Basic Technology of WCDMA

Basic Technology of WCDMA
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Contents

Chapt er 1 ........................................... 1
Over vi ew of WCDMA ......................... 1
Overview ....................................... 1
WCDMA Technical St andards
Development Trends ....................... 4
3GPP St andard Development St at us 5
Analysis on 3GPP st andard Version
Evolut ion ..................................... 8
Analysis on Evolut ion of 3GPP
Technologies .............................. 10
I MT2000 Frequency Band Allocat ion 19
Composit ion of WCDMA Syst em ...... 20
UE ( User Equipment ) .................. 21
UTRAN ( UMTS Terrest rial Radio
Access Net wor k ) ........................ 21
CN ( Cor e Net work) ...................... 23
Chapt er 2 ......................................... 27
WCDMA Technol ogy Basi cs ............. 27
Concept of WCDMA Realizing
Broadband Communicat ion ............ 27
Basic Concept s of CDMA .............. 29

Basic Concept s of Spread Spect rum
Communicat ion ........................... 33
Transmission of Elect r ic Waves in
Mobile Environment ....................... 38
Feat ur es of Land Mobile
Communicat ion Environment ........ 39
Signal Fading in Radio Pat h .......... 40
Fundament als of t he WCDMA
Technology ................................... 41
Channel Coding/ Decoding ............. 41
Principles of
I nt erleaving/ Deint er leaving .......... 43
Spread Spect r um ........................ 44
Modulat ion and Demodulat ion ....... 47
Key Technologies on WCDMA Wireless
Side ............................................. 48
Power Cont rol ............................. 48
Handover ................................... 53
RAKE Receiver ............................ 63
Code Resour ce Allocat ion ............. 64
Admission Cont rol ....................... 78
Load Cont rol/ Congest ion Cont rol ... 81
Overview and Feat ur es of AMR ........ 83
Chapt er 3 ........................................ 85
I nt er f ace Pr ot ocol and Channel
St r uct ur e of WCDMA RAN ............... 85

-iii-
General Prot ocol Module for Land
I nt erfaces of UTRAN ...................... 87
Horizont al Plane ......................... 88
Vert ical Plane ............................. 88
I u I nt erface ................................ 90
I ur I nt erface .............................. 92
I ub I nt erface .............................. 93
Air I nt erface ( Uu I nt erface) ............ 94
Physical Layer Prot ocol ................ 95
MAC Prot ocol .............................. 96
RLC Prot ocol............................... 97
PDCP ......................................... 98
BMC Prot ocol .............................. 99
RRC Prot ocol .............................. 99
Channel Classificat ion ................ 100
Physical Channel ....................... 101
Transpor t Channel .................... 101
Logical Channel ........................ 102

Confident ial and Propr iet ary I nformat ion of ZTE CORPORATI ON 1
Overview of WCDMA
Cha pt e r 1

Overview
The 3rd Generat ion Mobile Communicat ion Syst em
( 3G) is put on agenda when t he 2
nd
generat ion ( 2G)
digit al mobile communicat ion market is booming. The
2G mobile communicat ion syst em has t he following
disadvant ages: limit ed frequency spect r um
resour ces, low frequency spect r um ut ilizat ion, and
weak suppor t for mobile mult imedia services
( providing only speech and low- speed dat a services) .
Also, t hanks t o incompat ibilit y bet ween 2G syst ems,
t he 2G mobile communicat ion syst em has a low
syst em capacit y, hardly meet ing t he demand for
high- speed bandwidt h services and impossible for t he
syst em t o implement global roaming. Ther efore, t he
3G communicat ion t echnology is a nat ural result in
t he advancement of t he 2G mobile communicat ion.
As t he I nt ernet dat a services become increasingly
popular nowadays, t he 3G communicat ion t echnology
opens t he door t o a brand new mobile communicat ion
world. I t brings more fun t o t he people. I n addit ion t o
clearer voice services, it allows user s t o conduct
mult imedia communicat ions wit h t heir personal
mobile t erminals, for example, I nt er net browsing,
mult imedia dat abase access, real- t ime st ock quot es
query, videophone, mobile e- commer ce, int eract ive
games, wireless personal audio player, video

chnology of WCDMA

onfident ial and Pr opr iet ar y I nfor mat ion of ZTE CORPORATI ON

t ransmission, knowledge acquisit ion, and
ent ert ainment s. What more unique are locat ion
relat ed services, which allow user s t o know about
t heir surroundings at anyt ime anywhere, for
example, block map, locat ions of hot els and super
market s, and weat her forecast . The 3G mobile phone
is bound t o become a good assist ant t o peoples life
and work.
The 3G mobile communicat ion aims at meet ing t he
fut ur e demand for mobile user capacit y and providing
mobile dat a and mult imedia communicat ion services.
I nit ially, mobile communicat ion t echnologies were
developed separat ely, as various count ries and
t echnical organizat ions cont inued t o develop t heir
own t echnologies. Thus, t he USA has AMPS, D- AMPS,
I S- 136, and I S- 95, Japan has PHS, PDC, and t he EU
has GSM. On one hand, t his sit uat ion helped t o meet
t he needs of t he users at t he early st age of mobile
communicat ion and expand t he mobile
communicat ion market . On anot her hand, it cr eat ed
barriers bet ween t he regions, and made it necessary
t o unify t he mobile communicat ion syst ems globally.
Under such a cont ext , I TU launched t he
st andardizat ion of t he 3G mobile communicat ion
syst em in 1985.
The 3G mobile communicat ion syst em, I MT- 2000, is
t he general t erm for t he next generat ion
communicat ion syst em proposed by I TU in 1985,
when it was act ually referred t o as Fut ure Public Land
Mobile Telecommunicat ions Syst em ( FPLMTS) . I n
1996, it was officially renamed t o I MT- 2000. I n
addit ion, t he 3G mobile communicat ion t echnology
ext ends t he int egrat ed bandwidt h net work service as
far as it can t o t he mobile environment , t r ansmit t ing

Chapt er 3 I nt erface Prot ocol and Channel St r uct ur e of WCDMA RAN

mult imedia informat ion including high qualit y images
at rat es up t o 10 Mbps.
Compared wit h t he exist ing 2G syst em, t he 3G
syst em has t he following charact erist ics as
summarized below:
1. Support for mult imedia services, especially I nt ernet
services
2. Easy t ransit ion and evolut ion
3. High frequency spect rum ut ilizat ion
Current ly, t he t hree t ypical 3G mobile communicat ion
t echnology st andards in t he world are CDMA2000,
WCDMA and TD- SCDMA. CDMA2000 and WCDMA
work in t he FDD mode, while TD- SCDMA works in t he
TDD mode, where t he uplink and downlink of t he
syst em work in differ ent t imeslot s of t he same
frequency.
The 3G mobile communicat ion is designed t o provide
diversified and high- qualit y mult imedia services. To
achieve t hese purposes, t he wireless t ransmission
t echnology must meet t he following requir ement s:
1. High- speed t ransmission t o support mult imedia
services
I ndoor environment : > 2 Mbps
Out door walking environment : 384 Mbps
Out door vehicle moving: 144 kbps
2. Allocat ion of t ransmission rat es according t o needs
3. Accommodat ion t o asymmet rical needs on t he
uplink and downlink
I n t he concept evaluat ion of t he 3G mobile
communicat ion specificat ion proposals, t he WCDMA
t echnology is adopt ed as one of t he mainst ream 3G

chnology of WCDMA


t echnologies t hanks t o it s own t echnical
advant ages.
WCDMA Technical Standards Development Trends
WCDMA was originat ed by st andardizat ion
organizat ions and manufact ur ers in European
count ries and Japan. WCDMA inher it s t he high
st andardizat ion and openness of GSM, and it s
st andardizat ion progresses smoot hly. WCDMA is t he
t hird generat ion mobile communicat ion st andard
developed by 3GPP, wit h t he GSM MAP as it s core
and UTRAN ( UMTS Terrest r ial Radio Access Net work)
as it s wir eless int erface. Using t he chip rat e of 3.84
Mbps, it provides dat a t ransmission rat e up t o 14.4
Mbps wit hin 5 MHz bandwidt h.
The WCDMA t echnology has t he following
charact erist ics:
Support ing bot h asynchronous and synchronous
BTSs, for easy and flexible net working
Using QPSK modulat ion mode ( t he HSDPA services
also use t he 16QAM modulat ion mode)
Using pilot assist ed coherent demodulat ion
Accommodat ing t ransmission of mult iple rat es, and
implement ing mult i- rat e and mult imedia services
by changing t he spr ead spect rum rat io and using
mult i- mode concurr ent t ransmission
Rapid and efficient power cont rol of
uplink/ downlink great ly reduces mult iple access
int erfer ence of t he syst em, but increases t he
syst em capacit y while reducing t he t ransmission
power.


The core net work is evolving based on t he
GSM/ GPRS net work, and maint ains compat ibilit y
wit h t he GSM/ GPRS net work.
Support ing soft handover and soft er handover, wit h
t hree handover modes, int er- sect or soft handover,
int er- cell soft handover, and int er- carr ier hard
handover
3GPP Standard Development Status
3GPP st andard versions include R99, R4, R5, R6 and
R7.
R99 version was frozen formally in Mar, 2000, and
refreshes once every t hree mont hs. Current
commer cial version of R99 is based on t he version of
June, 2001, for in lat er version, t he number of CR is
decreasing r apidly and t her e ar e no larger
modificat ions and non- compat ible upgrade.
R4 version was frozen in Mar , 2001. I t passed in Mar ,
2002 and is st able current ly. R5 version was frozen in
June, 2002 and is st able cur rent ly. Most R5 versions
t hat providers support are t he ver sion of June, 2004.
R6 version was frozen in June, 2005 and may be
st able in a year. At pr esent , R7/ LTE has st ar t ed up
and it s funct ional feat ures ar e st ill in init ial phase.
R99 and R4 versions ar e put int o commer cial use
mat urely. R6 version prot ocols are in developing
st at us.

chnology of WCDMA


Basic Network Structure Based on R99
FIGURE 1 BASIC NETWORK STRUCTURE OF R99

The R99 is t he first phase version of 3GPP in 3G
net work st andardizat ion. The R99 was already frozen
in June 2001, and subsequent r evision is made on
t he R4. The basic configurat ion st r uct ure of t he R99
is illust r at ed in Figur e 1. To guarant ee t he invest ment
int erest s of t elecom oper at or s, t he net work st r uct ure


of t he R99 is designed wit h 2G/ 3G compat ibilit y fully
in mind, for smoot h evolut ion t o 3G. Therefore, t he
core net work in t he basic net work st ruct ure remains
unchanged. To support 3G services, some NEs are
added wit h appropriat e int er face prot ocols, and t he
original int erface prot ocols are also improved by
different degrees.
Network Structure Based on UMTS R4
Same as t he R99 net work, t he basic st ruct ure of t he
R4 net work consist s of t he core net work and wireless
access net wor k, and t her e are t he CS domain and PS
domain on t he core net work side. The basic NE
ent it ies and t he int erfaces ar e largely inher it ed from
t he definit ions of ent it ies and int erfaces of t he R99
net work. The net work ent it ies wit h t he same
definit ions as t he R99 net work remain unchanged in
basic funct ionalit y, and t he r elat ed prot ocols are also
similar.
Compared wit h t he R99, t he R4 net work st ruct ure
has t remendous changes in t he st r uct ur e of t he CS
domain of t he core net work, while t hose of t he PS
domain of t he core net work and of t he UTRAN also
remain t he same.
According t o t he idea of separat ion bet ween call
cont rol, bearer and bear er cont rol, t he net work ent it y
( G) MSC of t he CS domain of t he R99 net work
evolves t o t he MGW and ( G) MSCServer in t he R4
st age, wit h R- SGW and T- SGW added. I n addit ion,
relat ed int erfaces ar e also changed, wit h t he Mc
int erface added bet ween t he MGW and MSC Sever,
t he Nc int erface bet ween t he MSC Sever and GMSC

chnology of WCDMA


Sever , and t he Nb int erface bet ween MGWs, and t he
Mh int erface bet ween t he MR- MGW and HLR.
FIGURE 2 BASIC NETWORK STRUCTURE OF THE R4

BSS
BSC
RNS
RNC
CN
Node B Node B
IuPS
Iur
Iub
USIM
ME
MS
Cu
Uu
MSC server
SGSN
Gs
GGSN GMSC
server
Gn
HSS(HLR)
Gr
Gc
C
D
Nc
H
EIR
F Gf
Gi
PSTN
IuCS
VLR
B
Gp
VLR
G
BTS BTS
Um
RNC
Abis
SIM
SIM-ME i/f or
MSC server
B
PSTN
cell
CS-MGW CS-MGW
CS-
MGW
AuC
Nb

T-SGW R-SGW
Mc
Mc
Nb
PSTN PSTN
Nc

Mc
Mh

A
Gb
E

Analysis on 3GPP standard Version Evolution
Dur ing t he evolut ion from GSM/ GPRS t o 3GPP R99,
brand UTRAN int roduced includes such key


t echnologies as WCDMA, power cont rol, mult ipat h
Rake r eceiver. I n addit ion, four QoS service t ypes are
put forward and cell peak rat e support s up t o 2 Mbps.
CN basically develops from GSM/ GPRS CN. I t r educes
t he influence on GSM/ GPRS CN caused by t he
int roduct ion of UTRAN CN fur t hest . Most
represent at ive feat ur es of R4 from R99: Separat ion
of CS domain cont rol layer and t r ansmission layer,
convergence of t ransmission resources in CS and PS
domains, and incr ease of resource t r ansmission
efficiency.
UTRAN in R4 version does not have subst ant ive
evolut ion and only perfor ms some opt imizat ions.
Dur ing t he evolut ion from R4 t o R5, I P mult imedia
subsyst em is int roduced int o CN and t he int erface
connect ing GERAN is added. There is gr eat change in
UTRAN: I P t ransmission t echnology and HSDPA are
int roduced, which makes peak rat e of t he cell up t o
about 10 Mbps, much great er t han t he peak
bandwidt h t hat R4 and R99 versions can support ( in
t he field, WCDMA suppor t ing HSDPA is called 3.5 G) .
R5 also suppor t s I u Flexible, allowing a RNC t o access
several MSCs or SGSNs simult aneously, which saves
invest ment on access net work r esources for
operat ors.
int ercommunicat ion of WLAN and UMTS. UTRAN
evolut ion includes: MBMS, HSUPA, enhanced HSDPA,
wave clust er figurat ion t echnology t o increase
coverage capacit y, 3GPP RET and MOCN.
I n R7 plans. WCDMA will be developing in t ot al I P
direct ion. I n addit ion, int er communicat ion of UTMS
wit h ot her net works ( such as, VLAN) and enhanced
MBMS will be increased.

chnology of WCDMA

Confident ial and Propr iet ar y I nfor mat ion of ZTE CORPORATI ON

Analysis on Evolution of 3GPP Technologies
Evolution of CN Technology
Tot al I P CN
Brand UTRAN is int roduced in init ial phase of 3GPP
R99, t o reduce t he influence of UTRAN on CN.
I nt roduct ion policy of CN is developed from
GSM/ GPRS CN.
Dur ing t he evolut ion from R99 t o R4, CN realizes
t he separat ion of CS domain cont rol layer and
t ransmission layer , realizes voice packet and
signaling packet , t ransmit s CS and PS domains
applicat ion in CN based on one I P.
Dur ing t he evolut ion from R4 t o R5, 3GPP CN
int roduced I MS based on packet domain. I MS
adopt s Session I nit iat ion Pr ot ocol ( SI P) t hat I ETF
defines and provides I P services t hat Qos is
sensit ive t o ( such as, VoI P) in packet swit ching
domain, t o int ercommunicat e fixed I P t er minal and
3G mobile t er minal.
I n R6 version, funct ions of I MS ar e enhanced
great ly, including t he int ercommunicat ion of local
I P mult imedia net work and ot her I P mult imedia
net works, int ercommunicat ion of I MS and CS,
int ercommunicat ion of I MS based on I PV4 and
I PV6, mult i- part y conference service, I MS group
management and SI P appended t o I MS. As a
result , wider and more flexible I P- based mult imedia
services are pr ovided for oper at ion.
Dur ing t he evolut ion from R99 t o R7, CN may
absolut ely abandon cir cuit swit ching domain in t he
fut ur e and develops int o a t ot al I P service mobile
net work.


Net work sharing
I n 3GPP R99/ R4, one RNC can only connect one
MSC or SGSN, result ing in low ut ilizat ion rat io of
resour ces.
I n R5, I u- Flex is int roduced bet ween CN and
UTRAN, realizing t he UTRAN resources sharing
among several nodes of one operat or . I t saves t he
cost on UTRAN and subst ant ially develops t he
net work shar ing t echnology.
I n R6, net work sharing funct ion is expanded
cont inuously, which provides t he configurat ion
mode of Mult iple Oper at or Core Net work ( MOCN) .
MOCN allows several operat ors t o shar e one radio
access net work in sharing area. As a result ,
operat ors can save invest ment on UTRAN.
Amalgamat ion wit h ot her net works
I n 3GPP R6, int ercommunicat ion and amalgamat ion
of UMTS and WLAN ar e fulfilled ( Phase I ) , which is
st rengt hened in R7 plans ( Phase I I ) . I n addit ion, in
R7, defines feasibilit y of t ot al I P net work operat ion.
I nt ercommunicat ion and amalgamat ion of CN wit h
ot her net works is fut ur e development t rend.
Evolution of Radio Access Network Technologies
High- speed br oadband access
Compared wit h GSM/ GPSR RAN, R99 int r oduced
new UTRAN. UTRAN is based on WCDMA radio
int erface t echnology. I t s signal bandwidt h is 5 MHz.
I t s code chip rat e is 3.84 Mbps. I t s cell downlink
service bandwidt h is about 2 M.
R4 version has no large change in radio access.

chnology of WCDMA


I n R5 ver sion, HSDPA is int r oduced. I t adopt s 16
QAM modulat ion mode, which gr eat ly increases
spect rum ut ilizat ion rat io. Cell downlink peak rat e
reaches 14 Mbps. I n t he field, t he syst em
support ing HSDPA is default ed as 3.5 G syst em.
I n R6 version, HSUPA is int r oduced, which makes
cell uplink peak rat e up t o 5. 7 Mbps.
I n R7 version, Mult iple I nput Mult iple Out put
( MI MO) ant enna t echnology is int roduces, which
enables several t ransmit t ing and receiving
ant ennas t o send and receive signals in same
band. As a result , syst em capacit y and spect rum
ut ilizat ion rat io is increased in ger minat ion. MI MO
ant enna t echnology meet s t he requirement s for
high speed services in fut ur e mobile
communicat ion syst em. I n Long Ter m Evolut ion
( LTE) it ems, Ort hogonal Fr equency Division
Mult iplexing ( OFDM) is int roduced, which makes
cell downlink peak rat e up t o 39 Mbps. I t may
develop as t he cor e t echnology base of 3G
advanced syst em ( such as, Beyond 3G, 3. 9G and
E3G) . Wit h cont inuous development of 3GPP
st andardizat ion, OFDM will be applied t o
broadband mobile communicat ion field more
widely in t he near fut ure.
I n t he fut ur e, MI MO and OFDM t echnologies will
combine. Syst em t est result s improve t hat
MI MO- OFDM syst em which has t wo t ransmission
ant ennas and t wo receiving ant ennas can provide
t he dat a t ransmission rat e fr om score t o a hundr ed
million.
I n a word, evolut ion process of radio access
net work on access bandwidt h is: 2 Mbps ( R99)
HSDPA DL 14 Mbps ( R5) HSDPA DL 14


Mbps/ HSUPA UL 5.7 Mbps ( R6) - - > MI MO ( R7)
OFDM ( LTE) . I t s evolut ion is t o int roduce all kinds
of t echnologies, increasing spect r um ut ilizat ion
rat io furt hest and meet ing t he requir ement s for
high speed dat a t ransmission.
Mobile management
From R99 ver sion, WCDMA has differences from
GSM/ GPRS in mobile management , including soft
handover , I ur int erface, r e- posit ioning, handover
and reselect ion bet ween 2/ 3G. From R4 version,
I ur int erface has int roduced such flows as public
measur ement and radio link congest ion, which
makes radio resource management and load
cont rol of I ur int erface be organic part of UTRAN.
At t he same t ime, amalgamat ion crit er ia wit h
GERAN ar e under way, including I ur- g, cell change
t hat net work aids.
I P t ransmission
UTRAN in R99/ R4 versions adopt s TDM and ATM.
CN in R4 version successfully int roduces t he base
of I P t ransmission t echnology.
3GPP UTRAN in R5 ver sion also int roduces I P
t ransmission t echnology. I P t ransmission is a
select ive t echnology of UTRAN and it makes UTRAN
t ransmit based on I P core swit ching net wor k. As a
result , flexibilit y of t ransmission net wor king is
incr eased and const ruct ion cost of oper at ors is
reduced. I P t ransmission is also UTRAN
t ransmission development t rend.
I n t ransmission, R4/ R5 versions added
t ransmission bearer modificat ion and
reconfigurat ion, t o fur t her opt imize t he
performance of t ransmission bearer .

chnology of WCDMA


Ant enna t echnology
Dur ing t he evolut ion of 3GPP st andards, 3GPP also
has evolut ion in ant enna t echnology and ant enna
evolut ion process is: Two proj ect s of wave clust er
figurat ion ( R5) Fixed wave clust er figurat ion
proj ect and 3GPP elect ronic modulat ion ant enna
( R6) MI MO ( R7) .
The evolut ion is t o improve link performance of t he
syst em by int roducing all kinds of ant enna
t echnologies, increasing syst em capacit y.
I n R5 ver sion, radio wave clust er figurat ion
t echnology is int roduced t o incr ease syst em link
performance and capacit y. Two proj ect s are put
forward: fixed wave clust er figurat ion and user
special wave clust er figurat ion. I n R6 ver sion, user
special wave clust er figur at ion proj ect is delet ed
and fixed wave clust er figurat ion proj ect is
decided.
I n mobile BS net work planning and opt imizat ion,
common measure is t o remot ely modulat e
ant ennas of BS syst em. Most operat ors purchase
ant ennas from t hird par t y. I n t hese year s, Ant enna
I nt erface St andard Group ( AI SG) has put forward
AI SG int erface st andards. However , since 3GPP
does not definit e ant enna int erfaces in R99/ R4/ R5
phases, it is difficult y for manufact ur ers t o have
same ant enna int erface, ant enna t ype and net work
opt imizat ion. Therefor e, in R6 version, 3GPP
unifor ms int er face of RET and int roduces I uant
ant enna int erfaces. St andardizat ion of RET
int erfaces makes r emot e net work opt imizat ion
possible on condit ion t hat several manufact urers
provide ant ennas.


I n R7 ver sion, 3GPP put s forward MI MO, which
incr eases syst em capacit y and spect r um ut ilizat ion
rat io in ger minat ions. Alt hough MI MO is not
mat ure at pr esent , it is a great br eakt hrough of
ant enna t echnology in mobile communicat ion field
and also a developing dir ect ion of fut ure int elligent
ant enna t echnology.
Posit ioning t echnology
I n R99 version, UE posit ioning t echnology based on
cell I D is int roduced. I t is a rough posit ioning
t echnology. I n R99 version, frames of OTDOA and
A- GPS are int r oduced, t oo.
I n R4 ver sion, crit er ia of I ub/ I ur int erfaces are put
forward, which improves OTDOA and A- GPS
posit ioning t echnologies.
I n R5 version, crit eria of SMLC- SRNC int erfaces ar e
put forward and t hey are open t o suppor t A- GPS
posit ioning t echnology ( not support ing ot her
posit ioning t echnologies) .
I n R4 and R5, lowest perfor mance requir ement s for
A- GPS measur ement are not given. Therefore, in
R6 version, posit ioning precision of A- GPS is
defined ( posit ioning range of a mobile st at ion is 30
t o 100 m and response t ime is 2 t o 20 s. I n R6
version, SMLC- SRNC int erfaces are open t o support
t hree posit ioning t echnologies ( CellI D, OTDOA and
A- GPS) .
I n R7 ver sion, Uplink- Time Difference Of Arrival
( U- TDOA) is put forward. I t is hoped t o provide
solut ions t hat are more flexible and whose
posit ioning pr ecision is higher .

chnology of WCDMA


The evolut ion process of posit ioning t echnology is:
Cell I D OTDOA AGPS U- TDOA. I t is a
process from rough posit ioning t echnology t o t he
posit ioning t echnology wit h high precision. All
posit ioning t echnologies can be supplement s t o
each ot her dur ing t he applicat ion.
Evolution of UMTS QoS Technology
Wit h t he close combinat ion of radio communicat ion
t echnology and I P t echnology, mobile communicat ion
net work develops from circuit swit ching net work of
GSM t o packet swit ching net work of GSM, and t o 3G,
3.5G and UMTS t hat provide high speed real- t ime
dat a services. Dur ing t he whole evolut ion of mobile
net work, QoS t echnology develops t o mat ure t o
provide sat isfact ory services according t o feat ures of
different services. Analysis on QoS in GSM, GPRS,
R99, R4, R5, R6 and R7 t ell development of mobile
net work QoS.
GSM is based on cir cuit swit ching mode. I t is simple.
Connect ion of circuit can ensure QoS. GSM defines a
series of cir cuit bearer services, including paramet er s
of synchronizat ion/ asynchronizat ion,
t ransparent / non- t r ansparent , and limit ed bit rat e set .
They are cont inuously effect ive during t he evolut ion
of mobile net work.
GPRS is based on packet swit ching mode. There is no
Connect ion concept in GPRS, so QoS assurance of
GPRS is mor e complicat ed t han t hat of GSM. QoS
paramet ers t hat GPRS defines are: Delay level,
confidence level, largest dat a flow, PRI , even dat a
flow and ret r ansmission demand. QoS paramet er s
can be t ransmit t ed bet ween UE and SGSN/ GGSN.


QoS of UMTS is t o provide end- t o- end assurance of
services, which is int roduced in R99 version, as
shown in Figure 3. End- t o- end QoS covers all NEs,
including user t er minal, access net work ent it y and CN
ent it y. Processing of different int erface QoS
paramet ers must be same. The int roduct ion of QoS
layered archit ect ure is a large advancement during
t he QoS evolut ion.
FIGURE 3 QOS FRAME OF UMTS
TE CN
Gateway
MT UTRAN CN Iu
EDGE
NODE
TE
End-to-End Service
TE/MT Local
Bearer Service
UMTS Bearer Service
External
Bearer Service
Radio Access Bearer Service
CN Bearer
Service
Radio
Bearer Service
Iu
Bearer Service
Backbone
Bearer Service
UTRA
FDD/TDD
Service
Physical
Bearer Service
UMTS

Operat ors decide t he bearer mode t hat UMTS CN
adopt s. I t s cir cuit domain can support TDM and ATM
bearing modes ( in R4 and lat er version, t r ansmission
and cont rol in cir cuit domain is separat ed and I P
t ransmission is select ive) . I t s packet domain support s
I P bearer . TDM and ATM bearers bot h pr ovide QoS
assur ance. I P bearer of CN adopt s t he QoS
t echnology t hat I ETF defines, including int egrat ed
service/ resour ce pr eservat ion ( I nt Serv/ RSVP) ,
Mult iple Prot ocol Label Swit ching ( MPLS) , Different ial

chnology of WCDMA


Service ( DiffServ) , flow proj ect and const raint - based
pat h seek, and so on.
I n R99 ver sion, four QoS t ypes are int roduced:
Conversat ional, dat a st reaming, int eract ive and
background. I t also defines QoS paramet ers more
t han GSM and GPRS. There are new r equirement s for
t ransmission delay, ret ransmission mechanism, j it t er
and code error rat e of above four t ypes.
I n R4 version, QoS t hat AAL2 connect s on I ub and I ur
is opt imized, t o improve real- t ime services suppor t .
I n addit ion, QoS negot iat ion mechanism of radio
access bearer is int roduced t o make use of radio
resour ces more effect ively and t o enhance t he
const ruct ion capabilit y of radio access bearer.
I n R5 ver sion, int er communicat ion and combinat ion
of UE local bearer service, GPRS bear er service and
out er bear er service ar e defined. They provide QoS
assur ance for end- t o- end ser vices in packet domain.
I n UE and GGSN, I P BS Manager may exist . I t usually
uses DiffServ and I nt Serv/ RSVP t o communicat e wit h
out er I P net work. I MS, which is QoS policy cont rol
mechanism based on services, is also int r oduced in
R5 version.
I n R6 version, QoS policy cont rol mechanism based
on services is evolved as an independent funct ional
ent it y, providing services in all packet domains wit h
QoS policy cont rol mechanism based on services. This
mechanism separat es cont rol and execut ion of QoS.
Net work administ r at or can consider t he whole
net work, wit hout paying at t ent ion t o det ails, such as,
t echnology and equipment . I t reflect s t he int elligent
management of QoS.


I n R7 ver sion, amalgamat ion of UTMS and WLAN is
put forward. Uniform I P QoS is what fut ure UMTS
QoS t echnology will develop t o.
Evolut ion process of QoS is: QoS paramet ers do not
t ransmit in t he net work ( GSM) QoS paramet er s
t ransmit bet ween UE and SGSN/ GGSN Number of
QoS paramet ers incr ease ( GPRS) QoS layer ed
archit ect ure, four QoS t ypes, QoS t hat I ETF defines,
all NEs t hat QoS paramet er s cover, new change in
paramet ers, t he number of paramet ers increase
( R99) QoS negot iat ion mechanism of radio access
bearer ( R4) QoS policy cont rol mechanism based
on services in I MS ( R5) QoS policy cont rol
mechanism based on services in all packet domain
( R6) Unifor m I P QoS in t he amalgamat ion of UMTS
and WLAN ( R7 and lat er ver sion) .
IMT2000 Frequency Band Allocation
I n 1992, World Radio- communicat ion Conference
( WRC- 92) allocat ed t he frequency bands for t he 3G
mobile communicat ion, wit h a t ot al bandwidt h of 230
MHz, as shown in Figur e 4.

chnology of WCDMA


FIGURE 4 FREQUENCY SPECTRUM ALLOCATI ON OF 3G
MOBILE COMMUNICATION

At WRC92, I TU planned t he symmet r ic frequency
spect rum resources of 120MHz ( 1920MHz ~
1980MHz, 2110MHz ~ 2170MHz) for use by t he FDD,
and asymmet ric frequency spect rum resources of
35MHz ( 1900MHz ~ 1920MHz, 2010MHz ~ 2025MHz)
for use by t he TDD.
At WRC2000, t he 800 MHz band ( 806MHz ~
960MHz) , 1.7GHz band ( 1710MHz ~ 1885MHz) , and
2.5GHz band ( 2500MHz ~ 2690MHz) wer e added for
use by t he I MT- 2000 services. These t wo combined
make t he fut ure spect r um for 3G reach over 500
MHz, r eserving enor mous r esour ce space for fut ure
applicat ions.
Composition of WCDMA System
The Universal Mobile Telecommunicat ion Syst em
( UMTS) is a 3G mobile communicat ion syst em
adopt ing WCDMA air int erface. Therefor e, t he UMTS
is usually called a WCDMA syst em.


I n t er ms of funct ions, t he net work unit s comprise t he
Radio Access Net work ( RAN) and Core Net work ( CN) .
The RAN accomplishes all t he funct ions relat ed t o
radio communicat ion. The CN handles t he exchange
and rout ing of all t he calls and dat a connect ions
wit hin t he UMTS wit h ext er nal net works. The RAN,
CN, and t he User Equipment ( UE) t oget her const it ut e
t he whole UMTS.
UE (User Equipment )
The UE is an equipment which can be vehicle inst alled
or hand port able. Through t he Uu int erface, t he UE
exchanges dat a wit h net work equipment and provides
various CS domain and PS domain services, including
common voice services, broadband voice services,
mobile mult imedia services, and I nt er net applicat ions
( such as E- mail, WWW browse, and FTP) .
UTRAN (UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network )
The UMTS Ter rest r ial Radio Access Net wor k ( UTRAN)
compr ises Node B and Radio net work Cont roller
( RNC) .
1) Node B1.
As t he base st at ion ( wireless t ransceiver ) in t he
WCDMA syst em, t he Node B is composed of t he
wireless t r ansceiver and baseband processing part .
Connect ed wit h t he RNC t hrough st andard I ub
int erface, Node B processes t he Un int erface
physical layer prot ocols. I t pr ovides t he funct ions of
spect rum spreading/ despreading,
modulat ion/ demodulat ion, channel

chnology of WCDMA


coding/ decoding, and mut ual conver sion bet ween
baseband signals and radio signaling.
2) RNC
The RNC manages var ious int erfaces, est ablishes
and releases connect ions, performs handoff and
macro diver sit y/ combinat ion, and manages and
cont rols radio resour ces. I t connect s wit h t he MSC
and SGSN t hrough lu int erface. The prot ocol
bet ween UE and UTRAN is t er minat ed here.
The RNC t hat cont rols Node B is called Cont rolling
RNC ( CRNC) . The CRNC performs load cont rol and
congest ion cont rol of t he cells it serves, and
implement s admission cont rol and code word
allocat ion for t he wir eless connect ions t o be
est ablished.
I f t he connect ion bet ween a mobile subscriber and
t he UTRAN uses many RNS resour ces, t he relat ed
RNC has t wo independent logical funct ions:
Serving RNC ( SRNC) . The SRNC t erminat es t he
t ransmission of subscriber dat a and t he I u
connect ion of RANAP signaling t o/ from t he CN. I t
also t er minat es t he radio resource cont rolling
signaling ( t hat is t he signaling prot ocol bet ween UE
and UTRAN) . I n addit ion, t he SRNC performs L2
processing of t he dat a sent t o/ from t he radio
int erface and implement s some basic operat ions
relat ed t o radio resour ces management .
Drift RNC ( DRNC) All t he ot her RNCs except t he SRNC
are DRNCs. They cont rols t he cells used by t he UEs.


CN (Core Network)
The CN is in charge of t he connect ions wit h ot her
net works as well as t he management and
communicat ion wit h UEs. The CN can be divided int o
CS domain and PS domain from t he aspect of logic.
The CS domain equipment r efers t o t he ent it ies t hat
provide circuit connect ion or relat ed signaling
connect ion for subscriber services. The specific
ent it ies in t he CS domain include:
1. Mobile swit ching cent er ( MSC)
2. Gat eway mobile swit ching cent er ( GMSC)
3. Visit or locat ion regist er ( VLR)
4. I nt erworking funct ion ( I WF) .
The PS domain provides packet dat a ser vices t o
subscribers. The specific ent it ies in t he PS domain
include:
5. Serving GPRS support node ( SGSN)
6. Gat eway GPRS support node ( GGSN)
Ot her equipment such as t he home locat ion
regist er ( HLR) or HSS, aut hent icat ion cent er ( AuC) ,
and equipment ident it y r egist er ( EI R) ar e shar ed
by t he CS domain and PS domain.
The maj or funct ional ent it ies are as follows:
1) MSC/ VLR
As t he funct ional node in t he CS domain of t he
WCDMA core net work, t he MSC/ VLR connect s wit h
t he UTRAN t hr ough I u CS int erface, wit h ext ernal
net works ( PSTN, I SDN, and ot her PLMNs) t hrough
PSTN/ I SDN int erface, wit h t he HLR/ AUC t hrough
C/ D int erface, wit h t he MSC/ VLR, GMSC or SMC

chnology of WCDMA


t hrough E int erface, wit h t he SCP t hrough CAP
int erface, and wit h t he SGSN t hrough Gs int erface.
The MSC/ VLR accomplishes call connect ion,
mobilit y management , aut hent icat ion, and
encrypt ion in t he CS domain.
2) GMSC
As t he gat eway node bet ween t he CS domain of
WCDMA net work and ext ernal net works, t he GMSC
is an opt ional ent it y. I t connect s wit h t he ext er nal
net works ( PSTN, I SDN, and ot her PLMNs) t hrough
PSTN/ I SDN int erface, wit h t he HLR t hrough C
int erface, and wit h t he SCP t hrough CAP int erface.
The GMSC accomplishes t he incoming and out going
rout ing of t he Visit ed MSC ( VMSC) .
3) SGSN
As t he funct ional node in t he PS domain of WCDMA
core net work, t he SGSN connect s wit h t he UTRAN
t hrough I u_PS int erface, wit h GGSN t hrough Gn/ Gp
int erface, wit h t he HLR/ AUC t hrough Gr int erface,
wit h t he MSC/ VLR t hrough Gs int erface, wit h t he
SCP t hrough CAP int erface, wit h t he SMC t hrough
Gd int erface, wit h t he CG t hrough Ga int er face, and
wit h t he SGSN t hrough Gn/ Gp int erface.
The SGSN accomplishes t he rout ing forward,
mobilit y management , session management ,
aut hent icat ion, and encrypt ion in t he PS domain.
4) GGSN
The GGSN connect s wit h t he SGSN t hrough Gn
int erface and wit h t he ext ernal dat a net works
( I nt ernet / I nt r anet ) t hrough Gi int erface.
The GGSN pr ovides rout es t o t he dat a packet s
bet ween t he WCDMA net work and ext er nal dat a


net works, and encapsulat es t hese dat a packet s.
The maj or funct ion of t he GGSN is t o provide t he
int erface t o t he ext er nal I P packet - based net work,
t hus t he UEs can access t he gat eway of t he
ext er nal packet - based net work. To t he ext er nal
net works, t he GGSN seems like t he I P rout er t hat
can be used t o address all t he mobile subscribers in
t he WCDMA net work. I t exchanges rout ing
informat ion wit h ext ernal net works.
5) HLR
The HLR connect s wit h t he VMSC/ VLR or GMSC
t hrough C int erface, wit h t he SGSN t hrough Gr
int erface, and wit h t he GGSN t hrough Gc int erface.
The HLR st ores subscr iber subscript ion infor mat ion,
support s new services, and provides enhanced
aut hent icat ion.

WCDMA Technology Basics
Cha pt e r 2

Concept of WCDMA Realizing Broadband
Communication
WCDMA ( Wideband CDMA) is CDMA
radio communicat ion mode cased on
direct spr ead- spect rum t echnology.
WCDMA has an obvious advant age over
GSM and I S- 95 in subscriber capacit y
and radio t ransmission performance, for
it adopt s a ser ies of key t echnologies.
WCDMA bears following t wo meanings
lit erally:
1. WCDMA adopt s CDMA communicat ion
t echnology1.
CDMA t echnology is t he most
advanced communicat ion t echnology
in t he world at present . I t t akes
advant age of different codes t o divide
different channel and t hen dist inguish
different subscriber.
2. WCDMA adopt s wider spect r um
Narrowband power signals ar e sent
out aft er being spread as broadband


28 Confident ial and Propr iet ar y I nfor mat ion of ZTE CORPORATI ON

signals ( spread- spect rum) wit h
WCDMA t echnology. Broadband signals
have st ronger ant i- int erfer ence abilit y
t han narrowband signals. Wider
bandwidt h r ealizes RAKE receiving at
subscriber end and increases
communicat ion qualit y.
Figure 5 shows WCDMA communicat ion.
Bandwidt h of original signals increases
and power densit y decr eases aft er
spread- spect rum. Signals meet wit h
noise dur ing t he t ransmission. Power
densit y of t he noise decreases aft er t he
dispr eading, for spect rum dispreading is
t he same as spect r um spreading.
However , power densit y of original
signals is much larger t han t hat of noise
( t hat is, signal- t o- noise rat io is high)
and it is easy t o resume.


FIGURE 5 WCDMA COMMUNICATION
PRINCIPLE
F
Power
Density
F
Power
Density
F
Power
Density
F
Power
Density
(1) Original Signal
(2) Signal after spread
spectrum
(3)Meeting noise during
signal transmission
(4) Signal and noise after spectrum
dispreading
Signal Noise

WCDMA adopt s such advanced
t echnologies as soft handover, diver sit y
and power cont rol t o enlar ge syst em
capacit y and increase communicat ion
qualit y gr eat ly.
Basic Concepts of CDMA
Mobile communicat ion syst ems can be
classified in mult iple ways. For example,
t her e ar e analog and digit al by t he
nat ur e of t he signals; FM, PM, and AM
by t he modulat ion mode; and FDMA,
TDMA and CDMA by t he mult iple access
mode. CDMA ( Code Division Mult iple



Access) is a new while mat ure wireless
t echnology developed from t he spread
spect rum communicat ion t echnology, a
branch of t he digit al t echnology.
Current ly, t he GSM mobile t elephone
net works of China Unicom and China
Mobile are built wit h t he combinat ion of
FDMA and TDMA. GSM has t remendous
advant ages over t he analog mobile
t elephone syst em. However, it s
spect rum efficiency is only t hree t imes
of t he analog syst em. Wit h a limit ed
capacit y, it has difficult y in offering
voice qualit y equivalent t o wired
t elephone. TDMA t er minals support an
access rat e of only 9.6 kbps. The TDMA
syst em does not suppor t soft handover,
so calls may easily be dropped, affect ing
t he service qualit y. Therefor e, TDMA is
not t he best t echnology for moder n
cellular mobile communicat ion. On t he
ot her hand, CDMA fully meet s t he
requir ement s of modern mobile
communicat ion net works for large
capacit y, high qualit y, and int egrat ed
services, so it is well received by
incr easingly more operat or s and users.
CDMA emerges from t he needs for
wireless communicat ions of higher
qualit y. I n t he CDMA communicat ion
syst em, t he signals used by differ ent
user s for informat ion t r ansmission are
dist inguished not by frequencies or


t imeslot s, but by different code
sequences. CDMA allocat es one pseudo
random binary sequence for each signal
for frequency spreading, and different
signals are allocat ed wit h different
pseudo random binary sequences. I n
t he receiver , correlat ors ar e used t o
separat e t he signals. The correlat or of
each user only receives t he specified
binary sequences and compresses t heir
frequency spect rums, while ignoring all
t he ot her signals.
The code division mult iple access
concept of CDMA can be illust rat ed wit h
a part y of many persons. At t he par t y,
many users t alk at t he same t ime in a
room, and every conversat ion in t he
room is in a language you do not
under st and. Fr om your perspect ive, all
t hese conversat ions sound like noise. I f
you know t hese codes , t hat is,
relevant languages, you can ignor e t he
conver sat ions you do not want t o hear,
and focus on only t hese you are
int erest ed in. The CDMA syst em filt ers
t he t raffic in a similar way. However,
even if you underst and all t he languages
used, you do not necessarily hear
clearly all t he conver sat ions you are
int erest ed in. I n t his case, you can t ell
t he speaker s t o speak louder, and/ or
ask ot hers t o lower t heir voices. This is
similar t o t he power cont rol in t he CDMA



syst em. I n t he frequency domain or
t ime domain, mult iple CDMA signals
overlap. The r eceiver can sort out t he
signals t hat use t he preset code pat t ern
from mult iple CDMA signals by using
correlat ors. Ot her signals using different
code pat t erns are not demodulat ed,
since t heir code pat t erns are different
from t hose generat ed locally at t he
receiver .
One of t he basic t echnologies of CDMA
is spect rum spreading. CDMA is a
mult iple access t echnology feat uring
high confident ialit y. I t was first
developed in t he Second World War t o
prevent int erference from t he enemies.
CDMA found wide applicat ion in
ant i- int erfer ence milit ary
communicat ions dur ing t he war. Aft er
1960s, it had been used in milit ary
sat ellit e communicat ion. Lat er , it was
developed by Qualcomm int o a
commer cial mobile communicat ion
t echnology.
Aft er t he fir st CDMA syst em was put
int o operat ion for commercial purpose in
1995, t he t echnical advant ages of t he
CDMA in t heor y were t est ed in pract ice,
so it has seen rapid applicat ion in Nort h
Amer ica, Sout h Amer ica and Asia. I n
many count r ies and regions in t he
world, including China, Hong Kong,
Sout h Korea, Japan, and USA, CDMA is


t he maj or mobile communicat ion
t echnology used. CDMA is super ior t o
TDMA in syst em capacit y,
ant i- int erfer ence, communicat ion
qualit y, and confident ialit y, so I MT- 2000
( 3G) launched by I TU and subsequent
st andards all employ CDMA.
Basic Concepts of Spread Spectrum
Communication
The basic charact er ist ic of spread
spect rum communicat ion is t hat it uses
a bandwidt h for informat ion
t ransmission much wider t han t hat of
t he informat ion it self. I n ot her words,
t he dat a for t ransmission wit h cert ain
signal bandwidt h is modulat ed wit h
high- speed pseudo random codes
having a bandwidt h wider t han t he
signal bandwidt h. Thus, t he bandwidt h
of t he original dat a signals is spr ead,
before t he signals are t ransmit t ed
following car rier modulat ion. The
receiving end uses exact ly t he same
pseudo random codes t o process t he
received bandwidt h signals, convert ing
t he broadband signals int o t he original
narrowband signals, t hat is,
despreading, t hus achieving informat ion
communicat ion.



I n addit ion, spr ead spect r um
communicat ion also has t he following
charact erist ics:
1. I t is a d1. igit al t ransmission mode.
2. Bandwidt h spr eading is implement ed
by modulat ing t he t ransmit t ed
informat ion wit h a funct ion ( spr ead
spect rum funct ion) irrelevant t o t he
t ransmit t ed informat ion.
3. At t he receiving end, t he same spr ead
spect rum funct ion is used t o
demodulat e t he spread spect rum
signals, rest oring t he t ransmit t ed
informat ion.
C.E. Shannon found t he channel
capacit y formula in his research in
informat ion t heory, as below:
C = W Log2 ( 1+ S/ N)
Where:
C I nformat ion t ransmission rat e
S Available signal power
W Bandwidt h of t he line
N Noise power
As can be seen from t he formula:
To increase C, you can eit her increase
W or incr ease S/ N. I n ot her words,
when C is const ant , W and S/ N are
int erchangeable, where t he incr ease of
W reduces t he requir ement for S/ N.
When t he bandwidt h incr eases t o a


cert ain level, t he S/ N is allowed t o
furt her decr ease, making it possible for
t he useful signal power t o decrease t o a
level close t o t he noise power or even
inundat ed in t he noise. Spread spect r um
communicat ion uses t he bandwidt h
t ransmission t echnology t o obt ain t he
benefit in S/ N, which is t he basic idea
and t heoret ical basis of spr ead spect rum
communicat ion.
Spread spect r um communicat ion has
many out st anding performances
insuperable by narrowband
communicat ion, enabling it t o find wide
applicat ion rapidly in various public and
privat e communicat ion net works. I t s
advant ages ar e out lined as below:
1. Powerful ant i- int erference and low bit
error rat e
The spr ead spect r um communicat ion
syst em spreads t he signal spect rum
at t he t ransmit t ing end and rest ores
t he or iginal informat ion at t he
receiving end, producing spread
gains, t hus great ly incr easing t he
ant i- j amming margin. Depending on
t he spread spect rum gains, signals
can be ext ract ed from noise even
when t he S/ N is negat ive. I n t he
current commer cial communicat ion
syst em, spread spect rum
communicat ion is t he only



communicat ion mode t hat can work in
t he negat ive S/ N environment .
2. Easy same frequency use for higher
radio spect r um ut ilizat ion
Radio spect r um is very valuable.
Alt hough all waves from long wave
and micro wave have been developed
and used, t he need of t he societ y is
not sat isfied. For t his reason,
frequency spect rum management
aut hor it ies were set up all over t he
world. User s can only use t he
frequencies gr ant ed, and divide t hem
int o channels t o avoid mut ual
int erfer ence.
As spr ead spect r um communicat ion
uses t he correlat ion recept ion
t echnology, t he signal t ransmission
power is ext remely low ( < 1 W,
usually 1 mW ~ 100 mW) , and can
work in channel noise and hot noise
background. Therefor e, a fr equency
can be easily reused in t he same
area, and t he frequency can also be
shared wit h t he now various
narrowband communicat ions.
3. Ant i mult ipat h int erfer ence
I n t he wir eless communicat ion, ant i
mult ipat h int erference is a persist ing
problem t hat is difficult t o solve. Wit h
t he correlat ion bet ween spread
spect rum codes, t he most powerful


useful signals can be ext ract ed from
mult ipat h signals at t he r eceiving end
wit h a relat ed t echnology. Also, t he
same code sequence waveform from
mult iple pat hs can be added for
reinfor cement , t o achieve effect ive
ant i mult ipat h int erfer ence.
4. Spread spect r um communicat ion is a
form of digit al communicat ion,
part icularly suit able for synchronous
t ransmission of digit al voice and dat a.
Spread spect rum communicat ion
offers t he encrypt ion funct ion for
good confident ialit y, making it easy t o
launch var ious communicat ion
services.
Using mult iple new t echnologies
including code division mult iple
access, and voice compression,
spread spect rum communicat ion is
more suit able for t ransmission of
comput er net work and digit ized voices
and images.
5. Spread spect rum communicat ion
involves most ly digit al circuit ry. I t s
equipment is highly int egrat ed, easy
t o inst all and maint ain, compact , and
reliable and easy t o mount / expand,
and has a long MTBF.



Transmission of Electric Waves in Mobile
Environment
The t arget of mobile communicat ion
syst em is t o gradually r ealize per sonal
communicat ion using t he always
exist ent radio channel as t ransmission
media. However, t he radio channel has
poor t ransmission feat ur es. Fir st ly,
t her e is ser ious and complicat ed fading,
including pat h fading, shadow fading,
and mult ipat h fading. Secondly, t he
radio t ransmission pat h may be direct or
obst ruct ed by mount ains or buildings. I t
is difficult t o analyze t he unknown and
unpredict able element s in radio
channels. Even t he relat ive moving
speed may gr eat ly affect t he fading of
signal level.
Alt hough t he feat ures of
elect romagnet ic waves change a lot
during t ransmission, t he maj or changes
fall int o perpendicular incidence,
reflect ion, diffract ion ( inflect ion) , and
scat t ering. I n cit ies, t here is no direct
pat h bet ween t ransmit t ers and
receiver s. The high buildings and large
mansions cause serious diffr act ion loss.
Reflect ed by obj ect s by many t imes, t he
elect romagnet ic waves reach t he
receiver t hrough different pat hs. The
int eract ion of t hese elect romagnet ic
waves cause mult ipat h fading at specific
place. I n a word, t he st rengt h of


elect romagnet ic waves decr eases wit h
t he ext ension of t he dist ance bet ween
t he t ransmit t er and receiver.
Features of Land Mobile Communication
Environment
1. Low Ant enna of MS
Because t he t ransmission pat h is
always affect ed by t opography and
man- made environment , and t he MS
moves in various t opographical
environment and buildings, it makes
t he signal received by t he MS become
t he increment of a large number of
scat t ered and r eflect ed signals.
2. Mobilit y of MS
The MS is always moving. Even t he
MS is not moving, t he surr oundings
always change, for example, people
and vehicles move, and wind blows
leaves. The mobilit y makes t he
t ransmission pat h bet ween t he base
st at ion and MS always change. I n
addit ion, t he moving direct ion and
speed of t he MS will cause t he change
of signal level.
3. Random Change of Signal Level
Varying wit h t he t ime and locat ions,
t he signal level can be described by
t he probabilit y dist ribut ion in random
process only.



4. Wave Guide Effect in Met ropolit an
Environment
The wave guide effect caused by t he
high buildings on bot h sides of t he
st reet make t he signals r eceived in
t he direct ion parallel t o t he st r eet
enhanced and t he signals received in
t he vert ical dir ect ion weakened. There
is about 10 dB difference bet ween t he
t wo signals. This effect is at t enuat ed
8 km away from t he base st at ions.
5. Loud Man- Made Noise
The man- made noise includes noise of
vehicles and elect r ic power lines, as
well as indust rial noise.
6. St rong int erfer ence
The common int erfer ences include
co- channel int erfer ence,
adj acent - channel int erference,
int er modulat ion int erfer ence, and
near- far int erference.
Signal Fading in Radio Path
As t he MS moves furt her from t he base
st at ion, t he signal received becomes
weaker and weaker. The reason is t hat
pat h loss occurs t o t he signal. The
fact ors causing t he pat h loss include
carrier frequency, t ransmission speed,
and t he t opography and physiognomy
where t he signal is t ransmit t ed.


Shadow effect : The semi- dead zone in
t he coverage area caused by t he
obst ruct of high buildings and ot her
obj ect s.
Near - far effect : Because t he mobile
subscribers move at free will, t he
dist ance bet ween t he subscriber and t he
base st at ion changes. I f t he MSs have
t he same t ransmit power, t he signal
st rengt h at t he base st at ion is differ ent .
I f t he MS is nearer t o t he base st at ion,
t he signal received by t he base st at ion
is st ronger. The non- linearit y of t he
communicat ion syst em will be
worsened, making t he st ronger signal
st ronger, t he weaker signal weaker , and
t he st ronger signal suppress t he weaker
signal.
Doppler effect : The shift in frequency
which result s from t he move of t he
signal received at high rat e. The degr ee
of shift is in direct rat io wit h t he velocit y
of t he mobile subscr iber .
Fundamentals of the WCDMA Technology
Channel Coding/Decoding
A radio channel is an adv er se
t ransmission channel. When digit al
signals t ransmit t ed over a radio
channel, bi t er r or s may occur in t he
t ransmission dat a flow due t o various



reasons, causing image j umps and
disconnect ion at t he receive end. The
st ep of channel coding can be used t o
process t he dat a flow appropriat ely, so
t hat t he syst em can have er r or
cor r ect i on capabi l i t y
and ant i - i nt er f er ence capabi l i t y
Ult imat ely, channel coding int ends t o
incr ease t he reliabilit y of t he channel,
but it may reduce t he t ransmission of
useful infor mat ion dat a. Channel coding
works by inser t ing some code element s,
usually r eferred t o as overhead, int o t he
source dat a code flow, for error
det ect ion and correct ion at t he receiving
end. This is like t he t ransport of glasses.
To ensure t hat no glasses are broken
during t his process, we usually
use
t o
cert ain ext ent , t hus gr eat ly avoiding bit
errors in t he code flow. Therefore,
channel coding aims at incr easing dat a
t ransmission efficiency by reducing bit
error rat e.
f oams or sponge t o package t hem.
However , such packaging reduces t he
t ot al number of glasses. Similarly, over
a channel wit h fixed bandwidt h, t he
t ot al t ransmission code rat e is fixed. As
channel coding increases dat a amount ,
t he useful informat ion code rat e is
reduced. This is t he cost . The number of
useful bit s divided by t he t ot al number
of bit s derives t he coding efficiency,


which var ies slight ly from one coding
mode t o anot her.
The coding/ decoding t echnology and
int erleaving t echnology can work
t oget her t o incr ease t he bit error
performance. Compared wit h t he case
wit hout coding, t he t radit ional
convolut ion code can increase t he bit
error rat e by t wo orders of magnit ude,
t o 10
- 3
~ 10
- 4
, and t he Turbo code can
furt her incr ease t he bit er ror rat e t o
10
- 6
. Because t he Turbo code has a
coding perfor mance close t o t he limit of
Shannon t heor em, it is adopt ed as t he
dat a coding/ decoding t echnology for 3G.
The convolut ion code is mainly used for
voice and signaling of low dat a rat es.
Principles of Interleaving/Deinterleaving
I nt erleaving/ deint er leaving is an
impor t ant st ep of t he combined channel
error correct ion syst em. The act ual
errors in t he channel are usually burst
errors or bot h burst errors and random
errors. I f burst errors are
first di scr et i zed int o random errors,
which ar e t hen correct ed, t he syst ems
ant i- int erfer ence performance can be
improved. The int er leaver works t o
discret ize long burst errors or mult iple
burst error s int o random err ors, t hat is,
discret izing t he errors.



The int erleaving t echnology
r ear r anges t he coded signals by
following cert ain rules. Aft er
deint er leaving, burst errors
are di sper sed
Spread Spectrum
over t ime, making t hem
similar t o random errors t hat occur
separat ely.
Spread Spect rum is an informat ion
t ransmission mode. I t modulat es
informat ion signals wit h spr eading code
at sending end and enables spect rum
widt h of infor mat ion signals much wider
t han bandwidt h for informat ion
t ransmission. I t dispr eads at receiving
end wit h same spreading code, t o
resume dat a of t ransmit t ed informat ion.
Figure 6 shows basic operat ions of
spect rum
spread/ dispread. Supposi ng subscr iber
dat a rat e is R, subscr iber dat a is
101101, and according t o t he rule t hat 1
is mapped as - 1, 0 is mapped as + 1,
map subscriber dat a as - 1+ 1- 1- 1+ 1- 1
and t ime it wit h spr eading code.
Spreading code is 01101001 in t his
example. Time each subscriber dat a bit
t o t his code series including 8 code
chips. Concluded dat a rat e aft er spread
is 8 R and is random, like spreading
code. I t s spread spect rum fact ors are 8.


Broadband signals aft er spread
spect rum are t ransmit t ed t o receiving
end via radio channels. Time code
sequence wit h same spread spect r um
code ( dispr eading code) when
dispr eading at receiving end t o resume
original subscriber dat a.
Spreading signal speed by 8 t imes
fact or may result in bandwidt h
spreading of subscriber dat a signals
( t herefor e, CDMA syst em is oft en called
spread spect r um syst em) . Dispreading
resumes signal rat e t o or iginal rat e.
FIGURE 6 SPECTRUM
SPREADING/DISPREADING IN DS-CDMA
Subscriber data
= -1+1-1-1+1-1
Spread spectrum =
+1-1-1+1-1+1+1-1
Spreading signal =
Subscriber data *
Spread spectrum
Dispreading data
= Subscriber data
* Spread
spectrum
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Spectrum dispreading
Spectrum spreading

Dist r ibut ing different spr ead spect rum
t o different subscr iber can dist inguish
different subscriber, as shown in above
sect or.
Supposing t hat t here are t hree
subscribers and t hat signals t hey send
are b1, b2 and b3, spread t heir signals
wit h spr eading code of c1, c2 and c3



and final sending signal is y= b1c1 +
b2c2 + b3c3. Supposing t hat t her e is no
int erfer ence in signal t ransmission, t he
receiving end:
Get s signals aft er dispread wit h c1
z1 = y * c1 = c1 * ( b1c1 + b2c2 +
b3c3) = b1 + ( b2c2c1 + b3c3c1)
z2 = y * c2 = c2 * ( b1c1 + b2c2 +
b3c3) = b2 + ( b1c1c2 + b3c3c2)
z3 = y * c3 = c3 * ( b1c1+ b2c2+ b3c3)
= b3 + ( b1c1c3 + b2c2c3)
All part s in t he bracket s in above t hree
formulas are int erference of ot her
subscriber signals t o t his signal. This
int erfer ence can be absolut ely avoided if
using or t hogonalized codes.
Ort hogonalized code is t he code t hat is
1 aft er t iming it self and is 0 aft er t iming
ot her codes. So:
z1 = y * c1 = c1 * ( b1c1 + b2c2 +
b3c3) = b1 + ( b2c2c1 + b3c3c1) = b1
+ 0 + 0 = b1
z2 = y * c2 = c2 * ( b1c1 + b2c2 +
b3c3) = b2 + ( b1c1c2 + b3c3c2) = b2
+ 0 + 0 = b2
z3 = y * c3 = c3 * ( b1c1 + b2c2 +
b3c3) = b3 + ( b1c1c3 + b2c2c3) = b3
+ 0 + 0 = b3


Modulation and Demodulation
Modulat ion is t he process t o use one
signal ( know as modulat ion signal) t o
cont rol anot her signal of carrier ( known
as carr ier signal) , so t hat a
charact erist ic paramet er of t he lat er
changes wit h t he for mer . At t he
receiving end, t he process t o rest or e t he
original signal from t he modulat ed
signal is called demodulat ion.
Dur ing signal modulat ion, a
high- frequency sine signal is oft en used
as t he carrier signal. One sine signal
involves t hr ee paramet ers: amplit ude,
frequency and phase. Modulat ion of
each of t hese t hree paramet er s is
respect ively called amplit ude
modulat ion, fr equency modulat ion, and
phase modulat ion.
I n t he WCDMA syst em, t he modulat ion
is Quat er nar y Phase Shift Keying
( QPSK) . I f High Speed Downlink
Package Access ( HSDPA) is used, t he
downlink modulat ion mode can also be
16QAM.
Modulat ing rat e of WCDMA
uplinks/ downlinks are bot h 3.84 Mcps
and modulat e complex- valued code chip
sequence generat ed by spr ead spect r um
in QPSK mode.



Figure 7 shows uplink modulat ion and
Figure 8 shows downlink modulat ion.
FIGURE 7 UPLINK MODULATION
S
Im{S}
Re{S}
cos(t)
Complex-valued
chip sequence
from spreading
operations
-sin(t)
Split
real &
imag.
parts
Pulse-
shaping
Pulse-
shaping

FIGURE 8 DOWNLINK MODULATION
T
Im{T}
Re{T}
cos(t)
Complex-valued
chip sequence
from summing
operations
-sin(t)
Split
real &
imag.
parts
Pulse-
shaping
Pulse-
shaping

Key Technologies on WCDMA Wireless Side
Power Control
Qualit y Of Ser vice ( QOS) t hat Radio cell
net work provides for each subscriber
mainly depends on
signal- t o- int erference rat io ( SI R) of
subscriber receiving signals. For CDMA
cell syst em, all subscr iber s in same cell
use same band and t imeslot , and
subscribers ar e isolat ed wit h each ot her


only by t he ( quasi- ) ort hogonalizat ion of
spreading code. Correlat ion
charact erist ics bet ween each subscriber
signals are not so good and signals of
ot her subscr ibers int erfer e signals of
current subscribers, due t o mult ipat h
and delay of t he radio channels.
I ncreasing of subscribers or power of
ot her subscribers may enhance
int erfer ence on current subscriber.
Therefor e, CDMA syst em is a st rong
power- rest r ict ed syst em and st rengt h of
int erfer ence influences syst em capacit y
direct ly.
Power cont rol is regarded as one of t he
key t echnologies of CDMA syst em.
Power cont rol adj ust s t r ansmission
power of each subscr iber , compensat es
channel at t enuat ion, count ervails
near- far effect and maint ains all
subscribers at lowest st andar d of normal
communicat ion. I t reduces int erference
on ot her subscriber s at most , incr eases
syst em capacit y and prolongs holding
t ime of mobile phones.
Power cont rol is an import ant part in t he
WCDMA syst em. I f all t he MSs in a cell
t ransmit signals at t he same power, t he
signals from a near MS t o t he BTS are
st ronger, and t he signals from a far MS
t o t he BTS are weaker. As a result , t he
st rong signals overr ide t he weak
signals. This is called Near / Far Effect in



t he mobile communicat ion. WCDMA is a
self- int erfer ence syst em and all user s
use t he same frequency. Therefore, t he
"near - far effect " is mor e serious. I n
addit ion, for t he WCDMA syst em, t he
downlink of t he BTS is power rest rict ed.
To achieve accept able call qualit y when
t he TX power is small, bot h t he BTS and
t he MS are requir ed t o adj ust power
needed by t he t ransmit t er in real t ime
according t o t he communicat ion
dist ance and link qualit y. This process is
called "power cont rol" .
Power cont rol of WCDMA includes inner
loop power cont rol and out er loop power
cont rol by effect .
I nner loop power cont rol is used t o
combat channel fade and loss, so t hat
t he SI R or power of t he r eceived signals
can r each t he specific t arget value.
Out er loop power cont rol generat es t he
SI R or power t hreshold for inner power
cont rol according t o t he QoS in t he
specific environment . By link, t here is
uplink power cont rol and downlink
power cont rol. Since t he CDMA syst em
capacit y is mainly r est rict ed by t hat of
t he uplink, uplink power cont rol is
part icularly import ant .
By link t ype, t here is open loop power
cont rol and closed loop power cont rol.
Open loop power cont rol is based on t he
assumpt ion t hat t he uplink and downlink


channels are symmet r ic. I t can
count eract pat h loss and shadow fade.
Close loop power cont rol does not need
t his assumpt ion, and it can count eract
fast fade.
Open Loop Control
1. Uplink open loop cont rol
I n t he WCDMA syst em, every MS is
calculat ing t he pat h loss from t he BTS
t o t he MS all t he t ime. When t he
signal received by t he MS from a BTS
is very st rong, it indicat es t hat eit her
t he MS is very close t o t he BTS or t he
t ransmission pat h is excellent . I n t his
case, t he MS can lower t he TX power,
while t he BTS can st ill receive signals
normally. On t he ot her way around,
when t he signal received by t he MS is
very weak, it s TX power can be
incr eased t o count eract t he
at t enuat ion. Open loop power cont rol
occur s only when t he MS is powered
on and only once.
2. Downlink out er loop cont rol
I t is t he process of est imat ing t he
init ial TX power of a new request ed
service. The syst em can est imat e t he
init ial TX power of t he downlink
channel according t o t he signal qualit y
of t he pr imary common pilot channel
( P- CPI CH) measured by t he UE. At



t he same t ime, t he following fact or s
have t o be t aken int o account : QoS,
dat a rat e, qualit y fact or E
b
/ N
o
,
real- t ime t ot al TX power of t he
downlink, int er ferences on t his cell by
ot her cells, and so on.
Open loop power cont rol is simple and
direct , wit hout needing exchange of
cont rol informat ion bet ween t he MS
and t he BTS. I n addit ion, it feat ures a
higher cont rol speed and needs few
overheads. However, in t he WCDMA
syst em, different fr equencies are used
in uplink/ downlink t ransmission. The
frequency difference is far great er
t han t he coherent bandwidt h of
channels. Therefore, it cannot be
assumed t hat t he fade charact erist ic
of t he downlink channel is equal t o
t hat of t he uplink channel. This is t he
limit at ion of t he open loop power
cont rol.
Inner Loop Control
I n t his case, t he receiver compares t he
signal- int erference rat io of t he received
signal wit h t he t arget value of t he
cont rol channel. Then, it ret ur ns a
t ransmission power cont rol ( TPC)
command t o t he sender. The sender
det ermines whet her t o increase or
reduce t he TX power based on t he


closed loop power cont rol algorit hm
specified by t he upper layer, and makes
adj ust ment s at t he specified st ep
according t o t he received command.
Outer Loop Control
Out er loop power cont rol is a
supplement t o closed loop power
cont rol. The working pr inciple of uplink
out er loop power cont rol is: Compar e
t he act ual block error ( BLER) rat io of
t he t ransmission channel wit h t he t arget
block error ( BLER) rat io, t hen, slowly
adj ust t he t arget signal- int erference
rat io ( SI R
Target
) so t hat t he service
qualit y is not affect ed by t he change of
t he radio environment , and t hat a
relat ively const ant communicat ion
qualit y can be maint ained.
Out er loop power cont rol usually adj ust s
t he t arget SI R based on BLER, t o make
t he QoS meet t he requirement s. Since
different services have different QoS,
t her e are differ ent t arget SI Rs.
Downlink out er loop power cont rol is
similar t o downlink inner loop power
cont rol.
Handover
Concept of handover: UTRAN dist ribut es
radio resour ces for UE in t he new cell



because of UEs moving and syst em
load. Then UE synchronizes wit h t he
new cell and t ransmit s dat a each ot her.
Handover is a very impor t ant
t echnology in mobile communicat ion
syst em net wor king.
Handover falls int o:
1. Soft handover
Soft handover of cells under same
Node B ( soft er handover )
Soft handover of cells bet ween
different Nodes B
Soft handover of cells in same band
bet ween differ ent RNCs ( involving I ur
int erface)
2. Hard handover
Hard handover bet ween differ ent
operat ors
Hard handover in same operat or
( forced hard handover)
Hard handover bet ween syst ems
( such as, wit h GSM)
Hard handover between different modes (such
as, between FDD and TDD)
Handover r efers t o t he redist ribut ion of
radio resource in mobile communicat ion
syst em in cell st r uct ure, t o keep
discont inuous communicat ion of mobile
phones when moving a mobile st at ion
from a dist rict t o anot her . Figure 9


Handover Types in WCDMA shows
handover t ypes.
FIGURE 9 HANDOVER TYPES IN WCDMA
Handover
in the mode
Handover
between modes
Handover
between systems
Soft handover (Micro diversity)
Softer handover (Among sectors)
Hard handover (Among frequencies)
Handover of FDD-TDD
UTRA FDD - GSM
R4 UTRA FDD-CDMA2000

Hard handover refers t o delet ing
t he old link and t hen building a new
link. Services break off during t he
handover , as shown in Figur e 10.
Soft handover refers t o adding a
new link ( t he old and t he new links
exist at t he same t ime) and delet ing
t he old one aft er st abilizat ion.
Services cont inue in t he handover, as
shown in Figur e 11.



FIGURE 10 HARD HANDOVER
Node B
Node B
Cell 1 Cell 2

FIGURE 11 SOFT HANDOVER
Node B
Node B
Cell 1 Cell 2

Soft er handover refers t o handover
bet ween cells wit h same frequency
and in same base st at ion. Difference
of soft handover and soft er handover
is t hat combinat ion of radio links is
realized by RNC for soft handover
while is realized in Node B ( decided
by RNC) for soft er handover .


I nt er- frequency hard handover refers
t o handover bet ween cells wit h
different carriers in WCDMA.
I nt er- syst em hard handover refers t o
handover bet ween WCDMA and ot her
syst ems ( such as, GSM) .
1. General flow of handover :
1) Measurement ( UE)
2) Reopor t on measur ement result s
( report from UE t o RNC)
3) RNC decides whet her t o perform
handover accpridng t o t he r eport
and algorit hm ( RNC sends t he
command of handover t o UE if it is
necessary) .
Figure 12 shows det ailed flow of
handover .



FIGURE 12 HANDOVER FLOW
(A) RNC send measurement
control message to UE
(B) UE measures according to
RNC's requirement and send
measurement report message
to RNC
(C) RNC stores its measured
results of each cell in different
carriers, for different UE
(D) Estimate signal quality of
each carrier on the report
(between bands and systems)
(E) Quality
judgment
Quality of current
carrier is good
Quality of other
systems is good
Quality of other
carriers is good
(F) Maintain
avtivated set and
monitoring set
(inclduing current
and different carrier)
(G) Corresponds to
allocation resources
of virtue activated
set cell, prepared for
handover
(H) In corresponding
cell, allocate
resources and
prepared for
handover
(I) Determine the target cell and send the handover command if handover is
required

I n 3GPP, event s correlat ive t o handover
are:
Event correlat ive t o soft handover in
t he band: 1A ~ 1F
Measured value is usually Ec/ N0 of
pilot channel, reflect ing t he qualit y of
a cer t ain cell. 3GPP defines a ser ies of
measur ement event s in t he band. UE
report s corresponding event s when
meet ing definit ions.
Event Descr i pt i on
1A
Qualit y of t arget cell
improves, ent ering a repor t
range of relat ively act ivat ing
set qualit y


Event
1B
decreases, depart from a
report range of relat ively
act ivat ing set qualit y
Event
1C
The qualit y of a non- act ivat ed
set cell is bet t er t han t hat of
a cert ain act ivat ed set cell
Event
1D
Best cell gener at es change
Event
1E
improves, bet t er t han an
absolut e t hr eshold
Event
1F
decreases, worse t han an
Event corr elat ive t o hard handover
bet ween bands: 2A ~ 2F
Ec/ N0 is measured value, reflect ing
qualit y of operat ors by measur ing
cells at differ ent bands. UE report s
corresponding event s when meet ing
definit ions.
Event
2A
Best band generat es change
Event
2B
Qualit y of curr ent ly- used band
is worse t han an absolut e
t hreshold and t hat of non- used
band is bet t er t han an



Event
2C
Qualit y of non- used band is
bet t er t han an absolut e
t hreshold
Event
2D
t hreshold
Event
2E
Qualit y of non- used band is
worse t han an absolut e
t hreshold
Event
2F
is bet t er t han an absolut e
t hreshold
Event correlat ive t o handover
bet ween syst ems: 3A ~ 3D
RSSI is measured value for GSM. UE
report s corresponding event s when
meet ing definit ions.
Event
3A
Qualit y of curr ent ly- used
UTRAN operat or is worse t han
an absolut e t hr eshold and
qualit y of ot her radio syst ems
is bet t er t han an absolut e
t hreshold
Event
3B
Qualit y of ot her radio syst ems
t hreshold
Event Qualit y of ot her radio syst ems


3C is bet t er t han an absolut e
t hreshold
Event
3D
Best cell in ot her syst ems
generat es change
For example: Adding a radio link in soft
handover and Figure 13 shows signaling
process of handover.
FIGURE 13 SOFT HANDOVER (ADDING A
LINK) SIGNALING FLOW
UE Target Node B Source Node B RNC
RRC: Measurement Report(Event 1a) (From Source Node B to RNC)
NBAP: Radio Link Setup Request
NBAP: Radio Link Setup Response
Executing handover
judgement and
adding a radio link
in Target Node B
Start to receive
Distributing transmission resources on Iub interface
Start to send
RRC: Active Set Update(E1a) (From Source Node B to UE)
RRC: Active Set Update Complete (From Source & Target Node B to RNC
simutaneously)
UE connects to Source Node B and Target Node B simutaneously

2Compression mode



UE has only one RF r ecept ion unit and
can only decode signals of one
frequency at one t ime. Therefor e,
compr ession mode is necessary if
measur ing t wo cells of differ ent bands
or I different cells. Figur e 14 shows
compr ession mode priciple.
FIGURE 14 COMPRESSION MODE
PRINCIPLE

I n compression mode, Node B
compr esses dat a when sending some
downlink channel frames. UE t akes
advant age of remaining t ime for
measur ement of different bands.
Compression mode can be realized by
drilling and halving spreading fact ors,
and so on. When measuring bet ween
frequencies, t he syst em negot iat es wit h
UE wht her t o suppor t and select
compr ession mode.


RAKE Receiver
Since mult ipat h signals cont ain useful
informat ion, CDMA receivers improve
t he S/ N of t he received signals by
combining mult ipat h signals. What a
RAKE receiver does is t o r eceive t he
various channels of signals from
mult ipat h signals t hrough mult iple
relat ed det ect ors, and t hen combine
t hem. The RAKE receiver is a classical
diversit y receiver specially designed for
t he CDMA syst em. I t s t heor et ical basis
is t hat when t he propagat ion delay
exceeds one chip code cycle, mult ipat h
signals are act ually seen t o be mut ually
irrelevant .
RAKE recept ion separat es and combines
mult ipat h signals. Different from t he
I S- 95 A, WCDMA has t hree t imes of
mult ipat h resolving power. I n addit ion,
in a WCDMA syst em, t he pilot
informat ion sent by t he user can be
used for coherent combinat ion on t he
reverse link. The t heoret ical analysis of
WCDMA shows t hat if t he reverse link
uses 8- pat h RAKE recept ion, over 75%
signal energies ar e used. The
suppression of t he RAKE recept ion for
mult iple access int erfer ence depends on
t he correlat ion bet ween t he differ ent
user charact erist ic codes.



Code Resource Allocation
I n WCDMA, code r esour ces fall int o
channelizat ion codes, scrambling codes
and synchronizat ion codes.
I n mobile communicat ion
syst em, primary scrambling codes are
t o different iat e cells, channelizat ion
codes are t o differ physical channels on
t he downlink, and scrambling codes are
t o different iat e user s on t he uplink.
Ort hogonal Variable Spr eading Fact or
( OVSF) is precious ans scar ce resource,
so one cell corresponds t o one code
t able. To access more users and t o
incr ease syst em capacit y, make use of
code resources reasonably. I t is very
impor t ant t o plan and manage downlink
channelizat ion code resour ces.
Alt hough t her e are many scrambling
codes on t he uplink, it is necessary t o
plan scrambling of RNC, t o avoid
different user s in different RNC use
same scrambling codes.
Channelization Code
1. Brief int roduct ion
Channelizat ion codes ar e based on
OVSF t echnology, which can change
t he spr eading fact or and ensur e
ort hogonalit y bet ween different


spreading codes of differ ent lengt h.
On t he downlink, channelizat ion codes
are t o differ ent iat e t ransmission from
t he same source, t hat is, downlinks
wit hin a sect or, while on t he uplink, t o
different iat e dedicat ed physical
channels of all uplinks from a UE
( including dedicat ed physical dat a
channel and dedicat ed physical
cont rol channel) .
2. Generat ion pr inciple
Figure 15 shows pr inciple of
channelizat ion code generat ion.
C
ch
m
indicat es channelizat ion codes
wit h spr eading fact or ( SF) of n and
code of m.



FIGURE 15 CHANNELIZATION CODE
GENERATION PRINCIPLE
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
+ +
+
+
C C
C C

C C
C C
C C
C C
C
C

C
C
C
C
1 1
1 1
C C
C C
C
C
1 C
1 - ch,2n,2n 1 - ch,2n,2n
1 - ch,2n,2n 1 - ch,2n,2n
ch,2n,1 ch,2n,1
ch,2n,1 ch,2n,1
ch,2n,0 ch,2n,0
ch,2n,0 ch,2n,0
1 - 1) 1),2(n n ch,2
2 - 1) 1),2(n ch,2(n
1),3 ch,2(n
1),2 ch,2(n
,1 1 n ch,2
0 1) ch,2(n
ch,1,0 ch,1,0
ch,1,0 0 1 ch
1 2 ch
2,0 ch
ch,1,0

3. Select ion rule
Codes ar e select ed from t he code t ree
shown in Figur e 16
FIGURE 16 CHANNELIZATION CODE TREE

SF = 1 SF = 2 SF = 4
C
ch,1,0
= (1)
C
ch,2,0
= (1,1)
C
ch,2,1
=
(1,-1)
C
ch,4,0
=(1,1,1,1)
C
ch,4,1
=
(1,1,-1,-1)
C
ch,4,2
=
(1,-1,1,-1)
C
ch,4,3
=
(1,-1,-1,1)

There ar e some r est rict ions t o
channelizat ion codes used by same


informat ion source. For physical
channelizat ion, all codes in a lower
branch of t he code t r ee ar e not in use,
t hat is, all high- order spreading fact ors
aft er t he code cannot be used. Likewise,
t he low- order spreading fact ors from t he
branch t o t he root cannot be used. As
shown in Figur e 17, red codes are t hose
t hat have been allocat ed and blue codes
are t hose t hat cannot be allocat ed.
FIGURE 17 EXAMPLE FOR CODE
ALLOCATION
SF=8
SF=32
SF=16

4. Specific allocat ion
1) Allocat ion of downlink common
channelizat ion code
Channelizat ion codes used on
primary common pilot channel
( P_CPI CH) and primary common
cont rol physical channel
( P_CCPCH) ar e fixed, which are
Cch,256,0 and Cch,256,1
respect ively.
For S_CPI CH, PI CH, AI CH,
AP- AI CH, CSI CH and CD/ CA_I CH
common channels, channelizat ion



codes wit h t he spreading fact or of
256 are used. Generally, several
such channels have been planned
when a cell is set up and t he
channelizat ion codes for t hem have
been allocat ed in advance
( t herefor e, dynamic applicat ion is
unnecessary) .
For S_CCPCH, since t he dat a rat e
borne on it is not fixed, it s
spreading fact or can be select ed
bet ween 4 and 256. Gener ally, a
corresponding spreading fact or is
det ermined for it according t o t he
permit t ed t ransmit t able dat a rat e
during common channel set up and
t hen a channelizat ion code is
allocat ed for it .
2) Allocat ion of downlink dedicat ed
As t he paramet er s vary, t he
principle of opt imized and dynamic
code allocat ion is followed for
dedicat ed physical channels.
3) Allocat ion of uplink common
PRACH: I t s pr eamble signat ure s
( 0< = s< = 15) refers t o t he 16
nodes on t he code t ree, which
corresponds t o lengt h 16 of t he
channelizat ion code. The sub- t r ee
of t he specified node is used t o


spread t he message part .
Spreading code of t he cont rol part :
Cc = C
ch, 256,m
, m = 16 s + 15
spreading fact or of t he dat a part :
Ranging bet ween 32 and 256.
More exact ly, spreading code Cd =
C
ch, SF,m
, m = SF s/ 16.
4) Allocat ion of uplink dedicat ed
PCPCH: Cont rol channel C
c
=
C
ch, 256,0
, dat a channel C
d
= C
ch, SF, k
,
SF = { 256, 128, , 4} , k = SF/ 4,
and power cont rol forward
channelizat ion code C
ch, 256,0
.
Scrambling Code
1. Brief int roduct ion
Scrambling codes ar e used aft er
spreading, which will not change
signal bandwidt h. They ar e only used
t o differ ent iat e UEs or Nodes B.
2. Generat ion
1) Long scrambling code sequence
Long scrambling code sequences
Clong,1,n and Clong,2, n are
generat ed from 38400 chip packet
mode 2 of t wo 25- order polynomial
m sequences.
Suppose t hat x and y st ands for
t wo M sequences. x sequence is
generat ed by using mult inomial



X25+ X3+ 1 and y sequence is
generat ed by using mult inomial
X25+ X3+ X2+ X+ 1. They form a
Gold sequence. Clong,2, n is t he
16777232 code chip shift ed from
sequence Clong,1,n.
The const ruct ion of xn and y of M
sequence is:
I nit ial condit ions:
xn( 0) = n0, xn( 1) = n1, , xn( 22)
= n22, xn( 23) = n23,xn( 24) = 1.
y( 0) = y( 1) = = y( 23) = y( 24) =
1.
Recursive expr ession:
xn( i+ 25) = xn( i+ 3) + xn( i) modulo
2, i = 0, , 225- 27.
y( i+ 25) =
y( i+ 3) + y( i+ 2) + y( i+ 1) + y( i)
modulo 2, i = 0, , 225- 27.
Definit ion:
zn( i) = xn( i) + y( i) modulo 2, i = 0,
1, 2, , 225- 2.
2 2 1 0
1 ) ( 1
0 ) ( 1
) (
25
=
=
= +
= i for
i z if
i z if
i Z
n
n
n

clong, 1, n( i) = Zn( i) , i = 0, 1, 2,
, 225 2
clong, 2, n( i) = Zn( ( i + 16777232)
modulo ( 225 1) ) , i = 0, 1, 2, ,
225 2.


Finally, t he definit ion of long
scrambling code sequence is as
follows:
( )

( ) ( ) 2 / 2 1 1 ) ( ) (
, 2 , , 1 , ,
i c j i c i C
n long
i
n long n long
+ =

i = 0, 1, .. ., 225 - 2; indicat es
round- off.
Figure 18 shows generat ion of a
long scrambling code sequence.
FIGURE 18 LONG SCRAMBLING CODE
SEQUENCE GENERATOR

c
long,1,n
c
long,2,n
MSB
LSB

2) Short scrambling code sequence
zn( i) = a( i) + 2b( i) + 2d( i) modulo 4,
i = 0, 1, , 254;
Here, "a ( i) " is gener at ed from
polynomial expression.
a( 0) = 2n0 + 1 modulo 4;
a( i) = 2ni modulo 4, i = 1, 2, , 7;
a( i) = 3a( i- 3) +
a( i- 5) + 3a( i- 6) + 2a( i- 7) + 3a( i- 8) modul
o 4,
i = 8, 9, , 254;



Here, "b ( i) " is recursive from
polynomial expression.
b( i) = n8+ i modulo 2, i = 0, 1, ,
7,
b( i) = b( i- 1) + b( i- 3) + b( i- 7) +
b( i- 8) modulo 2, i = 8, 9, , 254,
where, g2( x) = x8+ x7+ x5+ x4+ 1
as;
where, d( i) = n16+ i modulo 2, i =
0, 1, , 7;
d( i) = d( i- 1) + d( i- 3) + d( i- 4) +
d( i- 8) modulo 2, i = 8, 9, , 254,
where, zn( 255) = zn( 0) .
Finally, t he definit ion of a short
scrambling code sequence is as
follows:
( ) ( )

( ) ( ) 2 / 256 mod 2 1 1 ) 256 mod ( ) (
, 2 , , 1 , ,
i c j i c i C
n short
i
n short n short
+ =

Figure 19 shows generat ion of a
short scrambling code sequence.


FIGURE 19 SHORT SCRAMBLING CODE
SEQUENCE GENERATOR
0
7
4
+
mod n addition
d(i)
1

2

3

5

6

2
mod 2
0

7

4

b(i)
1

2

3

5

6

2

mod 2
+
mod 4
multiplication
Zn(i)

0

7

4

1

2

3

5

6

+
mod 4
Mapper

C short,1,n(i)
a(i)
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
3 3

3
2

C short,2,n(i)

3. Usage
1) Downlink
There ar e alt oget her 24,576
downlink scrambling codes
number ed as n = 0,... , 24575.
They fall int o following t hree part s:
k = 0, 1, 2,.. . 8191, correspond t o
8,192 ordinary scrambling codes
used in normal mode.
k+ 8192, k = 0, 1, 2, ...8191, are
alt ernat ive scr ambling codes used
in compr ession mode when "n" is
less t han SF/ 2. They ar e called left
scrambling codes and t her e are
alt oget her 8,192.
k+ 16384, k = 0, 1, 2, .. .8191, are
alt ernat ive scr ambling codes used
in compr ession mode when "n" is
more t han or equal t o SF/ 2. They



are called right scrambling codes
and t here ar e alt oget her 8,192.
Here: n is allocat ed channelizat ion
code No.
Rules for ordinary scrambling code
allocat ion
Former 8,192 scrambling codes fall
int o 512 set s and each comprises
of a primary scrambling code and
15 secondary scrambling codes
following t he primary one. Every
cell corresponds t o a set of
downlink scrambling codes.
Primary scrambling code sequence
number : n = 16* I , I = 0, , 511,
Scrambling code No. corresponding
t o t he secondary scrambling code
set s: n = 16 * I + K K = 1, 15.
Rule for scrambling code select ion
during scrambling for downlink
physical channel
For PCI PCH, PCCPCH, S_CPI CH,
PI CH, AI CH, AP- AI CH, CSI CH and
CD/ CA_I CH channels, primary
scrambling codes ar e adopt ed for
scrambling.
For t heir downlink physical
channels, eit her primary scr ambling
codes or secondary scrambling
codes can be adopt ed for
scrambling.


2) Uplink
PRACH scrambling code
Const r uct ion of preamble code:
( ) ( ) ( ) 4095 ..., 3 0,1,2 k e k C k S k C
k
2 4
j
s sig, n r_pre, s n, pre,

|
.
|
\
|

Here, message part scrambling
code:
Sr_msgni= ClongnI + 4096
i= 0138399
Scrambling code of t he message
part begins wit h 4096t h code chip
of scrambling code sequence. The
first 4096 code chips ser ve as
preamble scr ambling codes of
PRACH. That is t o say, same
scrambling code sequence No. is
used for preamble scrambling code
and message scrambling code of
PRACH. I n addit ion, t her e are also
alt oget her 8,192 scrambling codes
in t he message part .
Here, preamble scrambling code
is:
Sr_preni = Clongni i= 0
1 4095; n= 0 1 2
8191
There are 8,192 PRACH preamble
scrambling codes in t ot al. They fall
int o 512 set s and each comprises



of 16 scrambling codes. There are
16 preamble scrambling codes in
each cell in t ot al. The relat ion
bet ween scrambling code sequence
number and corresponding pr imary
scrambling code sequence of t he
corresponding cell is: n = 16* m+ k
m = 0, 1, , 511; k = 0, 1, , 15.
DPCH scrambling code
There are numerous scrambling
codes available for DPCH. I n
addit ion, scrambling codes
generat ed from a long scrambling
code generat or or from a short
scrambling code generat or can be
used.
Use of long scr ambling code:
( ) ( ) 38399 ... 0,1, i i C i S
n long, n DPCH,

Use of shor t scrambling code:
( ) ( ) 38399 ,..., 1 , 0 i ,
, ,
i C i S
n short n DPCH
=

Available scr ambling codes on
WCDMA uplink is 224 and codes of
0 t o 4095 are allocat ed t o PRACH,
4095 t o 40959 are allocat ed t o
PCPCH, and t he remaining 224 t o
40960 are all for DPCH. Dur ing t he
allocat ion, ensure t hat different
uplink scrambling codes are
allocat ed t o different UE.
Since scrambling codes are
allocat ed in RNC, uplink scrambling


code resources are same for
different RNC, which ar e 224 t o
40960. During t he net work
planning, for t hose cells at t he
edge bet ween different RNCs, keep
t heir downlink primary scrambling
codes differ ent t o ensur e t heir
scrambling code sequence
different .
Synchronization Code
Synchronizat ion codes fall int o primary
synchronizat ion codes and secondary
synchronizat ion codes, which are t he
det ect ion obj ect s of cell sear ch by a UE.
All cells have same primary
synchronizat ion code.
1. Composit ion of a primary
synchronizat ion code
( ) + a a, a, - a, a, - a, a, a, a, - a, - a, a, - a, - a, a, a, j 1 C
psc
1 1, - 1, - 1, 1, - 1, 1, - 1, 1, - 1, - 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, x , , x , x , x a
16 3 2 1

A primary synchronizat ion code is
composed of 256 bit s in t ot al, which
correspond one by one t o 256 chips
t ransmit t ed fr om each t ime slot of a
synchronizat ion channel.
2. Composit ion of a secondary
synchronizat ion code
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) + 255 z 255 ... 2 z 2 ), 1 ( ) 1 ( 0 z 0 j 1 C
k scc m m m m
h h z h h

Here,
( ) 1 k 16 m

z sequence is a fixed code sequence:



16 15, 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
x - x - , x - , x - , x - , x - , x - , x - , x , x , x , x , x , x , x , x b
b - b, - b, - b, - b, - b, b, - b, b, - b, - b, b, b, - b, b, b, z

Here, t he values of x1, x2, .. . x15,
x16 are t he same as X values t hat
const it ut e a primary synchr onizat ion
code. h sequence is const it ut ed
according t o t he following r ule when
k is 8:
| |
1 k
H H
H H
H
1 H
1 k 1 k
1 k 1 k
k
0

Admission
Control
Call admission cont rol decides t o accept
or refuse a new subscriber, new Radio
Access Bearer ( RAB) and new Radio Link
( RL) according t o current r esource ( such
as, handover) . Call admission cont rol is
applicable t o original UE access, RAB
designat ion, reconfigur at ion and
handover . I t may lead t o different
result s because of PRI and act ual
sit uat ions.
Call admission cont rol meet s QOS of
new calls as much as possible premising
t he st abilit y of t he syst em, based on
int erfer ence measur ement , t o avoid
overloading.
Call admission cont rol falls int o:
Uplink call admission cont rol
Downlink call admission cont r ol


WCDMA is a self- int erfer ence syst em
and t her e exist s power climbing. The
core is power. Uplink capacit y depends
on whet her t ot al receiving int erference
power is beyond linear dynamic range of
LNA or not . Downlink capacit y depends
on whet her t he dist ribut ion of
t ransmission power complet es or not .
Process of call admission cont rol:
Measure curr ent load of syst em cell
when making calls ( new access calls and
handover calls) , forecast and est imat e
calls and j udge whet her t o access calls.
Take QOS requirement s of calls. That is,
communicat ion rat e, communicat ion
qualit y ( signal- t o- noise rat io and error
code rat io) and delay int o considerat ion
when forecast ing calls. Refuse t he call
when it approaches some t hr eshold.
Service calls fall int o new calls and
handover calls. Reserve some resources
for handover calls t o ensur e high rat io
of successful handovers. PRI of
handover calls is dist inguished by
admission cont rol t hreshold. Admission
cont rol t hr eshold of new calls is lower
t han t hat of handover calls. New calls
are refused when current load of t he cell
is higher t han admission t hreshold of
new calls. However, handover calls ar e
accept ed. Handover rat io is bet t er t o be
at about 35% in soft handover.
Handover calls are also refused when



t he load of t he cell is higher t han
handover admission cont rol t hr eshold.
Load cont rol t hreshold is commonly
higher t han admission cont rol t hr eshold
of handover, t o prevent overloading
when radio circumst ances change and
t o ensure t he st able running of t he
syst em.
Measurement Related to Admission Control
1. Node B Common Measur ement
1) DCH measur ement
Maj or fact or s t o influence WCDMA
syst em capacit y ( DCH) ar e uplink
int erfer ence and downlink operat or
emission power. DCH admission
cont rol per forms admission
decision on t hese t wo paramet er s.
Node r eport s RTWP and TCP of
Node B common measurement t o
RNC periodically, so t hat RNC can
decide whet her t o access t he new
call according t o lat est load.
2) HS- DSCH measurement
HS- DSCH admission cont rol needs
Node B common measurement
informat ion r elat ed t o HSDPA,
including HS- DSCH required
Power, Transmit t ed operat or power
of all codes not used for HS- PDSCH
or HS- SCCH t ransmission.
Therefor e, open t hese common


measur ement s simult aneously in
cells suppor t ing HSDPA.
3) RACH measur ement
According t o policies of ZTE, t o
est imat e t he load, RACH st art s up
Acknowledged PRACH preambles
common measurement during t he
admission cont rol, t o get act ual
ut ilizat ion rat io of PRACH channel.
2. UE measurement
When pr edict ing downlink power, RNC
needs real- t ime rout e loss of UE. RNC
can get rout e loss of UE by different
means according t o admission
request s t ype, such as, report ing
t hrough some event s of UE.
Load Control/Congestion Control
1. Process of load cont rol
The syst em measur es t he load of t he
syst em cell at real t ime cont inually.
The syst em load is high and t he load
ent ers unst able running dist r ict of t he
syst em when load average value
exceeds some t hreshold value in a set
t ime. Load cont rol is necessary at t he
moment .
2 Load cont rol t hreshold
The cor e of load cont rol is t o access
as many services as possible



premising t hat t he syst em is running
st ably, t o r ealize high efficient
running. Leave some redundancy,
excluding base line for syst em
breakdown, as t hreshold value of load
cont rol. Threshold value of load
cont rol is larger t han t hat of
admission cont rol.
3 Load cont rol mode
Load cont rol works when syst em load
approaches or exceeds load t hreshold
value. Main modes:
1 Reduce t he load in a rapid mode,
which is mainly r ealizes by base
st at ion ( Node B) .
Downlink rapid load cont rol:
Refusing t he command t o increase
t he power from t he mobile st at ion.
Uplink rapid load cont rol: Reducing
SI R dest inat ion value for uplink
rapid power cont rol.
2 Reduce t he load in medium or
slow mode, which is mainly realized
by base st at ion cont roller ( RNC) .
Commonly, RNC makes j udgment
and changes max allowed
t ransmission power, dest inat ion
SI R value and TFCS by
reconfigur ing t he RL. I n t his mode


can t he syst em load be r educed for
a long t ime.
Make negot iat ions if hoping t o reduce
t he syst em load for a long t ime, t hat
is, RNC negot iat es wit h CN t o reduce
resour ce occupat ion of services
during t he communicat ions. Or, share
loads wit h adj acent cells in RNS t o
reduce t he load of t hose overloading
cells. The t aking- in and sending- out
of adj acent cells ( covering r adius of
one cell increases and t hat of anot her
adj acent cell decreases) is called cell
breat hing.
Conclusions:
Reducing t he t hroughput of
grouping ( reducing t he t ransmission
rat e)
Handing over t o ot her WCDMA
carrier fr equency
Handing over t o GSM syst em
Reducing t he rat e of real- t ime
services
Execut ing t he call drops
Overview and Features of AMR
Adapt ive Mult i Rat e ( AMR) code is a
voice- coding plan. I t is called broadband
AMR ( AMR- WB or AMR Wideband) in
WCDMA.



Current GSM speech coding ( FR, HR,
EFR and AMR) is applicable t o
narrowband speech and audio
bandwidt h is limit ed t o 3.4 kHz. Audio
bandwidt h of AMR- RB ext ends t o 7 kHz,
which makes t he voice much clearer and
nat ur al, especially in hands- free
sit uat ions.
AMR provides eight coding r at es of 4.7
k, 5,15 k, 5,9 k, 6,7 k, 7,4 k, 7,95 k,
10.2 k and 12.2 k. Select codes wit h low
rat e on condit ion t hat it does not
influence communicat ion qualit y, t o
save net work r esour ce.

Interface Protocol and Channel Structure of
WCDMA RAN
Cha pt e r 3

Universal Mobile Telecommunicat ion
Syst ems ( UMTS) are t he t hird mobile
communicat ion syst ems using WCDMA
air int erfaces. UMTS is oft en referred t o
as t he WCDMA communicat ion syst em.
UMTS uses t he net work archit ect ure
same as t hat of t he second generat ion
mobile communicat ion syst em. I t
includes some logical net work unit s,
which can be grouped accor ding t o t heir
funct ions or t he subnet wor ks t hey are
on.
By funct ion, net work unit s include Radio
Access Net work ( RAN) and Core
Net work ( CN) . The RAN is used t o
process all funct ions r elat ed t o radio,
while t he CN is used t o process all t he
voice calls and dat a connect ions, and
t he swit ching and rout ing t o t he
ext er nal net works in t he UMTS syst em.
The above t wo unit s and t he User
Equipment ( UE) t oget her comprise t he



UMTS syst em. The syst em st ruct ure is
shown in Figur e 20
FIGURE 20 SYSTEM STRUCTURE OF
UMTS
Terminal
Access
network
3G core network
Service
application
domain
HLR. SCP
External network

The UMTS st andard defines t he
int erfaces bet ween t he logical unit s. The
openness of t he int erfaces enables t he
operat ors t o use equipment of differ ent
manufact ur ers t o build UTRAN and CN,
for reducing cost .
1. Uu int erface: I t is t he int erface
bet ween t he UE and UTRAN, and is an
air wireless int erface of t he WCDMA
syst em.
2. I u int erface: I t is t he int erface
bet ween t he UTRAN and CN, similar
t o t he A int erface ( CS) and Gb
int erface ( PS) in GSM. The I u
int erface consist s of t he I u- CS and
I u- PS. The I u- CS is connect ed t o t he
CS domain of t he CN, while t he I u- PS


is connect ed t o t he PS domain of t he
CN.
3. I ur int erface: I t is t he int erface
bet ween t he UTRAN and t he RNC. The
open I ur int erface enables soft
handover bet ween t he RNC
equipment from different
manufact ur ers.
4. I ub int erface: I t is t he int erface
bet ween t he Node B and RNC.
General Protocol Module for Land Interfaces of
UTRAN
The general prot ocol model for t he land
int erfaces of t he UTRAN syst em is
shown in Figur e 21.
FIGURE 21 GENERAL MODEL OF THE
UTRAN INTERFACES
Application
Protocol
Data
Stream(s)
ALCAP(s)
Transport
Network
Layer
Physical Layer
Signalling
Bearer(s)
Transport
User
Network
Plane
Control Plane User Plane
Transport
User
Network
Plane
Transport Network
Control Plane
Radio
Network
Layer
Signalling
Bearer(s)
Data
Bearer(s)



The st r uct ur e of t he prot ocol int erface
model is based on t he concept of layer
separat ion.
Horizontal Plane
There are t wo maj or layers: radio
net work layer and t ransport net work
layer . The radio net work layer uses t he
st andard ATM t echnology.
Vertical Plane
On t he radio net work layer , t he vert ical
plane consist s of t he cont rol plane and
t he user plane. On t he t ranspor t
net work layer, t he vert ical plane
consist s of t he t ransport net work cont rol
plane and t ransport net work user plane.
The cont rol plane and user plane of t he
radio net wor k layer bot h t ransmit
signals via t he user plane of t he
t ransport net work.
1. Cont rol plane
The cont rol plane is used for all t he
specific cont r ol signaling of UMTS,
including applicat ion prot ocols ( for
example, RANAP in I u, RNSAP in I ur ,
and NBAP in I ub) and signaling bearer
for t ransmit t ing applicat ion prot ocol
messages.
2. User plane


All t he informat ion received/ sent by
user s, for example, coded voices in
voice calls or packet s in an I nt ernet
connect ion, is t ransport ed via t he
user plane. The user plane includes
dat a st reams and t heir dat a bearers.
The charact erist ic of each dat a st ream
is described by one or mult iple
specific frame prot ocols of t he
int erface.
3. Transpor t net work cont rol plane
The t ranspor t net work cont rol plane is
used t o serve all t he cont rol signaling
on t he t r ansport net work layer . I t
does not include any radio net work
layer informat ion. I t consist s of t he
ALCAP prot ocol used for building
t ransport bear ers ( dat a bearers) for
t he user plane, and t he signaling
bearers needed by t he ALCAP.
The t ranspor t net work cont rol plane is
locat ed bet ween t he cont rol plane and
user plane. Wit h t he t ransport
net work cont r ol plane int roduced, t he
applicat ion prot ocol of t he radio
cont rol plane is complet ely
independent of t he t echnologies used
on t he user plane for dat a bearers.
When t he t ransport net wor k cont rol
plane is used, t he t ranspor t bearers of
dat a bearer s on t he user plane are
est ablished in t he following way: The



applicat ion pr ot ocol of t he cont rol
plane perfor ms signaling pr ocessing,
and it t r igger s t he cr eat ion of t he dat a
bearers t hrough t he ALCAP pr ot ocol.
4. Transpor t net work user plane
The dat a bear er of t he user plane and
t he signaling bearer of t he cont rol
plane applicat ion prot ocol bot h belong
t o t he t ransport net work user plane.
Dur ing real- t ime operat ion, t he dat a
bearer of t he t ransport net work user
plane is direct ly cont rolled by t he
t ransport net work cont rol plane.
Iu Interface
As an open int erface, t he I u int erface
connect s t he UTRAN t o CN. The
int erface also divides t he syst em int o
t wo part s: UTRAN, which is especially
used in radio communicat ion, and CN,
which is r esponsible for swit ching
processing, rout ing and service cont rol.


FIGURE 22 PROTOCOL STACK OF THE
IU-CS INTERFACE
Q.2150.1
Q.2630.1
RANAP
Iu UP Protocol
Layer
Transport
Network
Layer
Physical Layer
Transport
User
Network
Plane
Transport
User
Network
Plane
Transport Network
Control Plane
Radio
Network
Layer
ATM
SSCOP
AAL5
SSCOP
SSCF-NNI
AAL2 AAL5
MTP3b MTP3b
SCCP
SSCF-NNI



FIGURE 23 PROTOCOL STACK OF THE
IU-PS INTERFACE
SSCF-NNI
SSCOP
AAL5
IP
SCTP
SCCP
SSCF-NNI
MTP3-B
M3UA
RANAP
Iu UP Protocol
Layer
Transport
Network
Layer
Physical Layer
Transport
User
Network
Plane
Transport
User
Network
Plane
Transport Network
Control Plane
Radio
Network
Layer
ATM
AAL5
IP
UDP
GTP-U
Physical Layer
ATM

Iur Interface
The I ur int er face is an int ra- UTRAN
int erface, which connect s different
RNCs. I t s purpose is t o suppor t
int er- RNC soft handover .


FIGURE 24 PROTOCOL STACK OF THE IUR
INTERFACE
SCTP
AAL5
SSCF-NNI
SSCOP
MTP3B
IP
SCCP
AAL5
ALCAP Q.2630.1
STC Q.2150.1
RNSAP
Iur Data
Stream(s)
Transport
Network
Layer
Physical Layer
Transport
User
Network
Plane
Transport
User
Network
Plane
Transport Network
Control Plane
Radio
Network
Layer
ATM
AAL2
SCTP SSCF-NNI
SSCOP
MTP3B
IP
M3UA
M3UA

Iub Interface
The I ub int erface is t he int erface
bet ween t he RNC and Node B.



FIGURE 25 PROTOCOL STACK OF THE IUB
INTERFACE

Air Interface (Uu Interface)
The Uu int erface is t he int erface
bet ween t he user equipment ( UE) and
UTRAN.
The prot ocol st ack of t he Uu int erface
is: f r om bel ow t o t op, physical layer
( L1) , dat a link layer ( L2) , and net work
layer ( L3) . The dat a link layer includes
t he media access cont rol ( MAC)
sublayer , radio link cont rol ( RLC)
sublayer , packet dat a convergence
prot ocol ( PDCP) sublayer and
broadcast / mult icast cont rol ( BMC)
sublayer .


FIGURE 26 PROTOCOL STACK OF THE UU
INTERFACE
L3
c
o
n
t
r
o
l
c
o
n
t
r
o
l
c
o
n
t
r
o
l
c
o
n
t
r
o
l
Logical
Channels
Transport
Channels
C-plane signalling
U-plane information
PHY
L2/MAC
L1
RLC
DC
Nt
GC
L2/RLC
MAC
RLC
RLC
RLC
RLC
RLC
RLC
RLC
Duplication avoidance
UuS boundary
BMC
L2/BMC
control
PDCP
PDCP L2/PDCP
DC
Nt
GC
Radio
Bearers
RRC

Physical Layer Protocol
I n t he OSI reference model, t he physical
layer is at t he bot t om, which provides
t he MAC sublayer wit h t r ansmission
channel services. The t r ansmission
channel is defined as how and wit h what
charact erist ics dat a can be t ransmit t ed,
such as t he t ransmission int erval, size



and number of t ransmission blocks in
every int erval.
The specific funct ions of t he physical
layer prot ocol are: providing dat a
t ransmission t o MAC t hrough t he
t ransmission channel, diver sit y
combinat ion, t ransmission channel error
indicat ion, t r ansmission channel FEC
coding, mapping from t ransmission
channel t o CCTrCHs, mat ch of t he
t ransmission channel r at e t o t he
physical channel aft er coding, mapping
from CCTrCHs t o t he physical channel,
weighing combinat ion of t he physical
channel, spread spect r um and
modulat ion/ despread and demodulat ion,
frequency synchronizat ion, t ime
synchronizat ion ( chip, bit , t ime slot and
frame) , radio charact erist ic
measur ement ( FER, SI R and power
int erfer ence) , closed loop power cont rol,
and RF processing.
MAC Protocol
The MAC sublayer provides t he RLC
sublayer wit h logic channel services.
The logic channel service can be
summarized as what t ype of dat a is t o
be t ransmit t ed. Therefor e, it can be
divided int o t wo maj or t ypes: cont rol
and t raffic. The specific funct ions of t he
MAC prot ocol are: mapping bet ween t he


logic and t ransmission channels,
select ion of an adequat e t r ansmission
format for every t ransmission channel,
priorit y processing bet ween UE dat a
st reams, priorit y processing bet ween
UEs t hrough dynamic pre- scheduling,
priorit y processing bet ween dat a
st reams of several users on DSCH and
FACH, UE ident ificat ion on t he common
t ransmission channel, mult iplex of
higher- layer PDU t o t ransmission blocks
t ransmit t ed t o t he physical layer
t hrough t he t ransmission channel and
mult iple of t ransmission blocks from t he
physical layer t o higher - layer PDU
t hrough t he t r ansmission channel, t raffic
check, dynamic t ransmission channel
t ype swit ching, t ransparent RLC
ciphering, as well as access service level
select ion.
RLC Protocol
Generally, RLC can be divided int o t hr ee
modes: t ransparent , no reply and reply.
On t he cont r ol plane, it provides t he
RRC sublayer wit h signaling radio bearer
services, while on t he user plane, it
provides service radio bear er services
t oget her wit h t he PDCP sublayer and
provides t he BMC sublayer wit h t he
service access funct ion r equir ed in
informat ion br oadcast and mult icast .



The specific funct ions of t he RLC
prot ocol ar e: segment at ion and
reassembly, connect ion in serial,
padding, user dat a t ransfer ,
sequence- based t ransmission of
higher- layer PDU in error det ect ion,
copy check, flow cont rol, serial number
check of t he unaut hent icat ed dat a
t ransfer mode, prot ocol error check and
recovery, ciphering, suspension and
recovery.
PDCP
Generally, PDCP only exist s in t he
packet domain, which is used t o adapt
different t ypes of net work layer
prot ocols t o t he radio int erface and
incr ease t he channel ut ilizat ion rat io by
means of such algorit hms as header
compr ession.
The specific funct ions of PDCP are:
header compr ession and decompr ession
of I P dat a st r eams in t he t ransmit t ing
and receiving ent it ies respect ively ( t he
header compression met hod
corresponds t o t he combinat ion of t he
specific net wor k layer, t ransport layer or
upper- layer prot ocols) , t ransmission of
user dat a, for warding of PDCP- SDU sent
from a non- access layer t o t he RLC
layer , and mult iplex of mult iple differ ent
RBs t o one RLC ent it y.


BMC Protocol
BMC is used t o t ransfer broadcast and
mult icast informat ion over t he radio
int erface. The only broadcast defined in
3GPP R99 is t he cell broadcast short
message inherit ed from GSM.
The specific funct ions of t he BMC
prot ocol ar e: st orage of cell broadcast
messages, t r affic measurement and
radio resource request for CBS, BMC
message scheduling, BMC message
t ransmission t o UE, and t ransfer of cell
broadcast messages t o t he higher layer
( NAS) .
RRC Protocol
On t he cont r ol plane, at t he lowest
sublayer of L3 is t he radio resource
cont rol ( RRC) prot ocol, which belongs t o
t he access layer and is t erminat ed at
UTRAN. The higher- layer signaling layer ,
such as mobilit y management ( MM) and
call cont rol ( CC) belongs t o t he
non- access layer.
The RRC prot ocol is used t o provide
services for t he non- access layer , for
example, t ransmit t ing messages like call
cont rol, session management and
mobilit y management at t he cont rol
int erface aft er encapsulat ing t hem. I n
addit ion, RRC also provides cont rol and


100 Confident ial and Pr opr iet ary I nfor mat ion of ZTE CORPORATI ON

management t he prot ocol at each lower
layer .
The specific funct ions of t he RRC
prot ocol are: broadcast of informat ion
provided by t he non- access layer,
broadcast of informat ion relat ed t o t he
access layer, set up, maint enance and
release of an RRC connect ion bet ween
UE and UTRAN, set up, reconfigurat ion
and release of radio bear er, dist ribut ion,
reconfigurat ion and release of radio
resour ces used in t he RRC connect ion,
RRC connect ions mobilit y funct ion
management , rout ing for t he
higher- layer PDU, request for QoS
cont rol, UE measur ement report and
report cont rol, out er loop power cont rol,
ciphering cont r ol, slow dynamic channel
allocat ion, paging, init ial cell select ion
and reselect ion in t he idle mode, radio
resour ce arbit r at ion on t he uplink DCH,
RRC message complet eness prot ect ion
and CBS cont r ol.
Channel Classification
The WCDMA communicat ion syst em is
one of t he CDMA communicat ion
syst ems. According t o t he Uu port
prot ocol of t he WCDMA syst em, t her e
are t hr ee t ypes of channels in t he
WCDMA syst em: logical channel,
t ransport channel, and physical channel.


The t hr ee t ypes of channels correspond
t o t he egr esses of differ ent layers of t he
prot ocol st ack. The logical channel is
bet ween t he MAC and RLC, t he
t ransport channel is bet ween t he MAC
and layer 1, and t he physical channel is
below layer 1.
Physical Channel
I n WCDMA, each radio frame of t he
physical channel has a lengt h of 10 ms,
and t here are 15 t imeslot s. Each
t imeslot has a lengt h of Tslot = 2560
chips, corresponding t o one power
cont rol cycle. I n ot her words, one power
cont rol cycle is 10/ 15 ms.
Transport Channel
I n t he OSI reference model, t he physical
layer is at t he bot t om, and it provides
t he MAC sublayer wit h t ransport channel
services. The t ranspor t channel is a
service provided by Layer 1 t o higher
layers. The t ransport channel is defined
as how and wit h what charact erist ics
t he dat a can be t ranspor t ed, such as t he
t ransport int erval and t he size and
number of t r anspor t blocks in each
int erval. The t ransport channel defines
t he mode and charact erist ic of dat a
t ransport of t he wireless int erface. A


102 Confident ial and Pr opr iet ary I nfor mat ion of ZTE CORPORATI ON

t ransport channel may be a dedicat ed
channel or a public channel.
Logical Channel
The MAC sublayer provides t he RLC
sublayer wit h logical channel services.
The logical channel service can be
summarized as what t ype of dat a is t o
be t ransmit t ed. Therefor e, it can be
divided int o t wo large t ypes: cont rol and
service.

Basic Technology of WCDMA

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