Introduction: In many industrial applications it is required to convert a fixed voltage dc source into a variable voltage dc source.

A dc chopper converts directly from dc to dc and is also known as a dc-to-dc converter. A chopper can be considered as dc equivalent to an ac transformer with a continuously variable turns ratio. Like a transformer, it could be used to step-down or step-up a dc voltage source. Choppers are widely used for traction motor control in electric automobiles, trolley cars, Marine hoists, fork lift trucks and mine haulers. They provide smooth acceleration control, high efficiency and fast dynamic response. Choppers can be used in regenerative braking of dc motors to return energy back into the supply and this feature results in energy savings for transportation system with frequent stop. 10-5 Choppers Drives (H.Rashid): Chopper drives are widely used in traction applications all over the world. A dc Chopper is connected between a fixed voltage dc source and a dc motor to vary the armature voltage. In addition to armature voltage control, a dc chopper can provide regenerative braking of the motors and can return energy back to the supply. This energy saving feature is particularly attractive to transportation system with frequent stops (example Mass Rapid Transit MRT). Chopper drives are also used in Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs). The possible control modes of a dc chopper drives are; 1. 2. 3. 4. Power (Acceleration) Control. Regenerative Brake Control. Rheostatic Brake Control. Combined Regenerative & Rheostatic Brake Control.

10-5.1:

Principle of Power (Acceleration) Control:

The chopper is used to control the armature voltage of a dc motor (Figure 10-14 a). The chopper switch could be a transistor or forced commutated thyristor chopper. This is an one quadrant drive. The wave forms for the armature voltage, load current and input current are (Fig 10-14 c), assuming highly inductive load.

The average armature voltage is obtained by; Where, V a = k V S - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (10-31) k = Duty cycle of the chopper.

The power supplied to the motor is obtained by; P P Where, I a = Average armature current of the motor & it is ripple free. Assuming a lossless chopper, so that input power is given by; Pi=P
O O O

=Va.I

= k V S. I a - - - - - - - - - - - (10-32)

=V

.I

The average value of the input current is obtained by; I S = k I a - - - - - - - - - - - - - (10-33) The equivalent input of the chopper drive is given by; R => R
eq eq

=VS/I

= (V S / k I a ) = (V S / I a ) . (1/ k) - - - - - - - - - - (10-34)

Hence, by varying the duty cycle k, the power flow to the motor (and speed) can be controlled. For a finite armature circuit inductance (eq 7-19) can be applied to find the maximum peak-to-peak ripple current as; I Where,
max

= (V R

/ R m) tan h (R

/ 4 f L m) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (10-35)

&L

are the armature circuit resistance & inductances respectively.

Example 10-7 (H.Rashid): The dc series motor is powered by a dc chopper (Figure 10-14 a) from a 600v dc source. The armature resistance is R a = 0.02 & the field resistance is R f = 0.03 . The back emf constant of the motor is K V = 15.27 m V/A-rad/s. The average armature current is I a = 250 Amps. The armature current is continuous & has negligible ripple. If the duty cycle of the chopper is 60 %, determine; the (a). (b). (c). (d). Input power from the source ? Equivalent input resistance of the chopper drive? Motor speed =? Developed Torque T d =?

From the given data; V S = 600 v I a = 250 A. K = 0.6 R m = R a + R f = 0.02 + 0.03 = 0.05 a. Now according to eq 10-32, the power supplied to the motor is obtained by; P i = k V S. I a - - - - - - - - - - - (10-32)
=>

(0.6 x 600 x 250) 600 b. With the help of eq 10-34, we can find out R R
eq e q,

=>

P i = 90 k watts.

which is given by;

= (V S / k I a ) = (V S / I a ) . (1/ k) - - - - - - - - - - (10-34)
=>

=>

(600/250) (1/0.6)

eq

=4

10-5.2:

Principle of Regenerative Brake Control:

In regenerative braking the motor acts as a generator and the kinetic energy of the motor and the load is returned back to the supply. The application of dc choppers in regenerative braking can be explained with Figure 10-15a; as

Let us assume that the armature of a series motor is rotating due to the inertia of the motor (and load) and in case of transportation system, the kinetic energy of the vehicle or train would rotate the armature shaft. Then if the transistor is switched On, the armature current will rise due to the short-circuiting of the motor terminals. If the chopper is turned off, diode D m would be turned On and the energy stored in the armature circuit inductances would be transferred to the supply, provided that the supply is receptive. This is an one quadrant drive and operates in the second quadrant (Figure 10-15 b). Fig 10-15 c, shows the voltage and current waveforms assuming that the armature current is continuous & ripple free.

The average voltage across the chopper is obtained by; V

C h=

(1 k) V S - - - - - - - - - (10-36)

If I a is the armature current, the regenerated power can be found from; P g = V S. I a (1 k) - - - - - - - (10-37) The voltage generated by the series motor acting as a generator is; E g = K V. I a . - - - - - - - - - (10-38) As Where, Eg=V
Ch

+R

a m

E g = (1 k) V S + R

K V = Machine constant.
= Machine speed in rad/s.

Therefore the equivalent load resistance of the motor acting as a generator is given by; R
eq

= (V S / I a) (1 k) + R

- - - - - - (10-39)

Hence, by varying the duty cycle k, the equivalent load resistance seen by the motor can be varied from R m to ( + R m) and the regenerative power can be controlled. From equation 7-31, the conditions for permissible potentials and polarity of the two voltages are, 0 (E g R m I a) V S - - - - - - - - - - - (10-40) Which gives the minimum braking speed of a series motor as; Or E g = K V. I a .
min

=R

min = R m / K V - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (10-41)

and min . The maximum braking speed of a series motor can be found from equation 10-40, Or

K V. I a . max R m I a = V S
max = ( + ) - - - - - - - - - (10-42)

and max . The regenerative braking would be effective only if the motor speed is between these two speed limits (e.g min < < max). At any speed less than min an alternate braking arrangement would be required. 7

Although dc series motors are traditionally used for traction applications due to their high starting torque, a series excited generator is unstable when working into a fixed voltage supply. Thus for running on the traction supply, a separate excitation control is required and such an arrangement of series motor is normally sensitive to supply voltage fluctuations and a fast dynamic response is required to provide an adequate brake control. The application of a dc chopper allows the regenerative braking of dc series motors due to its fast dynamic response. A separately excited dc motors is stable in regenerative braking. The armature and field can be controlled independently to provide the required torque during starting. A chopper fed series and separately excited dc motors are suitable for traction applications.

Example 10-8 (H.Rashid): A dc chopper is used in regenerative braking of a dc series motor (Figure 10-15 a). The dc supply voltage is 600 v. The armature resistance is R a = 0.02 & the field resistance is R f = 0.03 . The back emf constant of the motor is K V = 15.27 m V/A-rad/s. The average armature current is maintained constant at I a = 250 Amps. The armature current is continuous & has negligible ripple. If the duty cycle of the chopper is 60 %, determine; the (a). (b). (c). (d). (e). Average voltage across the chopper, V
ch

Power regenerated to the dc supply, P g? Equivalent load resistance of the motor acting as a generator R Minimum permissible braking speed min =? Motor speed =?
e q?

From the given data; V S = 600 v I a = 250 A. K V = 0.1527 V/A K = 0.6 R m = R a + R f = 0.02 + 0.03 = 0.05 a. The average voltage across the chopper is given by eq 10-36; V
=>
C h=

(1 k) V S - - - - - - - - - (10-36)
=> V
C h=

(1 0.6) 600

240 volts

b. If I a is the average armature current, the regenerated power can be found from; P g = V S. I a (1 k) - - - - - - - (10-37)
=> 250 x 600 (1 0.6) =>

P g = 60 Kwatts

c. Therefore the equivalent load resistance of the motor acting as a generator is given by; R =>
eq

= (V S / I a) (1 k) + R

- - - - - - (10-39) => R
eq

(600/250) (1 0.6) + 0.05 d. The minimum permissible braking speed is obtained as;
min

= 1.01

=R

/K

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - (10-41)
min

=>

(0.05/0.01527)

=>

= 3.274 rad/s =>

min

= 3.274 x (30/) =>

min

= 31.26 rpm 10

e. The maximum permissible braking speed can be found from equation 10-40,

K V. I a . max R m I a = V S

=>

max

=(

) - - - - - - - - - (10-42)

=> =>

(
max

=>

max

= 160.445 rad/s =>

max

= 160.445 x (30/)

= 1532.14 rpm

Finally the motor speed is given by; E g = K V. I a . - - - - - - - - - (10-38) & Hence, => Note: Eg=V
Ch

+R

=>

240 + 0.05 x 250

=>

E g = 252.5 v

= E g / (K V.I a) = 66.14 rad/s

=>

252.5 / (0.01527 x 250) = 66.14 x (30/) => = 631.6 rpm

=>

The motor speed would decrease with time. To maintain the armature current at the same level, the effective load resistance of the series generator should be adjusted by varrying the duty cycle of the chopper.

11

10-5.3:

Principle of Rheostatic Brake Control:

In rheostatic braking, the energy is dissipated in a rheostat and it may not be a desirable feature. In Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) systems, the energy may be used in heating the trains. The rheostatic braking is also called as dynamic braking. An arrangement for the rheostatic braking of dc series motor is shown (Figure 10-16a), as; This is one quadrant drive and operates in the second quadrant. An arrangement for the rheostatic braking of dc series motor is shown (Figure 10-16a), as; Figure 10-16 c, shows the waveforms for the current and voltage. Assuming that the armature current is continuous & is ripple free.

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The average current of the braking resistor is obtained by; I b= I a (1 k) - - - - - - - - - (10-43) And the average voltage across the braking resistor is; V b= R b . I a (1 k) - - - - - - (10-44) Therefore the equivalent load resistance of the series generator is given by; R
eq

=(V b /I a)
m

= R b (1 k) + R

- - - - - - (10-45)
b

Hence the power dissipated in the Resistor R P b = V b. I => =>

b

is given by;

I a (R b. I a) (1 k) P b = R b. I
a 2

(1 k) - - - - - (10-46)
m

By controlling the duty cycle k, the effective load resistance can be varied from R the braking power can be controlled.

to R

+ R b and

The braking resistance R b determines the maximum voltage rating of the chopper.

13

Example 10-9 (H.Rashid): A dc chopper is used in rheostatic braking of a dc series motor (Figure 10-16 a). The armature resistance is R a = 0.02 & the field resistance is R f = 0.03 . The braking resistance is R b = 5 . The back emf constant of the motor is K V = 15.27 m V/A-rad/s. The average armature current is maintained constant at I a = 250 Amps. The armature current is continuous & has negligible ripple. If the duty cycle of the chopper is 40 %, determine; the (a). (b). (c). (d). (e). Average voltage across the chopper, V
ch

Power dissipated in the braking resistor, P b? Equivalent load resistance of the motor acting as a generator R Motor speed =? Peak chopper voltage, V P =?
e q?

14

10-5.4:

Principle of Combined Regenerative & Rheostatic Brake Control:

Regenerative braking is energy efficient braking; on the other hand the energy is dissipated as heat in the rheostat braking. If the supply is partly receptive, which is normally the case in practical traction system, a combined regeneration and rheostat brake control would be the most energy efficient. Figure 10-17 shows an arrangement in which rheostatic braking is combined with regenerative braking.

During Regenerative braking, the line voltage is sensed continuously. If it exceeds a certain preset value, normally 20 % above the line voltage, the regeneration braking is removed and a rheostatic braking is applied. It allows an almost instantaneous transfer from regenerative to rheostatic braking if the line becomes non-receptive even momentarily. In every cycle, the logic circuit determines the receptivity of the supply. If it is non receptive Thyristor T R is turned On to divert the motor current to the resistor R b. Thyristor T R is self commutated when transistor Q 1 is turned On in the next cycle.

15

Two Quadrant DC-DC Converter: During Power control, a chopper fed drive operates in the first quadrant, where the armature voltage & armature current are positive (Figure 10-14 b). In regenerative braking, the chopper drive operates in the second quadrant, where the armature voltage is positive and armature current is negative (Figure 10-15 b). Two quadrant operation (fig 10-18 a) is required to allow power & regenerative braking control. The circuit arrangement of transistorized two quadrant drive is shown in figure 10-18 b.

Quadrant Operation Summary: Regenerative Braking Control Power Control

16

TWO QUADRANT Power Control: Transistor Q 1 and diode D 1 operates.

When Transistor Q 1 is turned ON, the supply voltage V s is connected to the motor terminals. When Transistor Q 1 is turned off, the armature current which flows through the free-wheeling diode D 1 decays.

Regenerative Control:

Transistor Q 2 and diode D 2 operates.

When Transistor Q 2 is turned ON, the series motor acts as a generator & the armature current rises. When Transistor Q 2 is turned off, the motor acting as a generator, returns energy to the supply through the regenerative diode D 2 .

17

FOUR Quadrant DC-DC Converter Drive:

Quadrant Operation Summary: Forward generation Forward Power Control

Reverse Power Control

Reverse generation

18

Forward Power Control: Transistors Q 1 & Q 2 operates. Transistors Q 3 & Q 4 are turns Off. When Q 1 & Q 2 are turned ON together; the Supply voltage appears across the motor terminals and the armature current rises. When Q 1 is turned Off and Q 2 is still turned ON; the armature current decays through Q 2 & D 4.

Forward Regeneration: Transistors Q 1 , Q 2 & Q 3 are turned Off. When Transistor Q 4 is turned ON; the armature current which rises flows through Q 4 & D 2. When Q 4 is turned Off; the motor acting as a generator returns energy to the supply through D 1 & D 2.

19

Reverse Power Control: The field current of the motor is reversed. Q 3 & Q 4 Operates and Q 1 & Q 2 are Turned Off. When Q 3 & Q 4 are turned ON together; the armature current rises and flows in the reverse direction. When Q 3 is turned Off and Q 4 is turned ON; the armature current falls through Q 4 & D 2.

Reverse Regeneration: The field current is in the same direction as in reverse power control. Transistors Q 1 , Q 3 & Q 4 are turned Off. When Transistor Q 2 is turned ON; the armature current which rises through Q 2 & Q 4. When Q 2 is turned Off; the armature current falls and motor returns energy to the supply through D 3 & D 4.

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