Types of Production Systems A production system can be defined as a transformation system in which a saleable product or service is created by working

upon a set of inputs. Inputs are usually in the form of men, machine, money, materials etc. Production systems are usually classified on the basis of the following:
y y y y

Type of product, Type of production line, Rate of production, Equipments used etc.

They are broadly classified into three categories:

y y y

Job shop production Batch production Mass production

Job Production In this system products are made to satisfy a specific order. However that order may be produced  

only once or at irregular time intervals as and when new order arrives or at regular time intervals to satisfy a continuous demand

The following are the important characteristics of job shop type production system:
y y y y y y y y y

Machines and methods employed should be general purpose as product changes are quite frequent. Planning and control system should be flexible enough to deal with the frequent changes in product requirements. Man power should be skilled enough to deal with changing work conditions. Schedules are actually nonexistent in this system as no definite data is available on the product. In process inventory will usually be high as accurate plans and schedules do not exist. Product cost is normally high because of high material and labor costs. Grouping of machines is done on functional basis (i.e. as lathe section, milling section etc.) This system is very flexible as management has to manufacture varying product types. Material handling systems are also flexible to meet changing product requirements.

Batch Production

Batch production is the manufacture of a number of identical articles either to meet a specific order or to meet a continuous demand. Batch can be manufactured eithery y y

only once or repeatedly at irregular time intervals as and when demand arise or repeatedly at regular time intervals to satisfy a continuous demand

The following are the important characteristics of batch type production system:
y y y y y y y

As final product is somewhat standard and manufactured in batches, economy of scale can be availed to some extent. Machines are grouped on functional basis similar to the job shop manufacturing. Semi automatic, special purpose automatic machines are generally used to take advantage of the similarity among the products. Labor should be skilled enough to work upon different product batches. In process inventory is usually high owing to the type of layout and material handling policies adopted. Semi automatic material handling systems are most appropriate in conjunction with the semi automatic machines. Normally production planning and control is difficult due to the odd size and non repetitive nature of order.

Mass Production In mass production, same type of product is manufactured to meet the continuous demand of the product. Usually demand of the product is very high and market is going to sustain same demand for sufficiently long time. The following are the important characteristics of mass production system:
y

y y y y y y y

As same product is manufactured for sufficiently long time, machines can be laid down in order of processing sequence. Product type layout is most appropriate for mass production system. Standard methods and machines are used during part manufacture. Most of the equipments are semi automatic or automatic in nature. Material handling is also automatic (such as conveyors). Semi skilled workers are normally employed as most of the facilities are automatic. As product flows along a pre defined line, planning and control of the system is much easier. Cost of production is low owing to the high rate of production. In process inventories are low as production scheduling is simple and can be implemented with ease.

TYPES OF LAYOUT After selecting plant location, based on the type of production system to be adopted, the layout has to be decided. The types of layout are 1. Fixed product layout 2. Product layout 3. Group (flexible) layout 4. Process layout

Fixed Product Layout

The fixed product layout is developed by locating the workstations or production centers on the fixed job. Fixed layout type is used when the job size is large. Logistics are involved in ensuring that the right processes are brought to the product at the right time and at the right place. This has been mainly used in electronic industry to support computer systems integration and test; materials, sub assemblies, components, peripherals are brought to the single workstation where finished system is built. This type of layout requires generally higher number of personnel and equipments than the other types, since the work piece remains stationary.

Figure 5.2 Fixed Product Layout

Advantages:

1. This method is highly flexible and any changes in product design and product mix can be easily accommodated. 2. Since work centers are independent, scheduling results in achieving minimum total production time 3. The teams of personnel are responsible for continuity of operations. 4. Movement of materials is reduced. 5. Job enlargement could be promoted by allowing individuals or teams to perform the whole job. 6. Limitations:

1. Skilled labour is required. 2. Supervision is required. 3. Positioning of material and machinery is costly and complex 4. Equipment duplication may occur. 5. Utilization of equipment is required.

Product Layout

In this layout the machines are arranged according to the processing sequence of the product. Material flows directly from one workstation to other workstation. Machines are not shared by the products. This type of layout is used for high volume production. For proper utilization of machines sufficient production volume is required. Since the processes are located closed together in the production sequence, the layout minimizes the distance between the work centers.

Figure 5.3 Product Layout

Advantages:

1. The total production time is short. 2. The material handling is reduced because of the location of the machines to minimize the distances between the consecutive operations. 3. Less skilled operator is required. Thus training is simple and short. 4. Less space is occupied by work in transit and temporary storage. 5. The flow is smooth and logical flow line results. 6. Small in process inventory as the work is directly fed from one process to other.

Limitations:

1. The production time is determined by the slowest machine. 2. A general supervision is required. 3. Since identical machines are arranged at various locations, initial investment is high. 4. A change in the product design requires an entire change in the layout. 5. A break down of one machine lead to complete stoppage of entire production. Group Layout

When production volume is not sufficient for product layout, group layout is used. Here products are grouped in to logical product families. The groups of processes are called cells. So it is also called as cellular layout. It is a compromise between product and process layout. Since products are grouped into families this technology is also called as group technology with each individual cells are called GT cells.

Figure 5.4 Group Layout

Advantages:

1. This supports the use of general-purpose equipments. 2. This is a compromise between product and process layout. 3. Shorter travel distances and smoother flow lines than process layout.

4. Team attitude and job enlargement tend to occur. 5. Utilization of each machine is increased.

Limitations:

1. Higher skilled employees are required 2. General supervision is required. 3. It depends on the balanced material flow through the cell otherwise buffers and WIP storage are required.

Process Layout

In this type the machine are grouped and the product passes from one group to other group based on the sequence of production. The groups of processes are called cells. The process layout is used in the rapid changes in the product mix or production volume as well as when both product and group layout cannot be used. Typically job shop employs process layout due to the variety of products manufactured and their low production volume. It has high degree of inter departmental flow.

Figure5.5 Process Layout

Advantages:

1.

Since the machines are grouped, only fewer machines are required; thus minimum investment is required

2. Better utilization of machines could be achieved. 3. High degree of flexibility exists. 4. Supervision could be specialized. 5. The working personnel find the job more satisfying and interesting since there is a diversity of tasks.

Limitations:

1. Highly skilled labour is required.

2. Work in process inventory is increased. 3. Total production time is longer 4. Planning and control of production system turns out to be tedious. 5. Space and capital are tied up by the work in process. 6. Material handling is more expensive because of longer flow line.

Design of Process Layout

To design a process layout there are some computerized techniques available. Computerized techniques are classified into y Techniques which select the best process layout based on the material cost comparison. y Other computerized techniques, which select the best process layout, based on the qualitative factors namely the closeness between the departments. Closeness ratings are as follows: A Absolutely essential E - Ordinary closeness I Important O Ordinary importance U Un important

X Not desirable.

CRAFT (Computerized Relationship Allocation of Facilities Techniques) CRAFT algorithm was originally developed by Armour and Buffa. CRAFT is more widely used than ALDEP and CORELAP. It is an improvement algorithm. It starts with an initial layout and improves the layout by interchanging the departments pair wise so that the transportation cost is minimized. The algorithm continues until no further interchanges are possible to reduce the transportation cost. The result given by CRAFT is not optimum in terms of minimum in majority of applications. Hence, CRAFT is mainly a heuristic algorithm. Unfortunately, plant layout problem comes under combinatorial category. So, usage of efficient heuristic like CRAFT is inevitable for such problem.

CRAFT Requirements
1. Initial layout. 2. Flow data. 3. Cost per unit distance. 4. Total number of departments. 5. Fixed departments.
y y

Number of such departments Location of those departments

6. Area of departments.

CRAFT Procedure

The steps of CRAFT algorithm are summarized below.

Step 1. Input: 1. Number of departments 2. Number of interchangeable departments 3. Initial layout 4. Cost matrix 5. Flow matrix 6. Area of departments

Step 2. Compute centroids of departments in the present layout. Step 3. Forum distance matrix using the centroids. Step 4. Given data on flow, distance and cost, compute the total handling cost of present layout. the

Step 5. Find all the possible pair wise interchanges of departments based on common border or equal area criterion. For each possibility, interchange the corresponding centroids and compute approximate costs. Step 6. Find the pair of departments corresponding to the minimum handling among all the possible pairs of interchanges. cost from

Step 7. Is the cost in the previous step less than the total cost of the present layout? go to step 8.If not go to step 11. Step 8. Interchange the selected pair of departments. Call this as the NEW LAYOUT. Compute centroids, distance matrix and total cost. Step 9. Is the cost of new layout less than the cost of the present layout?

If yes,

If yes, go to Step 10.If not, go to Step 11. Step 10.The new layout is hereafter considered as the present layout. its data on centroids, layout matrix and the total cost is retained. Go to step 5. Step 11. Print the present layout as the FINAL LAYOUT. Step 12. Stop

LAYOUT:

Figure 5.6

Figure 5.7 Figure 5.8

1) Iteration 1: calculate the distance matrix. Distance between two departments = |x1-x2| + |y1-y2| Where, (X1, y1) is the centre of department 1

Centroids of A,B and C, A(50,125) B(25,50) C(75,50)

DISTANCE MATRIX: Figure 5.9

2) Determine the total cost for all possible movements between each department. Cost between two departments = Distance matrix X Cost matrix

Figure 5.10

3) Re allocation of departments, In this step the departments are interchanged. For interchanging 1. Both departments should have the same area (or) 2. Both departments should share common boundary

4) After reallocating find the new centroids and repeat step 2 and 3.

ITERATION 2 Interchange A and C (Because A and C have common border and same area) Therefore new Centroids are, C (50,125) B (25,150) A (75, 50)

Figure 5.11

DISTANCE MATRIX:
Figure 5.12

COST MATRIX:

Figure 5.13

ITERATION 3: Interchange B and C (Because B and C have common border and same area). Therefore new centroids are, B (50,175) C (25, 50) A (75, 50)

Figure 5.14

DISTANCE MATRIX:

Figure 5.15

COST MATRIX:

Figure 5.16

TOTAL COST: 975

5) Check total cost for all the possible reallocations and select the layout with minimum total cost. 6) Repeat the iterations till the least total cost is achieved. This layout is optimum solution.

In the given problem layout seems to be optimal compared to other two layouts. Now taking layout 2 as base layout, continue further iterations to find the least cost. That layout is the optimal solution. Core lap Algorithm

Input data requirement

1. Relationship chart and closeness rating. 2. Building description is given by maximum length to width ratio.

Objective 1. Maximizing overall closeness rating.

How the software programs works

First he found out the closeness rating between the departments. It has to be placed in layout. If there is any type select the department, which is high in closeness rating. If there is again tie select the department, which is larger in area. If the tie still exists then select any department randomly.

Output Computer printout shows final layout.

Determination of placement order of department:

For the purpose of finding the order of placing the departments the following data are needed.

REL- chart and closeness ratings:

REL chart:

Table 5.4

CLOSENESS VALUES:

A=6, E-5, I=4, O=3, U=2, and X=1

Using the closeness rating TCR (total closeness rating) is calculated thus:

Table 5.5

The following steps are carried out to select the placement order of the departments.

1. Department with the largest TCR is selected for the first placement. In case of ties, the department with the largest area is selected. Department 5 is selected. 2. Review the closeness relationship of department 5 with other departments to find the department that has the highest closeness relationship with department 5.

Table 5.6

Department 6 has the highest closeness relationship with the department 5. So it has to be placed next to department 5.

3. Check the closeness relationship for both the departments.

Table 5.7

In the above study department 7 has high closeness rating with 6. Thus it has to be placed in the layout next. Similarly if there is a tie in closeness rating, then select the department with highest TCR. If there is a tie again, then select a department with larger area. In case of tie in both conditions, then select a department randomly. Order of placement:

PLACEMENT OF DEPARTMENTS IN THE LAYOUT:

Table 5.8

1. The first department to be placed is 5. it is placed in the centre of a (7x 15) layout. Each cell has an area of 6000 sq.mt. 3. The second department from the list is department 6. It is thus placed.

Table 5.9

(Department 6 has two squares. It can be placed thus)

3. Department 7 has to be placed. It has two squares. It can be placed thus in three ways.

Table 5.10 7 7 6 6 5

Table 5.11
6 7 7 6 5

Table 5.12

6 5

7 7

In the above case we have to find the weighted rating for each department.

WEIGHTED DEPARTMENT RATING

Table 5.13 Closeness relationship A E I O U X Weighted rating. 243 81 27 9 1 -729

PLACEMENT RATING:

a.

Department 7 with department 6 = E = 81,

Therefore placement rating = 81. b. Weighted rating of 7 with 6 = 81 Weighted rating of 7 with 5 = 27 ---------Total = 108 ---------Similarly for the other layout also, the rating is 108. Thus we have to select either b. or c. layouts let us take c. layout

4.

Next department 2 has to be placed.

2 7

6 7

6 5

Table 5.14 PLACEMENT RATING = (27+1) = 28. No other allocation has maximum placement rating

5.

Next department 1 has to be placed. It has the following four possibilities.

Table 5.15

Table 5.16

Table 5.17

Table 5.18

PLACEMENT RATING:

A. Weighted rating with department 6 and 2 = 82 B. Weighted rating with department 6 and 5 = 10 C. Weighted rating with department 7 and 5 = 10 D. Weighted rating with department 7 and 2 = 82

Table 5.19

1 2 7

1 6 7 6 5

The above arrangement is selected randomly (between A. & D.)

6.

Next department 4 has to be placed. It has the following five possibilities.

a. Table 5.20
4 4 1 2 7 1 6 7 6 5

b. Table 5.21

1 4 4 2 7

1 6 7 6 5

c. Table 5.22

1 2 7

1 6 7 4 6 5 4

d. Table 5.23

1 2 7

1 6 7 6 5 4 4

e. Table 5.24 1 2 7 1 6 7 4 6 5 4

PLACEMENT RATING: A. Weighted rating with department 1 and 2 = 108 B. Weighted rating with department 2 and 7 = 82

C. Weighted rating with department 7 and 5 = 28 D. Weighted rating with department 6 and 5 = 28 E. Weighted rating with department 1 and 6 = 28

Table 5.25 4 4 1 2 7 1 6 7 6 5

The above arrangement is selected.(A.)

7. The last department to be placed is department 3.

4 4

1 2 7

1 6 7

3 6 5

Table 5.26

The above placement of department 3 has maximum placement rating. (Based on REL). Thus the layout is allocated with all the departments as follows.

Table 5.27

4 4

1 2 7

1 6 7

3 6 5

Total Score Of The Layout:

Total score of the layout is the sum of the products found by multiplying the

length of

the shortest path between all departments and the numerical closeness value for the pairs.

Total score

7For all pairsCloseness rating x length of shortest path

The path is calculated by the rectilinear distance from the border of one department to the border of the other one.

Therefore, if two departments are adjacent, they will have common border. The path length will be zero.

Total score of the above layout is given as follows: Table 5.28 Department to 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 5 5 6 Total 2 3 4 5 6 7 3 4 5 6 7 4 5 6 7 5 6 7 6 7 7

Distance 0 0 0 2 0 1 2 0 2 0 0 2 1 0 2 3 1 1 0 0 0

Closeness 3 2 2 4 2 2 2 4 2 2 -

Score 6 2 4 8 4 2 4 12 2 2 46

Thus the procedure to find the total score ends with this step. One can repeat the procedure with different scales and pick up the best layout with the MINIMUM TOTAL SCORE

ALDEP (Automated layout Programming):

ALDEP is a construction type algorithm .This algorithm uses basic data on facilities and builds a design by successively placing the departments in the layout. After placing all the departments in the layout, a score is computed .This is nothing but the sum of the closeness rating values of different neighbouring departments in the layout. This algorithm is repeated for a prespecified number of times and the best layout is selected based on the maximum layout score. The basic data required for this algorithm are listed below. 1. Total number of departments. 2. Area of each department . 3. Length and width of layout. 4. Closeness ratings of various pairs of departments in the form of Relationship Chart. 5. Minimum department preference (MDP) value. 6. Sweep width. 7. Number of iterations to be performed. 8. Location and size of each restricted area in the layout if present.

Steps to be followed: Step 0.INPUT: 1. Number of departments in the layout. 2. Area of each department.

3. Length and width of the layout. 4. REL-CHART (Relationship chart). 5. MDP value. 6. Sweep width. 7. Number of iterations to be carried (N). 8. Current iteration number(I),1. 9.Locations and sizes of fixed departments if present. 10.score of the current layout (It is assumed as a very high negative value before performing the first iteration).

Step 1. Select a department randomly and place it in the layout. Step 2. Scan the relationship (REL) chart and classify the unselected departments lists, namely List A and List B. List A contains the unselected departments whose relationship values in relation to the lastly selected department are less than the MDP value. List B contains the unselected departments whose relationship values in relation to the lastly selected department are greater than or equal to the MDP value. Step 3. Is the List B empty? If so , go to step 4;otherwise,go to step 5. Step 4. Select a department randomly from List A and place it in the layout. go to step 6 Step 5. Select a department from List B which has the maximum REL value in relation to the lastly selected department and place it in the layout. into two

Step 6. Whether all the departments are placed in the layout? If not go to step 2; if yes, go to step 7. Step 7. Compute the score of the layout. Step 8. Is the score of the layout more than the score of the current best layout? If yes, update the new layout as the current best layout and store the corresponding score. otherwise, drop the new layout. Step 9. Is the current iteration number I =N? if yes, go to step 10; otherwise, increment the iteration number by one (I =I+1) and then go to step 1. Step 10. Print the current best layout and the corresponding score. STEPS OF ALDEP: 1. Get the inputs. (REL chart, Department area, layout plan) (A=64, E=16, I=4, O=1, U=0, X=-1024) The REL diagram for a plant with 11 departments is as follows:

Table 5.29

1)

Based on the area of all the departments, fix an appropriate scale. Based on the scale divide the departments in to number of square blocks.

Table 5.30
DEPARTMENT 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 AREA 600 400 350 150 350 150 200 NO. OF SQUARES 12 8 7 3 7 3 4

8 9 10 11

800 200 350 5000

16 4 7 50

(SCALE: 1: 50, i.e. each cell in the layout is assumed to be a square of area 50 sq. units). 9. Draw an initial layout based on the layout area or based on the total area of all the departments. Divide the departments in to the basic number of squares. (Sum of all department squares).

2)

ITERATION-1: a. Initially assume a closeness rating of 0.

b. Fix a cut-off value for the department selection. (i.e.) A or E or I... c. Initially place a department randomly or the department with the max. area.

d. Then from the candidate (remaining) departments, select a department with the maximum cut-off value with the previously placed department.

3) Serpent type Allocation: While allocating/placing each department in the layout, it has to be laid out in the following sequence. (Each cell is area of 50 in sq. units based on the scale).

Table 5.31

Table 5.32

11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11

11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11

11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11

9 9 9 9 6 6 6 4 4 4 11 11 11 11 11

10 10 10 10 10 10 10 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 1

2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 8 8 8 8

7 7 7 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8

7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

6) If in there is a tie or no department satisfies the cut-off value during the selection of candidate department, then place a department randomly. 7) Calculation of TCR (Total Closeness Rating): a. Once all the departments are placed, then the next step is to calculate TCR.

b. Make a note of all the pair of departments sharing common border with each other. (Note a pair only once i.e. either 1-3 or 3-1). c. Now add up all the pairs REL points

Then multiply it by 2.

Table 5.33

Pairs REL points 11-1 11-9 11-6 11-4 11-5 9-10 9-6 6-10 6-4 4-5 10-2 10-5 5-1 2-8 2-3 2-1 1-3 0 16 16 64 4 1 4 1 16 1 0 4 1 0 16 64 16

1-8 3-8 7-8 2-7

0 1 64 0

290

Thus the Total Closeness Rating is (290*2) = 580

7) This is the TCR value for the initial layout. 8) Keeping this as the minimum value continue the steps (4-7) for all the possible layouts and calculate the TCR value for all the layouts. Once iteration results in a TCR value less than the immediately previous layouts TCR value then that layout is the optimal solution.

Table 5.34 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 8 8 8 8 8 8 7 7 7 7 11 11 11 11 11 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 10 10 10 10 10 6 6 6 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 10 10 9 9 9 9 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Total Closeness Rating: Table 5.35

Pairs

REL points

11-8 11-7 11-10 8-7 8-10 8-6 8-4 8-5 10-5 10-2 6-9 6-4 4-5 4-9 4-3 5-2 5-3 9-1 9-3 3-2 3-1 1-2

64 64 4 64 1 1 1 0 4 0 4 16 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 16 16 64

319

Thus the Total Closeness Rating is (319*2) = 638.

Thus Iteration 2 shows that layout 2 has high TCR value compared to layout 1. Thus layout 2 is an optimal one compared to layout 1. Similarly iterations are continued to find the optimal layout.