Dark Matter

Why We Believe in It and How We Intend to Find It

By Alex Sparrow

Abstract
In this article we look at the subject of dark matter, an elusive substance believed to
form much of our universe. Analysing the evidence for its existence, we find that the need
for dark matter has arisen from observations of celestial motion and from our current
theories of the birth and formation of the universe. We then look through possible
candidates for dark matter type materials which have not so far revealed themselves to our
most powerful telescopes. Hot, cold and baryonic dark matter are likely contributors,
though no one is quite sure yet of what exactly these are composed. Next dark energy, a
still stranger entity which acts as a form of negative pressure in the universe, accelerating
its expansion. This turns out to neatly complement our current theories of dark matter,
providing the extra ballast needed to fill the so called “missing mass” problem in the
universe.
In order to balance the debate, we turn to alternative theories that explain the
phenomena herein ascribed to dark matter. Many of these theories introduce added
complications without offering an enhanced understanding. However, in understanding M-
theory – currently popular as an expansion of string theory – we see that dark matter may
be an effect of interacting branes or perhaps caused by graviton leakage between parallel
universes. Whilst seen by some as avant garde, this path may eventually lead to the most
elegant explanation of missing mass.
Finally we look at the inherently difficult experiments that might one day reveal dark
matter – a substance that by its very nature is not directly visible to us.

Introduction
The concept of dark matter has existed now in various forms for almost a century,
and yet undeniable proof of its existence still evades our ever progressing ability to search
the cosmos. Sceptics might see this as strong evidence that the many theories that predict
its existence our somehow in error, and that we ought to attempt to fix them instead of
embarking on a wild goose chase through the galaxy. However, dark matter is, by its very
nature something that eludes conventional methods of detection.

What is Dark Matter?

The need for dark matter arose from
research conducted by Fritz Zwicky in 1933. He
attempted to estimate the total mass of the Coma
cluster of galaxies by working backwards from the
observed motion of galaxies in the outer rim of this
cluster (see Gravity box out). He was surprised to
find a glaring inconsistency with traditional
estimates of the cluster's mass based on the
brightness of the cluster. His calculations gave a
mass 400 times greater than the traditional
estimates. He inferred from this that the huge
majority of the matter in the cluster must be
The Coma cluster of galaxies [4]
invisible (i.e. it neither significantly absorbs nor
reflects electromagnetic radiation), and thus Dark Matter was born.
 Some time after this, the case for dark matter's
existence was further reinforced when questions
Gravity arose concerning how the universe formed into
Dark matter's very existence is the structures we see today e.g. Stars, galaxies,
based upon our current clusters etc. It is believed that the galaxy formed in
understanding of gravity - Einstein's a “smallest first” fashion. The formation of these
General Relativity. Put simply, there smaller structures is best explained by dark
exists a force between any two matter.
particles, proportional to the product Since, the only hypothesised property of dark
of their respective masses and matter is that we are unable to detect it, one initial
inversely proportional to the square conclusion might be that it is nothing more than a
of the distance between them. At thin soup of matter occupying empty space.
large distances this force acts Although, the density of such matter is tiny, the
minutely but to great effect, shaping vast tracts of empty space might multiply this
every phenomenon you care to effect to explain our “missing mass”. Additionally,
name from black holes to galaxies. mass might be contained in “brown dwarfs”
It has been suggested that (bodies smaller than stars unable to support
our understanding of gravity may be nuclear fusion – thus emitting no radiation) and
incorrect, causing gravity to exert a “MACHOS” (huge objects drifting through space
much stronger force at large without attachment to a solar system [7]). Despite
distances (see Alternative this, according to current estimates based on our
Theories). knowledge of the big bang, so-called baryonic
dark matter - i.e. that composed primarily of
protons and neutrons – accounts for a tiny fraction
of this missing mass [1]. We are therefore led inexorably to conclude that dark matter is of
a very different structure to anything we currently understand.

Possible Dark Matter Candidates

Aside from the aforementioned baryonic dark matter, many other candidates have
been proposed. These can be grouped into three primary categories:
1. Hot Dark Matter consists of particles travelling at relativistic velocities. The
principal known particle in this class is the neutrino. First hypothesised by Wolfgang
Pauli in 1931 [2] to explain the motion of beta particles created in a radioactive
decay. Neutrinos are currently believed to be massless though recent experiments
suggest its mass may be non-zero. Since neutrinos interact only very weakly with
matter, they might perhaps explain the missing mass problem. As it turns out,
neutrinos can only account for part of the “missing mass”. Since they move at
relativistic velocities, an abundance of neutrinos at the time of the big bang would
have hindered the formation of small structures like stars – they move too fast to
clump together [3]. Therefore, hot dark matter can only form part of our solution.
2. Cold Dark Matter is, as you might guess,
composed of non-relativistic particles.
Baryonic matter must make up only a small
fraction of this and so we look to exotic, as-
yet undiscovered particles to make up the
deficit. One candidate is the Axion which
sprung out of the recent field of quantum
chromodynamics. Models of this particle's
birth during the big bang suggest Axions
may have been created in great abundance
though immediately robbed of kinetic energy,
they now exist as a “cold” fluid known as a
Cryogenic Dark Matter Search [5]
Bose-Einstein condensate. Thus far no
experiment has revealed their existence.
 Two further possibilities for the bulk of cold dark matter have been put forward.
Known as SIMPs (Strongly Interacting Massive Particle) and WIMPs (weakly
interacting massive particle). It should be stressed that these particles are purely
hypothetical and by there very nature, very difficult to detect. Several experiments
are currently under way to detect WIMPs. Perhaps the most promising is the
Cryogenic Dark Matter Search – located deep in a disused
Minnesota mine shaft. Scientists use crystals coated in metal and
cooled to superconducting temperatures. They hope that a
passing WIMP will cause a vibration in the crystal lattice [6],
creating enough heat to cause a change in the metal's
resistance.
If dark matter does exist, it must primarily comprise cold dark
matter. The jury is still very much out on exactly what this
comprises.

Einstein [8] Dark Energy

The history of Dark Energy dates back to 1915 when Einstein his
published his ground breaking paper on General Relativity. In it he almost completely
revised Newton's long standing theory of gravitation. Gravity was non longer depicted as a
simple force within a static universe. Einstein envisaged a four dimensional space-time,
twisted by massive objects to create the gravitational wells that we observe as a force. In
constructing an equation to describe the state of the universe, Einstein was shocked to
find that his equation predicted an expanding universe. Believing that the universe was in
a steady state he added the cosmological constant Λ to counteract this expansion. Two
problems were found with this approach, which Einstein would later refer to as the greatest
blunder of his life. Firstly, Einstein's quick fix led to an unstable universe that would balloon
outwards or rapidly shrink in the presence of a tiny inconsistency. Secondly, in 1929 Edwin
Hubble discovered that the universe was in fact expanding.
Einstein's cosmological constant was deemed unnecessary and consigned to
scientific history books. That is until 1998 when several independent researchers
measuring the red shift from supernovae (exploding stars at the end of their life) and found
that the expansion of the universe is actually accelerating. This suggests that Einstein was
right to add a cosmological constant to his equations, although in this case one that acts
against gravity, causing the expansion to hasten with time.
Furthermore, dark energy may perfectly complement dark matter in that it provides
the additional gravitational effect so far missing from dark matter.
Physically speaking, dark energy can be thought of as an invisible energy that
permeates the whole of space. Happily, quantum mechanics predicts just such a field –
zero point energy. It would seem therefore, that everything is resolved within this particular
field. And it would be, but for one crucial problem. The zero point energy predicted by
quantum mechanics is of the order of 10120 times greater than the observed cosmological
constant. This problem known as the cosmological constant problem will need to be fully
resolved by physicists if dark energy is to enter the realm of fully accepted theories.

Alternative Views
Since much of this article is based upon possible answers to very complex
questions, it is appropriate to include alternate explanations. Additionally, it should be
noted that explanations involving extremely dense objects (e.g. Black holes) can be
discounted since they are not totally invisible to us. The extreme density of these bodies
causes an effect known as gravitational lensing where light passing these objects is
slowed down and bent causing a visual anomaly observable from Earth.
One obvious alternative to dark matter is the possibility that we may in some way
misunderstand either gravity or mechanics on a galactic scale. One such theory proposed
by Finzi in 1963 modifies the gravitational equation
to give increased force at large distances. While
these theories are difficult to positively dispel, they
do introduce added complications avoided by a
theory of dark matter. Some might consider such
an alternative a kind of solipsism that requires the
formulation of laws that mimic the behaviour of
dark matter without conceding its existence.
Of the many theories competing to explain
the mass discrepancy, MOND (Modified Newtonian
Dynamics) [9] is one of the more prominent.
Hypothesised in 1983 by Mordehai Milgrom, it
modifies Newton's second law A graviton leaving a 'brane [11]
Force=mass×acceleration so that below a certain
mass×acceleration 2
acceleration a 0 , instead Force= . This makes the velocity of a star
a0
flat (i.e. not dependent on its distance from the centre of the orbit), thus eliminating the
primary invocation of dark matter. This change would never be observable on earth since
Earth is locked in a permanent “acceleration” in orbit around the sun. However, it does not
seem to address the secondary problem in the formation of structure in the universe, and
thus should reasonably be discarded if we are to favour a simpler theory.
One final theory that seems to have entered public consciousness recently is that of
M-theory. The M standing for magical, mysterious or a number of other of other such
words might seriously be considered to stand for membrane. M-theory places us in a
universe governed by string theory, where adjacent universes exist side by side as so
called 'branes. Whilst this theory has been much lauded for its simplicity and
completeness, it has not yet garnered wholesale acceptance by scientists. Recent
suggestions [10] by theoretical physicists that the motion of such branes might act to
cause dark matter like behaviour within our universe. Other scientists predict that some
form of leakage of gravity between universes might be responsible for the dark matter like
effects we see.

Detection Methods
An important attribute of any successful scientific theory is the ability to collect
supporting evidence. In this respect, dark matter may long be cast in doubt, since its
attributes make it by definition a concept both nebulous and difficult to verify. Many
experiments are currently planned or in progress with the aim of finding evidence of dark
matter.
Although it has been determined that baryonic matter can form only a small
percentage of overall dark matter, astronomers are investigating MACHOs via the effect
of microlensing. Examining the sky with ever more powerful telescopes it is now possible
to observe the bending of light for very small objects. Although this is indeed interesting
work, the full thrust of the dark matter search is focussed on finding cold dark matter in the
form of WIMPs, SIMPs and neutralinos. Aside from the aforementioned experiment in
Minesota, WIMPs are being investigated indirectly. It is believed that WIMPs accumulate in
the sun, annihilating one another and producing a thin stream of neutrinos that can be
detected on Earth. Whilst we are capable of detecting neutrinos, spotting relatively small
numbers of them and distinguishing them from the constant flow that penetrates the earth
has proved a difficult task.

Conclusion
This article really has only scratched the surface of a problem that straddles pretty
much every aspect of modern physics from general relativity to string theory. Whether dark
matter exists or not, the search for it will undoubtedly bring us fresh understanding of the
universe, and closer to the truth of its origin.

References
[1] Freese et Al, Death of Stellar Baryonic Dark Matter Candidates
[2] http://astron.berkeley.edu/~mwhite/darkmatter/hdm.html (03/01/2006)
[3] http://www.crystalinks.com/darkmatter.html (03/01/2006)
[4] http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/apod/ap020203.html (03/01/2006)
[5] http://cdms.berkeley.edu/public_pics/DSCN0145.JPG (04/01/2006)
[6] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WIMP (04/01/2006)
[7] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massive_compact_halo_object (04/01/2006)
[8] http://www.sav.sk/uploads/a0054117906/Einstein%20-%20jazyk%20cb.jpg
(10/01/2006)
[9] http://www.astro.umd.edu/~ssm/mond/ (10/01/2006)
[10] Mukohyama, D-brane as Dark Matter in Warped String Compactification
[11]http://www.nevis.columbia.edu/~conrad/visuals/graviton.gif

Bibliography
[1] Stephen Hawking, A Brief History of Time
[2] David Deutsch, The Fabric of Reality