Solar PVsolution For Academic Campuses

SolarPVElectricitySolutionsforAcademic
CampusesinIndia
Awhitepaper
ChetanS.Solanki
DepartmentofEnergyScienceandEngineering
IndianInstituteofTechnologyBombay(IITBombay)
October2010
SolarPVElectricitySolutionsforAcademicCampusesinIndia
C.S.Solanki,Dept.ofEnergyScienceandEngineering,IITBombay 2
Contents
1. Introduction....................................................................................................................................4
2. SolarRadiationMapofIndia...........................................................................................................5
3. SolarPVtechnologies:Convertinglighttoelectricity.......................................................................7
3.1EfficiencyofPVmodulesofdifferenttechnologies............................................................10
3.2RatedpowerofPVmodules................................................................................................10
3.3CostofPVmodulesofdifferenttechnologies.....................................................................10
4. PerunitareaPVElectricityGenerationPotential..........................................................................11
4.1EfficiencyofPVmodule........................................................................................................11
4.2PerunitareaelectricitygenerationfromPVmodules........................................................12
4.3Dailysolarradiationdata.....................................................................................................12
4.4OptimumtiltofPVmodulespermanentlyfixed:.............................................................13
4.5OptimumtiltofPVmodulesseasonallyfixed...................................................................14
4.6Examplecalculations:PVelectricityforthreestoryacademicbuilding..............................15
5. PVsystemconfigurations..............................................................................................................16
5.1PossiblePVsystemconfigurationforacademiccampuses.................................................17
5.2CommonlyusedPVsystemconfigurations.........................................................................18
5.3DesigningaPVsystem.........................................................................................................19
5.4ExamplecalculationsforstandalonePVsystemdesign........................................................20
5.5TypicalCostofPVsystemcomponents...............................................................................22
6. SpacesforPVinstallationsinacademiccampus............................................................................22
6.1Installationonbuildingrooftops&sunshades..................................................................23
6.2SolarPVInstallationonparkinglots/pathways..................................................................24
6.3SolarPVinstallationsonground..........................................................................................24
7. CostofsolarPVelectricity.............................................................................................................25
7.1CalculatingLifeCycleCost...................................................................................................25
7.2ComparisonofLCCofSolar,DieselandGridelectricity......................................................27
8. Energyefficiencyisrecommended................................................................................................28
8.1Energyefficiencyofbuildings...............................................................................................28
8.2Energyefficiencyofelectricalloads.....................................................................................29
8.3Energyefficiencyofusers.....................................................................................................29
9. SubsidiesforinstallingsolarPVsystems.......................................................................................29
9.1SubsidyforrooftopPVsystems...........................................................................................29
9.2Interestratesubsidies.........................................................................................................30
10.RecommendationsforuseofSolarPVelectricity..........................................................................32
Appendix: Monthly average daily solar radiation data of various cities of India; Global (on horizontal
surface), diffused (on horizontal surface) and Global (on surface tilted to latitude of location)
representedinkWh/m
2
day.
SolarPVEnergyforAcademicCampusesinIndia
AWhitePaper
ChetanS.Solanki
DepartmentofEnergyScienceandEngineering
IITBombay
1. Introduction
Electricityfromrenewableenergy(RE)sourcesisincreasinglybeenseenastheviablesolutionforenergy
deficiency, energy security and for social development. Among the many RE technologies and sources,
electricity produced directly from the sun using solar photovoltaic (SPV) technology is gaining interest
fromgovernmentandinvestmentsfromprivateenterprises.
Historically, it has been about 50 years since the first operational silicon solar cell was demonstrated.
However, the last 15 years have seen large improvements in the technology, with the best confirmed
cellefficiencybeingover24%.Themaindrivershaveimprovedelectricalandopticaldesignofthecells.
Improvementsinthefirstareaincludeimprovedpassivationofcontactandsurfaceregionsofthecells
and a reduction in the volume of heavily doped material within the cell. Optically, reduced reflection
and improved trapping of the light within the cell have had a large impact. These features have
increasedsiliconcellefficiencytoaconfirmedvalueof24.7%.Togetherwithtechnicalprogressthereis
support from the government for solar PV technologies around the world. Overall effect is significant
growth of the PV technology. Currently the world annual production is over 10,000 MW. The solar PV
technologies are now increasingly seen as major electricity source for Indian scenario. The
announcement of Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission confirms this, which target to install about
10,000MWofsolarPVmodulesinIndiaby2022.
On a practical level, the peak of solar electricity generation correlates with the consumption almost
perfectly.ThemainreasonfornothavingtolookatSPVtechnologysoseriouslyearlierwasbecauseof
its high initial cost of installation. The cost is still formidable, but the alternative is to use diesel based
electricity to cover for the peak shortages. With rising diesel costs, worrisome suppliers and dwindling
global supplies, solar electricity from SPV has just turned competitive to diesel. The next target in
makingsolarPVwidelyacceptableismakingelectricityfromitascheapasthatfromcoal.Thoughthere
isstillalongwaytogo,thetrendisunmistakable.SPVisheretostayandthefasterweacceptitsutility,
theeasieritwillbetosolvemuchofourcurrentconcerns.
Overallconsideringtheconcernsaboutrisingelectricitycost,increasedconcernforclimatechangeand
need to find alternative energy solutions, and with considerable government support, solar PV
technologyisincreasinglyseenasviableoptionforourcurrentandfutureenergysupply.
AcademiccampusesareidealplacesforuseofsolarPVmodulesforthefollowingreasons:
1. Most of the operation of academic campuses takes place in the day time, which is in
synchronouswiththeavailabilityofsunlight
2. Academic campuses do not have significant heavy loads like ACs, meaning that the required
powerdensityislow.ItiseasiertogeneratesmallerpowerdensitywithsolarPVsolutions.
3. Use of solar PV modules in campus will sensitize young minds on importance of renewable
energytechnologieswhowouldbecomefuturescientist,academiciansorpolicymakers.
This document describes the solar PV potential, particularly for academic institutions in India. The
Section 2 describes the available solar radiation at various parts of the country, followed by Section 3
givingthecommerciallyavailablesolarPVtechnologiesforelectricitygeneration.Availablesurfacearea
in academic campuses may be a limitation. Therefore Section 4 describes the per unit area electricity
generationpotentialofPVtechnologies.ConfigurationofPVsystemsandsystemdesignisexplainedin
Section 5. Several spaces can be used to install solar PV modules in academic environment; the
possibilities are described in Section 6. The cost of electricity generated using solar PV modules is
describedinsection7whileSection8looksatpossibilityofminimizingenergyconsumptioninorderto
reducetheoverallcostofPVsystems.Attheendvarioussubsidyschemeofgovernmentforpromoting
useofsolarPVtechnologyisdescribedandrecommendationsweremadeforusingsolarPVelectricityin
academiccampusesinIndia.
2. SolarRadiationMapofIndia
Electricity from the SPV is dependent on the amount of sunlight falling on the solar panels. The longer
thehoursofsunlightfallingonthemandthegreatertheamountofsunlightfallingonthemthebetterit
isforelectricitygeneration.SolarinsolationinagivenlocationisgivenbytheunitkWh/m
2
day.InIndia,
the average solar insolation varies between 4 7 kWh/m
2
day. This solar radiation referred as global
solar radiation and it consist of direct and diffuse solar radiation reaching at a point on earth. What it
means is that every day the amount of solar energy falling on 1 m
2
area in India is about 4 7 units.
GivenIndiaslocationintheequatorialbelt,itisabundantsunshine.Alsothefactthatwehavebetween
250and300daysofclearsunnydays,givesthelocationyearroundreliablesourceofenergy.Giventhe
above figures the annual solar radiation falling on 1 m
2
area in a given year is between 1600 and 2200
kWh. (To give a perspective, the solar industry leader, Germanys annual global solar radiation is
between950and1350kWh/m
2
day.)ForIndiathattranslatestoabout6000millionGWh.Thatsahuge
potentialtotap.
Fig:SolarradiationmapofIndia
It can be observed from the solar radiation map of India that although the highest annual global
radiation is received in Rajasthan and northern Gujarat, other regions also receive fairly large amounts
of radiation as compared to many parts of the world including Japan, Europe and the US where
developmentanddeploymentofsolartechnologiesismaximum.
2.1Peakhoursofsolarradiation
ThesolarcellefficiencyandmoduleoutputpowerisspecifiedforW/m
2
ofradiationintensityandat25
degree centigrade of cell temperature. This condition is known as standard test condition (STC).
Normallythesolarradiationintensityvariesfrommorningtoafternoontosunset.Atypicalvariationof
solar radiation intensity as a function of time in hours is given in Fig. below. One can notice from the
figure that the intensity of global radiation varies from 0 W/m
2
at the sunrise and sunset to about 0.9
kW/m
2
at the noon time. The integration of the solar intensity curve, gives solar insolation falling at a
unitareaoveradayandthereforetheunitofsolarinsolation(looselyalsoreferredassolarradiation)is
Watthour/m
2
time,forinstanceWh/m
2
dayorkWh/m
2
day.Itismentionedinthepreviousparagraph
thattheannualsolarinsolationinIndiavariesbetween47kWh/m
2
dayor1460to2555kWh/m
2
year.
Since the solar cells and modules are characterized for 1000 W/m
2
or 1kW/m
2
of solar radiation
intensity,itisusefultorepresentthedailyorannualsolarradiationdataintermsofnumberofhours
of1000W/m
2
.Forinstance,a5kWh/m
2
dayofglobalsolarinsolationisequivalentof5hoursof1000
W/m2 of solar intensity. This concept is demonstrated in Fig. below and very useful in estimating the
amountofenergygeneratedfromagivenPVmodule.IntheFig.belowtheareaoftheglobalradiation
curveandthedottedrectangleshouldbeequal.
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Hours
R
a
d
i
a
t
i
o
n

(
k
W
/
m
2
)
Fig:Dailyvariationinglobalanddiffuseradiationintensityatagivenlocationandequivalentnumberof
hoursof1000W/m
2
(forwhichsolarcellsandmodulesarecharacterized).
2.2Horizontalsurfaceandtiltedsurface
The global solar radiation data are typically represented as amount of solar radiation received on a
horizontal surface at a given location. In order to intercept more solar radiation, the solar PV modules
aremountedatanangletohorizontalplane.Therefore,sometimes,itisusefultoknowtheglobalsolar
radiationdataonatiltedsurface.Thisisdiscussedindetailinlatersections.
3. SolarPVtechnologies:Convertinglighttoelectricity
SolarPVisasemiconductordevicewhichconvertssunlightdirectlyintoelectricity.Theoperationoflight
toelectricityconversionrequiresabuiltinelectricfield,normallyobtainedbymakingPNjunctionorP
iN junction structures. A solar PV panel or a solar PV module when exposed to sunlight generates
voltage and current at its output terminal. This voltage and current can be used for our electricity
requirements. The amount of electricity a solar PV module can generate depends on the amount of
sunlightfallingonit.Thehigheristheintensityofthesunlightthemorewillbetheelectricitygenerated
fromit.WhennosunlightfallsonasolarPVmodule,noelectricityisgenerated.
ThedevelopmentofsolarPVtechnologieshasbeentakingplacesince1950s.Thesolarcelldevelopment
was being done mainly for space applications till 1970s. After the first oil shock of 1973 the solar cell
technologyhasbeenseriouslyconsideredforterrestrialpowergenerationapplications.Sincethenlotof
developmenthasoccurredincelldesignandcellmaterialwithanobjectivetoincreaseinefficiencyand
decreaseincostperWatt.Therearemanytechnologieswhicharestillunderresearchandsomeofthem
have come to a commercial stage. Among the commercial SPV technologies, wafer crystalline Si
technologiesaremostcommonlyfabricatedandused.
5hours
Diffuseradiation
Global
radiation
ThecommercialSPVtechnologiescanbedividedintwocategories:
1. CrystallineSilicon(cSi)waferbasedcelltechnologies
2. Thinfilmsubstratebasedcelltechnologies
ThecSiwaferbasedtechnologiesaredividedintomonocrystalline,multicrystalline,electronicgrade
Si,solargradeSiandribbonSi.TheoverallscenariocSiwaferbasedtechnologiesisshowninFigure
below.
Fig:OverviewofSibasedtechnologies.ItalsoshowstherouteofthinfilmSicelltechnologies
1
.
Overall thin film technologies can be divided in two categories: Si based and nonSi based, which can
further be divided in flexible and rigid substrates. Categorizations of thin film technologies and leading
companiesinvariouscategoriesaregiveninthefigurebelow.
1
C.S.Solanki,SolarPhotovoltaics:Fundamentals,TechnologiesandApplications,PrenticeHallofIndia,2009.
Waferor
RawSiintheformofSiO
2
MetallurgicalgradeSi
Highpuritychlorosilanesgases
HighpurityelectronicgradeSi
Ingotpulling Blockcasting
Wiresawing Wiresawing
Solarcell Solarcell
Monocrystalline
wafer
Multicrystalline
wafer
Thinfilm
deposition
Solarcell
Sheetpulling
Lasercutting
Solarcell
Sisheets
SolargradeSi
Blockcasting
orsheet
pulling
Purification
Solarcell
Waferdicing
RouteI RouteII RouteIII RouteIV
RouteV
Fig:Treeofthinfilmtechnologiesandleadingcompanies.
Both Crystalline Si wafer (cSi) based technology and amorphousSi (aSi) thin filmsolarcell technology
makes use of Si but they are fundamentally quite different technologies. CSi wafers have ordered
arrangementofSiatomswhileinaSiitiscompletelydisordered(amorphous),whichisthemainreason
for different (a) solar cell structure, (b) different way of making contacts and finally (c) different
performanceofthedevices.CSiisbasedonpnjunctionwhileaSiisbasedonpinjunction.Otherthin
filmtechnologieslikeCdTeandCIGShavepolycrystallinematerialandcellsarebasedonpnjunction.
TodaysolarPVmodulesoffollowingtechnologiesarecommerciallyavailable:
- Monocrystallinewaferbasedmodules
- Multicrystallinewaferbasedmodules
- CadmiumTeluride(CdTe)thinfilmmodules
- CopperIndianGalliumSelenide(CIGS)thinfilmmodules
- AmorphousSi(aSi)thinfilmmodules
3.1EfficiencyofPVmodulesofdifferenttechnologies
PVmodulesfromdifferenttechnologiesvaryintermsofefficiencyandcostperWatt.Theefficiencyof
cellsandmodulesofdifferenttechnologiesarelistedinTablebelow.
Technology HighestCellLab
Efficiency*(%)
Highestmodule
Efficiency*(%)
Typicalcommercial
moduleefficiency(%)
MonocSi 25 22.9 14to16
MulticSi 20.4 15.5 14to16
aSi(singlejunction) 9.5 8.2 5.5to6.5
aSi(doublejunction)
aSi/microcSi
(doublejunction)
10.6
~14.2(unstabilized)
8to10
aSi(triplejunction) 13.0 10.4
CdTe 16.7 10.9 8to9
CIGS 19.9 13.5 10to12.5
*Ref:MartinA.Green,KeithEmery,YoshihiroHishikawaandWilhelmWarta,Solarcellefficiencytable
(version34),Prog.InPhotovoltaic:Res.Appl.2009;17:320326.Efficiencymeasuredundertheglobal
AM1_5spectrum(1000W/m
2
)at258C(IEC609043:2008,ASTMG17303global)stableefficiencies.
3.2RatedpowerofPVmodules
Theefficiencyandpoweroutputofasolarcellandmodulesaregivenforlightconditioncorresponding
to 1000 W/m
2
and at 25 degree centigrade temperature, known as standard test condition (STC). The
rated power of a cell and module is referred as peak power or Wp. The peak power of PV module
changes with change in falling solar radiation and temperature of the cell under real life conditions.
TypicallyonedoesnotgettheconditioncorrespondingtoSTC.Solarradiationisnormallylowerthanthe
STCconditionandcelltemperatureisnormallyhigherthantheSTCcondition,bothofthesehaveeffect
ofdecreasingpoweroutputfromthePVmodule.
3.3CostofPVmodulesofdifferenttechnologies
ThecostofsolarPVtechnologiesisstatedintermsofRsperWp.ThecostofPVmodulesvariesbetween
75Rs/Wpto125Rs/Wp.Thisvariationisduetothetechnologyandalsoduetothevolumeofpurchase.
Normally for higher volume purchase, like several 100 kWp or few MWp, the cost of cSi based PV
moduleswasbetween90to110Rs/WpinSep.2010.
4. PerunitareaPVElectricityGenerationPotential
InthelastsectionitismentionedthattheaveragesolarradiationinIndiaisquitehigh.Butthequestion
howmuchofthatradiationcanbeextractedintoelectricityfromSPVmodulecoveringcertainarea.The
calculationisverysimplydependentontheefficiencyoftheSPVusedandavailablesolarinsolationata
given location. If high efficiency modules are used, more of the solar energy can be converted to
electricity.Lesserefficiencywouldmeanlesselectricityconversion.
Dependingonthekindoftechnology,efficienciesvarybetween8%forthinfilmSPVand16%formono
crystalline SPV. It should be, however, noted that higher efficiencies mean greater generation of
electricityforagivenunitarea.A100wattsolarmodulewillgeneratethesameamountofelectricityin
agivenlocalitynomatterhowefficientorinefficientitis.Theonlythingthatmaydifferisthesizeofthe
100Wpmodule.Alessefficientmodulewillbebiggerthanahighefficiencymodule.
4.1EfficiencyofPVmodule
EfficiencyofPVmodulesiscalculatedasfollows:
Acommerciallyavailablemodulehasthefollowinggivenparameters:
- Thepeakpowerratingofthemodule(Wp)
- Theareaofthemodule(m
2
)
Dividingthepeakpowerratingbyt heareaofthemodule,wegetWp/m
2
.Sincethemodulesarerated
atSTCof1000W/m
2
,theefficiencyofthemodulecanbewrittenas:
% 100 *
/ 1000
/
2
2
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
m W
m W
Efficiency
p
Forinstancea200Wpanda230WpMoserBaercrystallinesiliconsolarmodulehastheLxWof1661
mmx991mm.Similarlya340Wpand380Wpthinfilmsolarmodulehasthedimensionof2600mmx
2200mm.TheestimatedsolarPVmoduleefficienciesaregiveninTablebelow.
Table:EstimatedefficienciesofPVmodule
Parameters 200WpcSi 230WpcSi 340Wpthinfilm 380Wpthinfilm
TypeofModule CrystallineSilicon ThinFilm
PowerRating 200 230 340 380
Area(m
2
) 1.64 5.72
Wp/m
2
121.2 139.4 59.4 66.4
Efficiency 12.1% 13.9% 5.9% 6.6%
As can be seen from the above example, the crystalline modules have higher efficiency than thin film
ones. The information about efficiency of PV modules is useful in determining the total area of PV
modulesrequiredtogenerategivenamountofenergy.
Alternativelya13.9%efficientSPVof200Wpwillhavetheareaof1.43m
2
.Thisiscalculatedbydividing
200Wpbytheefficiency.Inthisinstancetheareaofthemodulecanbecalculatedasfollows:
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
2
2
/
) (
m W
W
m Area
p
p
4.2PerunitareaelectricitygenerationfromPVmodules
From the efficiency of the modules one can then calculate how much electricity can be generated in a
givenarea.Supposethelocationhasanaveragedailysolarradiationof5.5kWh/m
2
day,thenusingthe
variousefficienciesonecandeterminetheelectricitygeneratedfromthemodules.
ElectricitygeneratedfromindividualpanelofagivenpowerratingistheproductoftheefficiencyofPV
moduleandaveragedailysolarradiation.
) / / ( . * . mod . ) / / (
2 2
day m kWh radiation daily Ave of Eff day m kWh Generated y Electricit =
Table:EstimatedelectricitygenerationonperunitareabasisfromPVmodulesofdifferentefficiencies.
Parameters cSiLow cSiHigh ThinLow ThinHigh
Efficiency 12.1% 13.9% 5.9% 6.6%
Average Daily Solar Radiation
(kWh/m
2
day) 5.5(or5.5hoursof1000W/m
2
)
Electricitygenerated
(kWh/m
2
day) 0.66 0.76 0.32 0.36
ThusfromaPVmoduledatasheetitsefficiencycanbeestimatedandfromagivenglobalsolarradiation
data,perunitareaelectricity(ondaily,monthlyoryearlybasis)canbeestimated.
4.3Dailysolarradiationdata
Global solar radiation data are normally available for main locations in the form of daily average.
Multiplying the number of days in a month to daily average global solar radiation data one will get
monthly global solar radiation data. As an example monthly averaged daily global solar radiation for
Hyderabad is given in Table below. For many other locations across India the monthly averaged daily
globalradiationdataaregiveninAppendix.
Table:Monthlyaverageddailyglobalsolarradiationonhorizontalsurfaceandatsurfacetiltedatlatitudeanglefor
Hyderabad.
Month AverageDailyGlobalSolar
Radiation(Horizontal)
AverageDailyGlobalSolar
Radiation(Latitude)
January 5.5 6.7
February 6.2 7.1
March 6.5 6.8
April 6.9 6.7
May 6.9 6.4
June 5.8 5.3
July 4.9 4.6
August 5.2 5.0
September 5.2 5.2
October 5.8 6.3
November 5.4 6.4
December 5.1 6.3
AVERAGE 5.78 6.06
Thefigureshererepresenttheenergyfallingonthesurfaceduringthedayorthenumberofhourswhen
the radiation is 1000 W/m
2
. Note in the above Table that that during the summer the radiation on
horizontalsurfaceisgreaterthanthatoftheradiationonthelatitudinaltiltedsurface.
4.4OptimumtiltofPVmodulespermanentlyfixed
In order to maximize the interception of solar radiation, and hence maximize the generation of solar
radiation,thesolarPVmodulesshould bekeptperpendiculartothesunrays.Since thepositionofthe
sunischangingthroughouttheday,thepositionofthePVmodulesshouldalsobechangingthroughout
theday,i.e.suntrackingisrequired.Theprecisetrackingofthesun,inmostcases,isnotpossibledueto
theadditionalcostofinfrastructurerequiredfortracking.Also,itrequiresmaintenance.Thereforefixed
mounting of solar PV modules, over certain period, months or even year, is advised and preferred
option.
The question is how the collector should be optimally oriented for capturing maximum possible
sunlight? For a clear day, the intensity of solar radiation at a given location is symmetrical around the
solar noon time of the location. Also the radiation intensity is maximum at noon time. Therefore the
solar PV modules are oriented to maximize solar radiation interception at noon time. It can be shown
thatifthePVmodulesaretobefixedthroughouttheyear,atafixedangle,theoptimumtiltofsolarPV
modules should be equivalent to the latitude angle of the location. Also, if the modules installation is
done in the Northern hemisphere the orientation should be South facing and if the PV modules are
beinginstalledinSouthernhemispherethenthePVmodulesshouldbeinstalledNorthfacing.
Thus, if PV modules are integrated as part of roof of a building in academic campus, the roof should
haveatiltangle,equivalenttolatitudeangleofthelocationandinIndiatheroofshouldbesouthfacing.
ThelatitudeangleofHyderabadis17.37
o
NorthandhencethebuildingsonwhichsolarPVmodulesare
tobemountedshouldhave17.37
o
tilt,andtheroofshouldbefacingSouth.
4.5OptimumtiltofPVmodulesseasonallyfixed
ItcanbenotedfromtheTableofdailyglobalsolarradiationforHyderabadthatduringthesummerthe
radiationonhorizontalsurfaceisgreaterthanthatoftheradiationonthelatitudinaltiltedsurface.Thus,
tiltofPVmodulesinagivenseasoncanaffecttheenergygeneratedfromit.Thisknowledgecanbeused
tooptimizetheelectricitygenerationforagivenseason.
In the previous section it has been discussed that a fixed solar collector installed in the Northern
hemisphere should be facing South and should be inclined to an angle equal to the latitude of the
location. But adjustment of solar PV modules inclination few times a year can enhance the energy
collectionovertheyear,byenhancingtheinterceptedradiation.ThePVmoduleinclinationadjustment
can also improve the system performance for a given season. For instance, an academic building will
requirelargerenergyforrunningfan insummer.Or ifsolarPVmodulesareinstalledfora skiresort,it
wouldbedesirablethatthecollectorperformbetterinwinter.
TheoptimizedtiltangleofsolarPVmodulesinwinterseasonshouldbeequaltolatitudeangle+15
o
and
for the summer it should be latitude angle15
o
. The relative gain in the electricity production of a PV
modulewhenitismountedtolatitude15
o
ascomparedtoitsperformancewhenitismountedatthe
latitude angle is shown in Fig. below. Note that the graph is only an indicative relative gain. Different
locations will have different relative gain as it will depend on the local weather, percentage of diffuse
radiationandseasonalchangeoftheweather.
Fig.:Relativecollectorperformanceasafunctionofcollectortiltangle
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
R
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

e
n
e
r
g
y

p
r
o
d
u
c
t
i
o
n

Latitude
Latitude+15
o
Latitude 15
o
4.6Examplecalculations:PVelectricityforthreestoryacademicbuilding
Basedontheinformationdiscussedsofarinthissection,itisnowpossibletoestimatewhetherthereis
enoughspaceornotinabuildingtosupplyallitselectricityrequirementusingsolarPVmodules.Other
thanthecostofPVsystem,thereislimitationofavailabilityofopenarea,liketerrace,toinstallsolarPV
modules. The calculations given in Table below are based on certain assumption for the electricity
requirement of a building and terrace area availability. First order calculations suggests that academic
buildings, tall up to three floors, have sufficient space at the terrace to fulfill most if not all of its
electricityrequirement,providedthereisnoACload.
Table:ExamplescalculationsforsatisfyingelectricityneedsofaacademicbuildingusingPVmodules
Totalfloorareaofbuilding
Description Quantity Units
Nooffloorsinbuilding 3
Areaperfloor
(thisistakenasexample,calculationsforanyother
areawouldbevalidaswell) 1000 Sqft
Totalfloorarea 3000 Sqft
Estimationofload
EstimatedLoadperunitareaofthebuilding 100 Sqft
Item No. Wattage
Hour of
usageperday
Lights
(assuming
efficientlights) 2 50 9 900 Wh
Fans
(assuming
efficientfan) 1 50 9 450 Wh
Computers
(assuming one
computer in
every200sqft) 1 50 4 200 Wh
Totaldailyelectricityrequired 1550 Wh
Total daily energy required for whole building
(allthreefloors) 46500 Wh
46.5 kWh
AvailablespaceofPVinstallationonroof 70% oftotalfloorarea
TotalavailablespaceforPVmoduleinstallations 700 Sqft
63.6 Sqmeter
TotalpossibleinstallationofPVmodules(intermsofWatts)
Solar radiation intensity (Standard Test

Condition) 1000 W/m
2
PVmoduleefficiency 15%
WattageofPVmodulespersqmeter 150
Total wattage of PV modules that can be installed on
roof 9545 Watt
DailygenerationofelectricityfromPVmodules
dailyavailablesolarradiation 5 kWh
5 Hoursof1000W/m
2
EnergythatcanbegeneratedperdayusingPVmodules 47727.3 Wh
47.7 kWh
Comments: One can see from the above calculations that even for three story building there is
sufficientgenerationofelectricityfromPVmodulestofullfillalltheelectricityrequirementsofthe
building.Pleasenotethat noPVsystemlossesaretakenin calculations,whichinvariablyarethere
upto15to20%.Insummary,onetothreestorybuildingsalwayshavesufficientroofareatofullfill
mostofitselectricityrequirements.
Thisisonlyexamplecalculations,propercalculationsshouldbedoneforeachbuilding.Thestepsfor
designingsolarPVsystemsforagivenelectricityrequirementisgiveninsection5.
However one should note that several assumptions, which are very reasonable, are made in this
calculation.Theactualelectricityrequirementcanbehigherorlower,theactualroofareaavailable
forPVmoduleinstallationscouldbehigherorlower,theactualamountofsolarradiationavailable
atagivenlocationcouldbehigherorlower.
5. PVsystemconfigurations
ThePVsystemsaredesignedtosupplypowertoelectricalloads.TheloadmaybeofDCorACtypeand
depending upon the application, the load may require power during the day time only or during the
night time only or even for 24 hours a day. Since a PV panel generates power only during sunshine
hours,someenergystoragearrangementisrequiredtopowertheloadduringthenonsunshinehours.
The load can be a DC or an AC load. This energy storage is usually accomplished through batteries.
Duringthenonsunshinehours,theloadmayalsobepoweredbyauxiliarypowersourcessuchasdiesel
generator, wind generator or by connecting the PV system to the grid or some combination of these
auxiliarysources.
PVsystemscanbebroadlydividedintothefollowingthreecategories:
1. StandalonePVsystems
2. GridconnectedPVsystemsand
3. HybridPVsystems
A standalone system is the one which is not connected to the power grid. In contrast, the PV systems
connectedtothegridarecalledgridconnectedPVsystems.HybridPVsystemscouldbestandaloneor
gridconnectedtype,buthaveatleastonemoresourceotherthanthePV.
The primary difference between the standalone and grid connected systems comes from the energy
storagefeature,whichisadirect consequenceof theirconnection(orabsenceofconnection)withthe
grid. While the standalone PV systems usually have a provision for energy storage, the grid connected
PV systems have none orrather they dont need one. The excess or deficit energy produced by the PV
source in grid connected systems (difference of energy produced by the PV source and the energy
required by the load) is supplied to the grid or drawn from the grid. As a standalone PV system is not
connected to the grid, it must have battery support or an auxiliary source to supplement the load
requirementsduringthenighthoursorotherwise.
Beitthestandalonesystemorthegridconnectedsystem,othersourcesofpower(otherthanthePVas
the main source) may also be connected to them for auxiliary support and better reliability. For
instance, a standalone PV system can also have a wind generator connected to it or it can have two
powersources,awindgeneratorand/oradieselgenerator,connectedtoit.Thesameistrueforthegrid
connectedsystems.Wheneverthereismorethanonetypeofpowersourcesconnectedinasystem,the
configurationisknownashybridsystem.AhybridsystemwithPVasthemainsource,iscalledahybrid
PVsystem.Factorssuchasresource(solar,wind,grid)availability,initialcostofthesystem,criticalityof
the load, etc. influence the decision as to whether or not to have a hybrid system and if yes, what
configuration? For instance, a PVwind hybrid configuration can be installed when both solar and wind
resources, at a given location, are abundantly available. Similarly, when the amount of PV power
installed is not adequate to meet the load demand (say due to cost factor), a diesel generator can be
installedalongwiththePVsource.
5.1PossiblePVsystemconfigurationforacademiccampuses
A possible PV system configuration, incorporating various sources of electricity like PV modules, grid,
and diesel/Wind generator is shown in the Fig. below. It should be noted that it is optional to connect
oneormoresourcesofelectricityinthesystem.ThesystemcanonlyrunonSolarPVelectricityoritcan
alsobecoupledwithgridelectricity.Manytimes,whengridelectricityconnectedisnotavailableornot
reliable, then it is advisable to have solar PV with diesel generator, wherein diesel generator may be
usedforemergencyconditionswhenthereisnotenoughsunlight,likeinrainyseason.
Fig:PossibleconfigurationofsolarPVsystemwithoptionofconnectingthesystemwithgridordieselor
windgenerator.
5.2CommonlyusedPVsystemconfigurations
The current trend in usage of PV systems is in providing day time electricity needs and supplying
electricitytothegrid.Thisusuallyreducesthecostofstoragefornighttimeapplicationandmanagesto
solvethepeaktimeenergyshortage.Thesearegridconnectedsystemswithoutanybatterystorage.As
per the prevailing policies, the gird connection in India is possible for power plants of 1MW and larger
capacities. For connecting PV systems of smaller sizes, less than MW, institution are required to have
arrangementwithstateelectricityboard,regulatoryboards.
In a number of industrial and commercial locations SPV is replacing diesel as the preferred source of
electricity generation. While in industrial locations the quantum of power and therefore energy
requirement is very high, the size of PV systems tends to be large as well. So most of the time the PV
plantissetupinrooftopaswellasoverlanddedicatedforSPVpowerplant.Thesesystemsarealmost
always grid connected to switch seamlessly between SPV electricity when it is available and grid
electricitywhenthesunisunavailable,suchasduringmonsoons.
Inacademiclocationstheneedforelectricityisusuallytopowerofficeequipmentsandbasicneedssuch
as lighting and ventilation. In most instances the SPV is installed over building rooftops. In absence
powersource,otherthanPV,batterystorageisrequired.
Electronic
Controller
AC
Load
DCAC
Converter
DC
Load
PV
Panel
Grid
Diesel/windGenerator
5.3DesigningaPVsystem
Designofgridconnectedsystem:
A grid connected system will not have any battery back up as the grid itself acts as medium to store
energy. Therefore one need to put enough solar PV modules to fulfill daily energy requirements. Since
the PV systems are connected to grid, one can install less than the required PV modules or more than
therequiredPVmodules.TheamountofPVmodulestoinstallmaythenbegovernbytheavailabilityof
money,availabilityofrooftoparea,upperlimitsetbypolicies,etc.
For instance, if you install 2 kWp of PV modules (normally would take about 15 square meter of roof
area)onyourroofandyoudailysolarinsolationinyourareais5kWh/m
2
day,thenPVmoduleswould
be generating 10 kWh or 10 units of electricity every day. In order to connect a PV system to the gird,
one requires electronic components like Maximum Power Point Tracker, DC to DC converter and an
Inverter.Allthesecomponentsmaycomeassingleunit,asaninverterforgridconnection.Efficiencyof
such electronics is over 80% at small power level (few kW) inverter, but the large power (several
hundredkW)gridconnectedinverterwouldhaveefficiencyabove92%.Onemustconsidertheelectrical
lossesinelectronicsrequiredforgridconnectiontoestimatewhatistheactualenergyfedintothegrid.
DesignstandalonePVsystem
A standalone PV systems are designed to full fill all the electrical energy requirement of a premises,
whereintheloadcanrunduringdaytimeornighttime.Insuchsystems,abatterybankisusedtostore
theelectricity.APVsystemdesignrequirestheestimationofload(intermsofdailyenergy),estimation
ofbatteryinaPVsystemandestimationofsizeofPVmodules,etc.
ThedesignofPVsystemisnormallydoneinthreesteps:
Step1:estimationofdailyelectricalenergyrequired
Step2:Estimationofbatteryrequirement
Step3EstimationofPVmodulerequirements
Inordertoestimatetheelectricalload,onemustknowthepowerratingsofvariousappliancesusedin
institute and the number of hours of daily usage of each appliances. Table below provides the
appliancesalongwiththeirpowerratingandtheapproximatehourstheyareused.
Table:Powerratingsofvariousappliancesusedinacademicinstitutions
Appliance PowerRating(Watt)
Tubelights 40
CFLs 828
CeilingFans 5585
WallFans 65100
AirConditionSystems 10005000
Appliance PowerRating(Watt)
Laptops 80100
PCs 250300
TV 150250
Printers 300500
Projectors 10003000
WaterPumps 3503500
5.4ExamplecalculationsforstandalonePVsystemdesign
LetusdesignaPVsystemtopoweratypicalacademicestablishmentwiththefollowingloads.Theyare
tooperatebetween9:00AMto6:00PM.
Table:Estimationofdailyelectricalenergyrequirements
Load Power Rating
(Watt)
Usageinhoursper
day
No.ofUnits Electricity
(Wh)
Tubelights 40 9 6 2160
Fans 80 9 6 4320
CRTPCs 300 8 6 14400
Printer 500 2 1 1000
920Watt
Totaldailyelectricitydemanded(Wh) 21880
Totaldailyelectricitydemanded(kWh) 21.88
Solution: Daily energy required is 21.88 units or 21.88 kWh. The location is in Hyderabad. The average
annualglobalsolarradiationis5.78kWh/m
2
day.
Simplistically,thepanelsrequiredcanbefoundby:
) (
) (
) (
hours equivalent Radiation Solar Global
kWh Needed y Electricit
kW SPV =
Inthiscase,21.88kWhdividedby5.78hours=3.78kW
However, there are other additional components that are needed. Batteries to provide for nonpeak
solar hoursor when there is no sunlight. Usage of inverters, batteries and other electronics bring their
owninefficiencies.AnSPVsystemhastobedesignedkeepingthesefactorsinthepicture.Tablebelow
indicatesthestepstodesignanSPVsystem.
Table:DesignstepsforestimatingtherequiredsizeofbatteriesandPVmodulesforgivendailyelectrical
energyneeds
Steps Description Values
Calculating the
electricityneeded
21.88kWh
InverterRating Slightly greater than the
totalloadrating
1kW
InverterEfficiency 85%
Energy to the load and
inverter
25.74

Sizingofbatteries
Estimating the energy
thatneedstobestored
33% This is an assumption, if
loads run in the night
hours then battery
storage capacity may be
much higher (in worst
case100%).
BatteryEfficiency 85%
Energy that needs to be
stored
10kWh
BatteryVoltage 12V
Battery AmpereHr
capacity
840Ah
Battery Depth of
Discharge
60%
ActualBatterycapacity 1400Ah
SizingofPVmodules
Energy needed during
theday
25.74kWh
Totalsystemefficiency 80%
PV Panel operating
performance
85%
Average global solar
radiation
5.78hours
ActualPVsize 6.54kW
Thus PV modules of 6.54 kWp are required to provide the daily electricity of about 21.88 kWh in an
standalonePVsystem.
Thebatteryactsasastoragewhentheofficefunctionsduringthenonpeaksunshinehourssuchasearly
morning and late in the evening. The excess electricity generated during noon time is stored in the
batterywhichisusedwhentheintensityisless.Thefigureof33%isarbitraryfiguretakenhere.Ideallyit
shouldbearrivedafterhavinganalyzedtheload patternduring theday.Batterysizewoulddoubleif2
days of autonomy is needed. Autonomy means when the system can provide reliable electricity when
thesunisdown,suchasduringmonsoon.
5.5TypicalCostofPVsystemcomponents
The Table below gives the typical cost of various PV components that are used in PV system, both for
gridandoffgridsystems.
Table:TypicalcostofPVsystems
Component Specified in terms of
unit
Available in range of
units
Typicalcost
SolarPVmodules Peakwattage,Wp 40Wpto300Wp 90to110RsperWp
Battery Ahcapacityandterminal
Voltage
20 Ah to several
hundredAh,12V
80to100Rs/Ah@12V
Inverter(offgrid) kW 1to25kW 16000 to 2000 Rs per 5
kW
MPPT(offgrid) InputDCvoltage,current
handlingcapacity
12 to 72 Volt, 10 A to
50A
16000to20000Rsfor24
V,30A
Inverter (grid
connected),
kW 50to250kW 10 to 12 Lakh Rs per 10
kW
Charge controller (off
grid)
InputDCvoltage,current
handlingcapacity
12 to 72 Volt, 10 A to
50A
10000to12000Rsfor24
V,30A
Fabrication cost of PV
system (supporting
frames,wires,etc.)
Rs per Watt of system
capacity
10RsperWatt
6. SpacesforPVinstallationsinacademiccampus
There are several locations in the academic campus that can be utilized for installation of solar PV
modules. Since most of the buildings in a given campus are of same height, building terraces offer
excellent locations for SPV installations. Parking rooftops, PV shelters for open restaurants with
campus,unusedlandparcelscanallbepossiblelocationsforPVinstallation.
ThusthepossiblespacesforinstallationofPVmodulescouldinclude:
Rooftopsofbuildings,bothacademicandresidential
Rooftopsofcanteen
Roofsofparkingareaandpathways
Anyotheropenarea
IftheplanningforuseofsolarPVmodulesisdoneinadvancethesolarPVmodulesthemselvescanbe
usedasroofmaterial.UseofsolarPVmodulesasroofmaterialhaspotentialofsavingthecostbysaving
the constructionmaterialsforrooftops.Thisisparticularlysuitableforspaces likerooftopsofparking
areas,rooftopofsportscomplex,canteenetc.
SomeoftheexamplesofuseofSolarPVmodulesforvariousapplicationsarediscussedhere.
6.1Installationonbuildingrooftops&sunshades
Roof tops of buildings are good places to install PV modules. Normally the roof tops are not used for
useful purposes and available for use. Installing PV modules at the rooftop will have additional
advantage of reducing the heat gain of the building from the top, which would reduce the cooling
requirementorincreasethecomfortlevel.
Foronetothreestorybuildings(e.g.departmentbuildings,householdsetc.)thereisalwaysenoughroof
topspacetogenerateelectricityforsupplyingthecompleteloadofthebuilding,ifairconditioningload
isnotthere(refertosection4).
Fig:SolarPVmodulesonrooftops

Fig: Solar PV modules as Sun shades
6.2SolarPVInstallationonparkinglots/pathways
Parking lots are one of the ideal spaces for installation of PV modules, specially when PV modules
themselves are used as roofing material. Image below depicts the use of solar PV modules on a very
largesizeparkinglot.
6.3SolarPVinstallationsonground
Ifthereisnotsufficientspaceavailableontherooftopsandparkinglots,thensolarPVmodulescanbe
installedonground.ItrequiresdedicatedspaceforinstallationofPVmodules.Imagebelowdepictsthe
installationofPVmodulesonground.
Since India is in the northern hemisphere, only south facing panels can have maximum solar radiation.
The most important factor for SPV location selection is shadowfree eastern, southern and western
sides.TreesshadesandbuildingshadowsshouldbeaccountedforidealSPVplacement.
7. CostofsolarPVelectricity
ThecostofinstallationofSPVisformidablebecauseofthefactthatallthefutureexpensesareincurred
at the beginning of the project. Since all future expenses mainly involve only nominal operation and
maintenance and fractional replacement expenses. In most cases the investor is discouraged by the
possibilityofspendingsomuchbeforethesolarPVprojectisimplemented.
InthissectionbasiccalculationsaregiveninordertofindoutthecostofelectricitygeneratedfromPV
modules and other resources like diesel generator so that the comparison between solar PV electricity
andothersourcescanbemade.
7.1CalculatingLifeCycleCost
Whilecalculatingthecostofgeneratingperunitofsolarelectricity,weusetheconceptofLifecycleCost
of Electricity (LCOE). LCOE is the ratio of Total Lifecycle Cost (TLCC) and the Total Lifetime Energy
Production(TLEP).TLCCcalculatesthepresentworthofalltheexpensesincurredbythesystemduring
itslifetime.Itincludescostssuchasinitialcostofinstallment,recurringexpensessuchasoperationand
maintenance and replacement expenses for battery, inverter and balance of systems. TLEP sums the
totalelectricitygeneratedduringthelifeoftheplant.Thepresentworthofalltheelectricitygenerated
in25yearsofthelifeofthesystemiscalculateddiscountedatsomeprevailingrate.Itshouldbenoted
thattheamountofelectricitygeneratedfallssteadilyduringthelifeofthesystem.Andasthevalueof
investmentchangesastimechanges,sodoesthevalueofelectricitygenerated.
=

=
N
n
n
radation System kWh Initial
TLCC
elecricity of LCC
1
] ) deg 1 ( * [
WhereisNislifeofsysteminyears.
TLCCcanbecalculatedasfollows:
TLCC=LCC(Initialinvestments+RecurringCost+Replacementcost)
ThusinordertofindouttheTLCConeneedstoknow(i)initialinvestments,(ii)recurringcost(thecost
ofmaintenance)and(iii)replacementcostincurredfortheoperationofsystemduringitslifetime.
(i)Initialinvestmentsmeanthecostofsystemisestimatedatthetimeofinstallation.Thisisnothingbut
thesumofallcostsofthePVsystemcomponents.
(ii)Therecurringcostsaregivenas:
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
N
Rate Discount
Inflation
Inlation rate Discount
Inflation
OM Cost curring LCC
1
1
*
1
* Re
HeretheOMisnothingbutOperationandMaintenancecostofthesystemattodaysrate.
(iii)LCCReplacementCostsaregivenas:
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
+ =
y
R
Rate Discont
Inflation
Cost Item Cost placement LCC
1
1
1 * Re
WhereRy=Replacementyear
Generally discount rate is greater than the inflation rate. Complex formula can be formed around tax,
depreciationanddebtcomponents.
For calculating the LCC of Diesel based system, one must calculate the LCC of diesel annual expense,
dieselgeneratorreplacement,itsrespectiveO&Mandinitialexpensesifany.
(
(
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
N
te DiscountRa
Esc Fuel
Escal Fuel Rate Discount
Escalation Fuel
Cost Diesel Ann Diesel of LCC
1
. 1
1 *
.
1
* .
HereNislifeofsystemduringwhichtheoperationisconsidered.
Dieselbasedsystemswillfacereplacementexpensesingeneratorandpartsreplacementsandrecurring
expenses in operation and maintenance. Environmental costs are difficult to calculate but a very
conspicuous component of costs; they are not included. Adding them will give the LCC of diesel based
system.
Similarly,theLCCofgridelectricitycanbecalculated,onlytheannualdieselexpensewouldbereplaced
by annual electricity expenses. Since there are no other additional expenses in terms of recurring or
replacementcosts,theLCCofgridelectricitywillbethelowest.
7.2ComparisonofLCCofSolar,DieselandGridelectricity
We shall now compare the cost of generating one unit of electricity from these various options. Table
belowdescribestheassumptionsandtheLCC.
Table:ComparisonofLifeCycleCostofSolar,dieselandgridelectricity
Parameter Solar Diesel GridElectricity
InterestRate 14.29% 14.29%
DiscountRate 16.6% 16.6%
GeneralInflation 5%
FuelInflation 10%
ElectricityInflation 10%
UnitPrice Rs.100/W Rs.38/litre Rs.5/kWh
No.ofYears 25 25 25
Units generated in a
year
1,80,161 1,99,655 1,99,655
Cost of Electricity
(Rs/kWh)
Rs.13.94/kWh Rs.18.77/kWh Rs.2.56/kWh
FromtheTableitisobviousthatthegridelectricitywhenavailablewillhavetobeutilized.Butbetween
solar and diesel, solar has already proved competitive. Going forward, assuming a 10% drop in SPV
prices and 10% increase in diesel, the difference between the two would increase to Rs. 6.29 per kWh
fromthecurrentRs.4.83perkWh.
The above table gives an estimation of cost of electricity for solar, diesel and grid electricity. However,
the final cost of electricity depends on many parameters related to site where the electricity is
generated and used. Therefore there will always be some variation in the cost of electricity from one
location to other location. The Table below gives an indication of range of prices of electricity on per
kWh basis for various electricity sources. These prices are indicative prices of prevailing condition as in
year 200910 and can change with the time. As noted earlier, the cost of diesel based electricity is
expectedtorisefurtherwhilethecostofPVbasedelectricityisexpectedtodecreasefurtherwithtime.
Table:Typicalvaluesofcostofelectricityforvarioussources
Source LCOE(RsperkWh)
Gridelectricity 2to4
Dieselbasedelectricity 17to21
SolarPVelectricity(gridconnected) 10to15
SolarPVelectricity(offgrid) 12to17
Windbasedelectricity 4to6
8. Energyefficiencyisrecommended
Ascanbeseenfromthecalculationsshownintheprevioussectionthatthecostofelectricitygenerated
fromPVmodulesismuchmoreexpensiveascomparedtogridelectricity.Thereforealleffortsshouldbe
made to decrease the electricity requirement of a given building, before planning to use solar PV for
electricitygeneration.Reducedenergyconsumptionwithoutaffectingtheoperationscangreatlyreduce
theamountofPVmodulesandbatteryrequiredand,therefore,itcanreducethecostofPVsystem.
Decrease in electricity requirement, without decreasing the usage of loads or functionality, invariably
requires increase in energy efficiency. The increase in energy efficiency for an academic building and
appliances can be obtained in several ways. It includes the way building is constructed and used, the
wayelectricalloadsareselectedandthewaytheusersofelectricitytreatit.Thesearelistedhere:
8.1Energyefficiencyofbuildings
If PV electricity generation is planned before construction of building, then design the building using
whatisknownassolarpassivearchitecture.Insuchdesignthe heatinterceptedbybuildingwalland
roof is minimized, use of day light for illumination is increased, arrangements are made for proper
ventilationofspaces.Thusbyincorporatingtheprinciplesofsolarpassivearchitecture,onecanreduce
theenergyconsumptionforcooling,lightandventilation.
IfbuildingisalreadyinplaceforwhichPVmodulesaretobeinstalled,makeeffortstodecreasetheheat
gain of the building. This can be done in several ways; make the outer surfaces (walls and roofs) white
(orlightincolor)sothatsomeoftheenergyisreflected,makearrangementsforsunshadesparticularly
forsouthfacingwalls.Aroofcanbecoveredwithwhiteshinytiles(maybebrokentilesavailableatlow
cost)orinbestcasemirrorscanbeinstalledontherooftoptoreflectmostofincomingradiations.
8.2Energyefficiencyofelectricalloads
Electrical loads as efficient as possible should be used. Investment in more efficient load pays back
withinfewmonthstofewyearstime.Lightsourcecanbereplacedwithmoreefficientflorescentlamps,
orLEDbasedlighting.Alsoanelectronicchokeshouldbeusedwithtubelights.Moreefficientfansare
available now a days. Star rating system is being used to mark the efficiency of air conditioner and
refrigerator.Thesesystemswithhigherstarratingshouldbeused.Laptopsconsumemuchlesspoweras
compared to desktops PCs (about 70 Watt as against 250 Watt), therefore as long as possible lap tops
shouldbepromotedforcomputing.
8.3Energyefficiencyofusers
Users of electrical energy play very important role in determining the effectiveness of energy used.
Effortsshouldbemadetomakeallusersawareaboutthenegativeenvironmentaleffectsofuseoffossil
fuel based energy. In case of PV system usage, users should be made be aware to saving of electricity
whenever possible, they should be made aware of high cost of solar PV electricity. Well designed
posters, awareness generation workshops and email reminders can play important role in promoting
efficientuseofelectricity.
9. SubsidiesforinstallingsolarPVsystems
VariouskindsofsubsidiesareprovidedbybothcentralandstategovernmentforinstallationofsolarPV
systems.Thesesubsidiescanbedividedinfollowingcategories:
- SubsidyforSPVrooftopsystemsforreplacingdieselgenerators
- SubsidyforoffgridPVsystems
- Subsidyforruralelectrification
- Interestratesubsidy
Details of available subsidies are given in following sections. The details of subsidies can also be
obtainedfromMinistryofNewandRenewableEnergyWebpage,http://www.mnre.gov.in/
ItmustbenotedthatthesesubsidiesarepolicymattersoftheMNREandmaychangetimetotime.
9.1SubsidyforrooftopPVsystems
Rooftopsolarphotovoltaicsystems(withorwithoutgridinteraction)willbesupportedforinstallationin
industrial and commercial establishments/ complexes (excluding manufacturers of SPV cells/modules),
housing complexes, institutions and others which face electricity shortages and are using diesel
generatorsforbackuppower.
Central Financial Assistance (CFA) for SPV rooftop Systems (with or without grid interaction) will be
limited to 100 kWp capacity. Minimum capacity of installation will be 25 kWp. In special cases, smaller
capacity systems, not less than 10 kWp, could be considered for financial support from the Ministry.
BeneficiarieswillexcludemanufacturersofSPVcells/modules.Maximumsystemcapacityforsanctionof
CFAwillbelinkedtothecapacityoftheexistingdieselsetsinstalledbythebeneficiaryentity.Anentity
seekingCFAforaparticularkWpSPVsystemmusthaveaDGsetofatleastthatcapacityinstalledinits
premises.
The Central Financial Assistance is mentioned in Table below. The Governments intent is to phase out
theCFAschemeandemphasisontheInterestratesubsidyschemementionedinTablebelow.
TableCentralFinancialAssistancefordecentralizedSolarPVApplications
SystemCapacity CentralFinanceAssistance
StandaloneSPVPowerPlants
>1kWp Rs.225/Wp Rs.125/Wp
>10kWpwithdistributionline Rs.270/Wp Rs.150/Wp
SPVTrafficLights Rs.150/Wp for systems with battery bank of 6
hrs/Rs.115/Wp without battery bank for organizations
notavailingaccelerateddepreciation.
Rs.100/Wp for systems with battery bank of 6 hrs /
Rs.75/Wpwithoutbattery bankfororganizationsavailing
accelerateddepreciation.
SPVBlinkers
SPVPowerPacks<1kWp
SolarBillboards<=1kWp
OthersystemsforCommercialandUrban
areas
SPV Rooftop Systems in Urban Areas
from10kWto100kW
Rs.75/Wp,limitedto30%ofthecostofsystemstoprofit
makingbodiesavailingdepreciationbenefitsRs.100/Wp,
limited to 40% of the cost of systems to non profit
makingbodies
9.2Interestratesubsidies
There is also scheme for providing subsidy in the form of soft loan or low interest loans. Almost all
interested people can avail this type of subsidies. The details of interest rate subsidy program is given
belowinTable.
TableInterestRatesubsidiesavailablethroughIREDAandBanks
Features Implementationthrough
IREDA (Indian Renewable Energy Development
Agency)
Banks
EligibleCategories All categories of users including intermediaries
and commercial organizations. Manufacturers
ofPVsystemsarenotavailable.
Individuals and organizations
which do not claim any
depreciation benefits on the
investment
RateofInterest 7% (commercial borrowers, who can claim
depreciationbenefits)
5% (individuals and other organizations which
undertake not to claim depreciation benefits).
Financial intermediaries who borrow funds
from IREDA for onlending at 5% or 7% rate of
interest, will be charged an interest rate of
2.5% or 4.5% respectively by IREDA. Such
intermediaries will not be able to claim
depreciation benefit and the onlending
arrangement will not be treated as a lease
arrangement.
5%
LoanPeriod 5years 5years
Moratorium 1year Nomoratorium
AmountofLoan Upto80%ofthecostofthe
Project
Upto85%ofthecostofthe
systems
Upper limits for a
loan
Nolimit Rs.5lakhs
ServiceCharge 1%oftheloandisbursed Rs.300perloandisbursed
Systemscovered AlltypesofSPVsystemsarecoveredunderthis
scheme. Loans will not be provided at
subsidized rates for systems that are available
withcapitalsubsidy,withtheexceptionofsolar
generators and solar pumps for which both
subsidiesandsoftloanswillbeavailableduring
All types of SPV systems are
covered under this scheme.
Loans will not be provided at
subsidizedratesforsystemsthat
are available with capital
subsidy, with the exception of
200506. solar generators and solar

pumps for which both subsidies
and soft loans will be available
during 200506. For solar home
systems installed as part of the
MNRE programme for
electrificationofremotevillages,
banksmayprovidesoftloansfor
the unsubsidized portion of the
costofthesystems.
10. RecommendationsforuseofSolarPVelectricity
ThereporthasdescribedhowPVmodulescanbeusedtogenerateelectricityforacademiccampusesin
India.Theemphasisisgiventoacademiccampusesforthereportcanbeusedtodesignandimplement
solarPVsystemforotherapplicationsaswell.
Thereporthasbroughtoutthepoints,particularlyfromtechnologyperspectivetodemonstratehowit
is possible to use solar PV power for electricity generation. It is feasible to install solar PV power for
fulfilling electricity needs of academic campuses in India. It is feasible both from technology as well as
economicperspective.ThereforeitisrecommendedtoinstallPVmodules.
Therearesomeotherpoints,whichareimportantconsideringthelongtermperspectiveonthegrowth
of the country, mentioned here which support the recommendations for installing PV modules for
electricitygenerationinacademiccampuses.Thesepointsare:
- Therearepowershortagesinmanyareasofthecountrywherethereisgrid.Buttherearelarge
number of areas where grid has not yet reached. Supplying power to all requires use of
alternativesources.
- Indiaisblessedwithgoodamountofsunshine.Thesunshineisavailablebrightenoughismost
oftheareasofthecountryforgenerationofelectricalenergy.
- There are favorable government policies exist in the country for promotion of solar PV
technologiesforpowergeneration.
- UseofPVpowerisusefulinreducingthepollution.
- InstallationanduseofPVmoduleswouldresultinpublicawareness.Increasedpublicawareness
canbeusefulinsettingappropriatepoliciesforlongtermsustainabledevelopment.
- Installation of PV modules for power generation would results in creation of employment for
hundredsofthousandsofpeopleacrossthecountryovercomingdecade.
- Use of solar PV power in the campus would sensitize young people about the climate change,
availabilityanduseofalternativeenergysources.Theseyoungstudentsinfuturewouldbecome
researchers and policy makers of future. Skilled researchers and knowledgeable policy makers
aredesirableforthecountrysgrowth.
AppendixA
Monthly averaged daily global (G), monthly averaged daily diffused (D) and monthly averaged daily
globalradiationonthehorizontalsurfaceandonthesurfacetiltedatlatitudeofthelocation(GL).G,D
andGLareinkWh/m
2
day(kiloWatthour/m
2
day).
JanuarytoApril
Jan Feb Mar Apr
G D GL G D GL G D GL G D GL
City
Ahmedabad 5 1.2 6.8 5.9 1.3 7.3 6.6 1.6 7.2 7.3 1.8 7.2
Bangalore 5.6 1.6 6.4 6.4 1.6 7.0 6.8 1.9 7.0 6.8 2.2 6.6
Bhubaneshwar 5.2 1.4 6.7 5.9 1.4 7.0 6.3 2 6.8 6.5 2.4 6.4
Bhopal 4.8 1 6.6 5.9 1 7.4 6.3 1.6 6.9 7 1.8 6.9
Chandigarh 3.6 1.6 5.4 4.7 2 6.2 5.6 2.4 6.4 6.6 2.6 6.6
Chennai 5.4 1.8 7.5 6.3 1.7 6.9 6.6 2 6.8 6.8 2.2 6.6
Delhi 4.3 1.3 6.3 5 1.4 6.6 6 2 6.8 6.8 2.4 6.8
Gwalior 4.5 1 6.5 5.5 1 7.1 6.2 1.6 7.0 7.5 1.8 7.4
Goa 5.6 1.4 6.7 6.3 1.4 7.1 6.6 1.8 6.9 6.8 2.4 6.6
Guwahati 3.8 1.6 5.2 4.8 2 6.0 5.4 2.4 5.9 5.8 2.8 5.7
Hyderabad 5.5 1.4 6.7 6.2 1.5 7.1 6.5 2 6.8 6.9 2.4 6.7
Indore 5.1 1.1 6.9 5.9 1.3 7.3 6.4 1.6 6.9 7.4 2 7.3
Jabalpur 4.9 1.1 6.6 5.7 1 7.1 6.2 1.6 6.8 6.9 1.8 6.8
Jamnagar 4.9 1 6.5 5.8 1.2 7.1 6.2 1.8 6.8 7 2.2 6.9
Jodhpur 4.6 1 6.7 5.6 1.1 7.3 6.6 1.7 7.4 7.3 1.8 7.2
Kolkatta 4.7 1.4 6.1 5.6 1 6.7 6.2 1.6 6.7 6.6 1.7 6.5
Lucknow 4.3 1.4 6.2 5.2 1.2 6.7 5.9 2 6.6 6.8 2.4 6.7
Mumbai 5.2 1.4 6.6 5.9 1.4 6.9 6.5 1.8 6.9 6.9 2.2 6.7
Nagpur 5 1.2 6.6 5.9 1.2 7.1 6.3 1.8 6.8 6.8 2.2 6.7
Patna 4.4 1.6 6.0 5.3 1.7 6.6 6.1 2.2 6.7 6.7 2.5 6.6
Pune 5.3 1.4 6.6 6 1.4 7.0 6.6 1.8 7.0 6.8 2.2 6.6
Ranchi 4.7 1.2 6.4 5.6 1.0 7.0 6.4 1.8 7.0 7 2.2 6.9
Solapur 5.6 1.4 6.9 6.3 1.4 7.3 6.6 2.0 7.0 6.8 2.4 6.6
Trivendrum 6 1.8 6.5 6.6 1.8 7.0 6.8 2.0 6.9 6.5 2.4 6.4
Visakhapatnam 5.3 1.5 6.5 6 1.6 6.9 6.5 2.0 6.9 6.5 2.5 6.3
AppendixA(continued)
andGLareinkWh/m
2
day(kiloWatthour/m
2
day).
MaytoAugust
May Jun Jul Aug
City
Ahmedabad 7.6 2 6.9 6.6 3 5.9 5 3.4 4.6 4.6 3.3 4.4
Bangalore 6.4 2.6 6.0 6 3 5.6 4.6 2.9 4.4 4.8 3 4.7
Bhubaneshwar 6.4 2.6 5.8 5.3 3 4.8 4.6 3 4.3 4.8 3 4.6
Bhopal 7.2 2 6.5 6.2 2.9 5.5 4.7 3.2 4.4 4.4 3.1 4.2
Chandigarh 7.3 2.8 6.7 7 3.2 6.2 6.2 3.2 5.6 5.8 3 5.5
Chennai 6.3 2.4 5.9 5.5 2.8 5.1 5.2 2.9 4.9 5.6 2.8 5.4
Delhi 7.2 2.8 6.6 6 3.1 5.3 5.7 3 5.1 5.6 2.9 5.3
Gwalior 7.1 2 6.4 6.5 2.8 5.7 5.2 3 4.7 5 3 4.8
Goa 6.6 2.6 6.1 4.9 3 4.6 3.8 3.1 3.6 4.4 3 4.2
Guwahati 5.6 3 5.1 4.6 3.2 4.2 4.8 3.2 4.4 5 3 4.8
Hyderabad 6.9 2.5 6.4 5.8 3.2 5.3 4.9 3.3 4.6 5.2 3.2 5.0
Indore 7.4 2.1 6.7 6.4 3 5.8 4.9 3.4 4.6 4.4 3.2 4.2
Jabalpur 6.6 2.2 6.0 5.8 2.8 5.2 4.8 3 4.5 4.4 3 4.2
Jamnagar 7.4 2.1 6.7 6.2 3.1 5.6 5 3.4 4.7 4.8 3.2 4.6
Jodhpur 7.8 2.2 7.1 7.4 3 6.5 6.2 3 5.6 6 3 5.7
Kolkatta 6.4 2 5.9 5.2 2.8 4.7 4.8 3.1 4.4 4.8 3.1 4.6
Lucknow 7.2 2.6 6.5 6.4 3.2 5.7 5.6 3.1 5.1 5.6 3 5.3
Mumbai 7.2 2.4 6.6 5.4 3 4.9 4.4 3.3 4.1 4 3.2 3.8
Nagpur 6.8 2.5 6.2 5.6 3.1 5.1 4.4 3.2 4.1 4.4 3.2 4.2
Patna 6.8 2.7 6.2 6.2 3.2 5.5 5.2 3.2 4.7 5.6 3 5.3
Pune 7.2 2.4 6.6 5.6 3.4 5.1 4.4 3.4 4.2 4.4 3.4 4.2
Ranchi 6.9 2.3 6.3 6 2.9 5.4 4.8 3 4.4 5 3 4.8
Solapur 6.6 2.6 6.1 5.7 3.3 5.2 4.6 3.4 4.4 4.8 3.3 4.6
Trivendrum 6.8 2.6 6.5 5.2 2.6 5.0 5.4 2.8 5.2 5.8 2.8 5.6
Visakhapatnam 6.4 2.6 5.9 5 3 4.6 4.8 3 4.5 5 3 4.8
AppendixA(continued)
andGLareinkWh/m
2
day(kiloWatthour/m
2
day).
SeptembertoDecember
Sep Oct Nov Dec
City
Ahmedabad 5.6 2.7 5.8 6 1.7 7.0 5.3 1.1 7.0 4.8 1 6.7
Bangalore 5.2 2.9 5.2 5.4 2.6 5.7 5 2 5.1 4.9 2 5.6
Bhubaneshwar 5.2 2.8 5.3 5.2 2.2 5.8 5.3 1.5 6.6 5.1 1.4 6.7
Bhopal 5.1 2.6 5.2 5.8 1.6 6.8 5.3 1 7.1 4.7 1 6.6
Chandigarh 5.8 2.5 6.2 5.2 1.9 6.6 4.3 1.4 6.3 3.5 2 5.4
Chennai 5.8 2.8 5.8 5 2.4 5.3 4.9 2.2 5.4 4.7 2 5.3
Delhi 5.7 2.2 6.0 5.4 1.5 6.7 4.7 1.1 6.8 4 1.2 6.1
Gwalior 5.6 2.3 5.9 5.8 1.5 7.1 5 1 7.0 4.3 1 6.4
Goa 5 2.8 5.0 5.4 2.4 5.8 5.7 1.6 6.7 5.4 1.4 6.5
Guwahati 4.6 2.8 4.7 4.6 2.2 5.4 4.5 1.6 6.1 4 1.4 5.7
Hyderabad 5.2 3 5.2 5.8 2.3 6.3 5.4 1.8 6.4 5.1 1.4 6.3
Indore 5.2 2.8 5.3 5.8 1.8 6.7 5.4 1.2 7.1 4.8 1.6 6.6
Jabalpur 5 2.5 5.1 5.6 1.6 6.5 4.9 1 6.4 4.5 1 6.3
Jamnagar 5.6 2.6 5.8 6 1.6 7.0 5.3 1.1 6.9 4.8 1.1 6.6
Jodhpur 6.2 2 6.5 6 1.2 7.4 5.1 1.1 7.2 4.5 1.1 6.8
Kolkatta 5 2.4 5.1 5.2 1.4 5.9 4.5 1 5.7 4.2 1.5 5.6
Lucknow 5.5 2.4 5.8 5.2 1.6 6.3 4.8 1.3 6.7 4.2 1.2 6.2
Mumbai 5.2 3 5.3 5.6 2 6.3 5.3 1.4 6.5 4.9 1.1 6.3
Nagpur 5 2.8 5.1 5.6 1.8 6.4 5.3 1.2 6.5 4.8 1 6.5
Patna 5.4 2.8 5.6 5.2 2 6.1 4.9 1.6 6.6 4.3 1.5 6.1
Pune 5.4 3 5.4 5.6 2.3 6.2 5.4 1.5 6.6 5 1.3 6.4
Ranchi 5.2 2.6 5.3 5.2 1.8 6.0 5.4 1 7.2 4.8 0.9 7.0
Solapur 5.3 3 5.3 5.6 2.2 6.1 5.4 1.7 6.4 5.2 1.4 6.5
Trivendrum 6 2.6 6.0 5.4 2.4 5.6 5.3 2.4 5.6 5 2.1 5.4
Visakhapatnam 5.2 2.8 5.3 5.2 2.4 5.7 5.2 1.8 6.2 5 1.4 6.3

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