA
Khalid Nawaz, Omar A. Al-Faraj, Naser A. Ajmi, Amir H. Awan, Jaywant Verma and Sukesh Ganda
ABSTRACT
This article describes the application of the open hole sidetrack (OHSDTR) technique to drill deep gas multilateral horizontal wells in Saudi Arabia. The drawbacks of earlier whipstock exits were studied and an alternate technique was proposed and implemented.
ANALYSIS OF DEPOSITION MECHANISM OF MINERAL SCALES PRECIPITATING IN THE SAND FACE AND PRODUCTION STRINGS OF GAS-CONDENSATE WELLS
Carlos A. Franco, J. Ricardo Solares, Hamad M. Al-Marri, A.E. Mukhles, Nezar H. Ramadhan and Ali H. Al-Saihati
ABSTRACT
Thick deposits of various types of mineral scales at present are forming in the production systems of gas condensate wells producing from carbonate reservoirs. These mineral scales precipitate when ideal thermodynamic conditions and dissolved minerals present in formation waters combine. Without remedial action over time, these deposits can grow thicker and end up plugging tubulars and the reservoir.
COLLABORATIVE DEVELOPMENT OF A SLIM LWD NMR TOOL: FROM CONCEPT TO FIELD TESTING
Dr. Ridvan Akkurt, Dr. Alberto F. Marsala, Douglas Seifert, Ahmed A. Al-Harbi, Carlos A. Buenrostro, Dr. Thomas Kruspe, Holger F. Thern, Dr. Gerhard Kurz, Martin Blanz and Asbjorn Kroken
ABSTRACT
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) was identified as a critical technology for reducing uncertainty and minimizing risk during the planning phase of a major field development project. The reservoirs in the subject field contain heavy oil/tar in the flanks, and accurate knowledge of viscosity trends became essential for the placement of water injectors. Since NMR logs can be used to estimate heavy oil viscosity, the development plan required running logging while drilling (LWD) NMR logs in the extendedreach horizontal injectors, in addition to some selected producers.
SUCCESSFUL APPLICATION OF INNOVATIVE FIBER-DIVERTING TECHNOLOGY ACHIEVED EFFECTIVE DIVERSION IN ACID STIMULATION TREATMENTS IN SAUDI ARABIAN DEEP GAS PRODUCERS
Moataz M. Al-Harbi, J. Ricardo Solares, Abdulaziz Al-Sagr, Ricardo Amorocho and Venkateshwaran Ramanathan
ABSTRACT
Acid fracturing has been an integral part of Saudi Aramcos gas development strategy for the vertical wells in the Khuff carbonates over the last several years. The Khuff formation is a deep gas carbonate reservoir that is ideally suited for acid fracturing. During acid fracturing, the wormholes created by the reaction results in excessive fluid loss. Controlling fluid loss is key to optimizing acid fracturing treatments by creating longer and wider fractures. Diesel emulsified acid for deeper penetration and in-situ gelled acid, a polymer-based system, are used to control excessive leakoff at different stages of the treatment along with the alternating stages of a polymer pad.

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Fall 2009 THE SAUDI ARAMCO JOURNAL OF TECHNOLOGY

A quarterly publication of the Saudi Arabian Oil Company

LS WI ENT WEL TELLIG OF IN

Smart (ML/Open Hole) (ML/MPFM)

Smart (SL/Open Hole) (ML/Slim Hole) (SL/Slim Hole)

EDITORIAL ADVISORS (CONTINUED) Abdullah M. Al-Ghamdi

Dr. Muhammad M. Saggaf

Fall 2009 THE SAUDI ARAMCO JOURNAL OF TECHNOLOGY

Thermodynamic Analysis of Formation of Black Powder in Sales Gas Pipelines 17

Revitalization of Old Asset Oil Fields into I-Fields

Smart (ML/Open Hole) (ML/MPFM)

Smart (SL/Open Hole) (ML/Slim Hole) (SL/Slim Hole)

EVOLUTION OF APPLICATION OF DOWNHOLE VALVES IN SAUDI ARAMCO

FALL 2009 SAUDI ARAMCO JOURNAL OF TECHNOLOGY

Normalized Lateral Rates (Choke Setting #3)

Fig. 2. Productivity variation among laterals at similar ICV positions.

Fig. 3. Schematic of quadrilateral well equipped with four ICVs.

PROLONGING WELL LIFE

PRODUCTIVITY VARIATION AMONG LATERALS

Table 1. ICV settings before and after

2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0 MB L1 L2

Rate, MBOD 9.3 8.9 8.7 Rate, MBOD 10 16

FALL 2009 SAUDI ARAMCO JOURNAL OF TECHNOLOGY

SAUDI ARAMCO JOURNAL OF TECHNOLOGY FALL 2009

FALL 2009 SAUDI ARAMCO JOURNAL OF TECHNOLOGY

SAUDI ARAMCO JOURNAL OF TECHNOLOGY

FALL 2009 SAUDI ARAMCO JOURNAL OF TECHNOLOGY

High Leakoff Zone: Formations with high leakoff in

Lithology: The selection of a candidate injection zone

Fig. 1. Stratigraphic location.

Reservoir Depth: The location of the interest zone/pay

MECHANICAL PROPERTY LOG

Containment Assurance: The identification of a good

Stress Contrast: The identification of stress contrast

Fig. 2. Containment assurance.

Fig. 3. MNIF-ABC location.

SAUDI ARAMCO JOURNAL OF TECHNOLOGY

Identify Injection Zones

Perforate 100 ft 7 Casing Guns at 12 SPF

Establish Injection with Clean Brine

Perform Acid Treatment

Obtain Closure Pressure

1,200 bbl Injection Test

Obtain Closure Pressure

Fig. 4. CRI injection test process.

FRACTURE MODEL PRESSURE MATCHING DISCUSSION

4 bpm Pext*=4130 psi

Bottomhole Pressure (psi)

4100 Rate Loss Pclosure = 3,998 psi 3900 Step-Rate/Step-

Specific Gravity 1.04 1.04 1.04

n 0.7 0.22 0.55

k 0.0051 0.641 0.007

Viscosity (cp) 71.5 1280 54.3

Fig. 5. Aruma CRI injection test.

Permeability (md) 9,500 2,240 2,240 0.5 0.5

Leakoff Coefficient (ft/min2) 9.06E-4 5.62E-4 8.19E-4 3.21E-4 5.52E-4

Spurt Loss (gal/100 gal) 7.8 3.6 2.5 1.6 0

Table 2. Laboratory based fluid leakoff and spurt loss

Extension Pressure (psi)

4,125 4,557 5,610

Fracture Extension Pressure Gradient (psi/ft) 0.86 0.69 0.79

Fracture Closure Pressure (psi) 4,083 3,828 NA**

Fracture Closure Pressure Gradient (psi/ft) 0.83 0.58 NA**