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byj L. Schrader

THE METROPOLITANMUSEUM OF ART

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should he word "BEASTS" be used for lions, leopproperly ards, tigers, wolves, foxes, dogs, monkeysand others that rage about with tooth and claw.They are accustomed to freedomby nature, and they go whereverthey want to go. T

will stand up to anybody.He is the Prince of All Animals.The courageof these creaturesis seatedin theirhearts. Theirbrowsand tail-tufts are an index to theirdisposition. Althoughthey fear the creakingof wheels, they are frightenedby fires even more so. Scientistssay that Leo has three His principalcharacteristics: firstfeature is, that he lovesto roveon the tops of mountains.That way the smell of approachinghuntersreachesup to him, and he disguiseshis spoorwith his tail. The lion'ssecond featureis, that when he sleeps, he seems to keep his eyes open. The thirdfeatureis, that when a lionessgives birthto her cubs, she brings them forth dead and lays them up lifelessfor three days-until theirfather,coming on the thirdday, breathesin theirfaces and inspirits them. Justso did the FatherOmnipotent raiseOurLordJesusChristfrom the dead on the thirdday. It is said the littersof these creaturescome in three. Shortlions with curly manes are peaceful;tall ones with plain hair are fierce. So far as theirrelationswith men are concerned,the natureof lions is

EOthe Lion, mightiestof beasts,

that they do not get angry unlessthey are wounded. The compassionof lions, on the contrary,is clearfrom innumerableexamples-for they spare the prostrate;they allowsuch captivesas they come acrossto go back to their own country; they preyon men rather than on women, and they do not kill childrenexceptwhen they are very hungry. lions abstain from Furthermore, over-eating;they only take food and drink on alternatedays and, when they have eaten too much, they pop their paws carefullyinto their mouthsand of

their own accordextractthe meat. A lion turns up its nose at yesterday's dinner and will go awayhungryfrom food that has been left over. In the roar of this beast is such naturalterriblenessthat many animals, which could escape his chargeby their speed, are paralyzedby the verysound of his voice. A sick lion searchesfor a monkeyto eat, by which means he can be cured. A lion fears a cock, especially a white one. He is harassedby the tiny sting of a scorpion,and snake poison kills him. A lion, like the king he is, disdains to have a lot of differentwives.
Below:Lion graspingcalf, columnsupport. Italian (probablyReggioEmilia),12th century.Opposite:Lion, fresco.Spanish (Burgos Province),about 1230

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IGRIS Tigergets his name the from his rapidpace; for the Persians, Greeksand Medesused to call an arrowtygris.And from him the RiverTigrisis named, becauseit is the most rapidof all rivers.The beast can be distinguishedby his manifold specklings,by his courageand by his wonderfulspeed. Now the tigress,when she finds that one of her cubs has been stolen from her lair,instantlypressesalong the tracksof the thief. But the cubstealer,seeing that even though carried T

by a gallopinghorse he is on the point of being overcomeby the speed of the tigress,and seeing that no safetycan be expectedfrom flight, cunninglyinvents the followingruse. He throwsdown a glass ball, and the tigress,fooledby her own reflection,assumesthat the image in the glass is her little one. She pulls up, hoping to collect the infant. But only delayedby his hollowmockery,

she again throwsherselfwith all her might into followingthe horsemanand quicklythreatensto catch up with the fugitive.Again he delaysthe pursuer by throwingdown a second ball, nor does the memoryof his formertrick preventthe mother'stendercare. She curls herselfroundthe empty reflection and lies down as if to suckle the cub. And so, deceivedby the zeal of her own dutifulness,she loses both her revenge and her baby.
Tigerswith ramiformtongues, capital. Spanish (SegoviaProvince),about 1160

fear,flees into the cavesof the earth. There, unableto bear the smell, it becomes torpidand remainsimmobile beautiful,and excessivelykind. The only animal it considersan enemy as in death. is the dragon. The true panther,OurLordJesus Whena pantherhas dined and is Christ,snatchedus from the powerof the dragon-devilon descendingfrom satiated,it hides awayin its den and goes to sleep. Afterthreedays it awakes the heavens.He associatedus with and emits a loud belch, and a very himselfas sons by his incarnation, sweet smell-like the smell of allspice acceptingall, and gave gifts to men, -issues from its mouth. Whenthe leading captivitycaptive. other animalshaveheard the noise, The pantheris an animal with small spots daubedall overit; hence it they followthe pantherwhereverit can be distinguishedby circleddots goes, becauseof the sweetnessof this scent. Only the dragon, smittenwith upon tawny and also by its black-and-

has nhe PANTHER a truly rT variegatedcolorand is most

white variegation.It only has babies once, becausewhen the cubs have struckroot in the mother'swomb and begin to wax with the strengthof birth, they become impatient.So they tear the womb as being an obstacleto delivery. This dischargesthe litter,since it is spurredby pain. Thus, when the subsequentseed of generationis infused into it, it does not adhereto the damagedand scarredparts and is not accepted.
tapestryseries (see inside covers)

detail fromtheUnicorn Spotted panther,

15

he ANTALOPS [Antelope] is an

animal of incomparablecelerity, so much so that no huntercan everget near it. It has long horns shaped like a saw,with the resultthat it can even cut down very big trees. When it is thirsty,it goes to the great RiverEuphratesand drinks. Now thereis in those parts a shrubcalled Herecine,which has subtle, long twigs. Coming thereforeto the shrub, the 16

antelopebegins to play with the Herecine with its horns, and, while doing so, entanglesthem in the twigs. When it cannot get free itself aftera long struggle,it cries with a loud bellow.But the hunter,hearing its voice, comes and kills it.
Antelopeon a shieldsurrounded ivy by leaves,ceramicdish. Spanish (Manises, ValenciaProvince),about 1430-70

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atchhifri. mall animal like a kid, exceedingly swift, with one horn inth4 middle of his forehead. No hunter can Biithe can be trapped by he following stratagem. virgir is led to where he lurks, nd there she is sent off alone into the ood. He quickly leapsinto her lap nd embraces her, and hence he gets aught. Qur Lord Jesus Christ is also a umorn spiritually. The fact that it has just ne horn on its head means what He imself said: "The Father and I are

ryswift because n principalities, nor powers, nor thrones, nor dominions could keep up with him, nor could Hell contain him, nor could the most subtle devil prevail to catch or contain him; hut, by thesole willof the Father, he came down into the virgin womb for our salvation. The unicorn often fights with elephants and conquers them by wounding them in the belly Unicornwith a dog on its back, aquamanile. German(Saxony),about 1400

This kind of wild animalis born in Hyperborean parts, or in mountains.All its bodily membersare like a lion's,but its wings and mask are like an eagle's. It is vehementlyhostile

AGRIFFIN is a winged quadruped.

to horses. But it will also tear to pieces any human beings that it happens across. Griffin within Greek a enameled border, medallion. French about (Limoges), 1100-50

they munch it up, it seducesthem, and she immediatelyconceives. Now the elephantand his wife to copulate. Its nose is called a proboscis(for representAdamand Eve. For when the bushes), becauseit carriesits leafthey were pleasingto God, beforetheir food to its mouth with it, and this looks provocationin the flesh, they had no the like a snake. knowledgeof sin. When, however, themselveswith wife ate of the Treeof Knowledge, Elephantsprotect which is what Mandragora means, and ivorytusks. No largeranimalscan be fruitsto her man, she found. The Persiansand the Indians, gave one of the collectedinto woodentowerson them, was immediatelymade a wandererand sometimesfight each other with javthey had to clearout of Paradiseon account of it. elins as if from a castle. They possess When the propertime for being vast intelligenceand memory.They march about in herds. And they copu- deliveredarrives,the motherelephant walks out into a lake, and the water late back-to-back. comes up to her udders. Meanwhile, remainpregnantfor Elephants the fatherelephantguardsher while two years, do not have babies more than once, and only haveone at a time. she is in labor,becausethereis a certain dragonthat is inimical to eleThey live three hundredyears. If one if to havea baby, he goes of them wants phants. Moreover, a serpenthappens with his wife eastwardtowardParadise, by, the fathertrampleson it and kills it. He is also formidableto bulls-but he and thereis a tree therecalled Manis frightenedof mice, for all that. takes of the tree and dragora.She first If an elephanttumbles down he then gives some to her spouse. When T here is an animal called an
ELEPHANT, which has no desire

cannot get up again. Hence he leans againsta tree when he wants to go to sleep, for he has no joints in his knees. For this reasona hunterpartly saws througha tree, so that the elephant may fall down when he leans against it. It is a fact that elephantssmash whateverthey wind their noses round, and whateverthey squashwith their feet they blot out. They neverquarrelabout their wives, for adulteryis unknownto them. Thereis a mild gentlenessabout them, for,if they happen to come man in the desacrossa forwandered erts, they offerto lead him back into familiarpaths. If by chance they do become involvedin battles, they take care of the casualties,collectingthe woundedand exhaustedinto the middle of the herd. fresco. with Spanish Elephant a howdah, 1120-40 about Province), (Soria

18

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his is an animal called the YENA [Hyena], which is accustomed to living in the sepulchresof the dead and devouringtheir bodies. Its natureis that at one momentit is masculine and at anothermoment feminine, and hence it is a dirtybrute. It is unableto turn round, except by a completereversalof its body, becauseits spine is rigid and is all in one piece. It frequentsthe sheepfoldsof shepherdsand walks roundthe houses T

of a night and studiesthe tone of voice of those inside with carefulear, for it is able to do imitationsof the human voice. In orderthat it may preyupon men called out at night by this ruse, it copies the sound of human vomiting. Such dogs as it has called out like this, it gobblesup with hypocritical sobs. And if by chance sportingdogs should crossits shadowwhile they are hunting it, they lose their voicesand cannot give tongue.

This beast has a stone in its eye, also called a yena, which is believed to make a person able to foreseethe futureif he keeps it underhis tongue. It is true that if a yena walks roundany animalthreetimes, the animal cannot move. For this reasonthey affirmthat it has some sort of magic skill. detail fromtheUnicorn tapestry Hyena, backcover) series(seeinside

are enemiesto serpents. When they feel weighteddown by illness, they suck snakes from their holes with a snort of the nostrils and, the dangerof theirvenom having been survived,the stags are restoredto health by a meal of them. Aftera dinner of snake, they shed theircoats and all theirold age with them. Stags listenadmiringlyto the music of rusticpipes. Withtheirears prickedup, they hear acutely;with the ears lowered,not at all. When they change their feeding groundsfor loveof a foreignpasture,if by any chance they haveto crosshuge riversor seas, each restshis head on the haunchesof the one in front; and, since the one behind does the same thing for him in turn, they sufferno troublefrom the weight. Thusly supported,they
STAGS

hurry acrosswith the greatestpossible speed. Whenit is the stag'sappointedseason to rut, the malesof this speciesbell with a furyof concupiscence.Although the femalesmay be impregnated beforehand,theydo not conceiveuntil the time of the starArcturus.Nor do theybring forththeirbabiesjust anywhere, but they hide them with tender care, and, havingtuckedthem up in some deep shrubberyor undergrowth, theyadmonishthem with a stampof the foot to keep hidden. Whenthe littleones havebecomestrongenoughforrunning, the mothersteachthem to trot and accustomthem to leapingoverhigh places. Upon hearing the cry of hounds, stags place themselvesahead of a wind, so that their scent may blow in the

oppositedirection.All stand stock still, for which reasonthey make themselves an easy mark for archers. It is known that stags neverget feverish,so ointmentsmade from their marrowwill settle heats in sick men. Weread that many people who have been accustomedto eating venison from their early days have been immortal,and immuneto fevers,but it fails them in the end if they happento get killed by a single wound. The rennet of a fawn killed in its mother's womb is capital against poisons. Recumbent surrounded a vine-scroll by stag of last brass motif, plate.German, quarter the15thcentury

20

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the Goat is an animal that called this becauseshe gets strivesto attain the mountain
APER

crags (aspera captet). Others call her Caprea, because of the rattling (of the dry droppings entangled in the pelt-or of her hooves?). But the latter are wild goats, which the Greeks used to call Dorcas because they can see so very acutely. These linger on the highest mountains and can recognize approaching people from far away, distinguishing the wayfarer from the sportsman. Goat performingmusic, margin illustration from the HoursofJeanned'Evreux, Queenof

France. French 1325-38 (Ile-de-France),

RSUS Bear,it is said, prothe duces a formlessfoetus, giving birth to somethinglike a bit of pulp, and this the motherbear arrangesinto properlegs and arms by licking it. She pups on the thirtiethday, from whence it comes that a hasty, unformedcreationis broughtforth. A bear'shead is feeble; the greatest strengthis in the arms and loins, for which reasonthey sometimesstand upright. If bears are afflictedwith a seriousinjury,they know how to doctor themselvesby strokingtheirsoreswith a herb, so that they are curedby the mere touch. They do not make lovelike other quadrupeds,but being joined in

mutual embraces,they copulatein the human way.The winterseason provokestheirinclinationto lust. The males respectthe pregnantfemales with the decencyof a privateroom, and, though in the same lairs for their lying-in, these are dividedby earthworksinto separatebeds. They bring forth very tiny pulps of white color, with no eyes. They graduallysculpture these by licking; and meanwhilethey cherishthem to theirbosoms so as to drawup the animal spirit, being warmedby this carefulincubation. During this time, with absolutelyno food for the firstfourteendays, the sleeplessshe-bears get so deeply drowsythat they cannot be woken up,

even by wounds; and afterbearing, they lie hid for threemonths. Then, coming out into the free daylight,they sufferso much from being unaccustomed to the light that you wouldtake them to be struckblind. Bearslook out for the hivesof bees and long for honeycombsvery much. They grab nothing moregreedilythan honey.Whenthey haveeaten mandrake they die-unless, for fear that the poison shouldgrow strongenough to destroythem, they hurryoff and eat ants to recuperate.
Bear,fresco.Spanish (SoriaProvince), about 1120-40

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beast called a MANTICORAis born in the Indies. It has threerowsof teeth that meet the alternately; face of a man, with gleaming, blood-redeyes; a lion's body; a tail like a scorpion's stinger; and a shrillvoice that is so sibilantthat it resemblesthe notes of flutes. It hankers afterhuman flesh most ravenously. It is so strongin the foot, so powerful
with its leaps, that neither the most

extensivespace nor the most lofty obstaclecan contain it.

voussoirof an arch. French Manticore, (Languedoc),12th century

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ULPIS the Fox neverruns

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straightbut goes on his way with tortuouswindings. He is fraudulentand ingeniousanimal. i . iii

- <hi. ? - mself on the groundand holds his breath. The birds seeing that he is not
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to sit on him. As you can guess, grabsthem and gobblesthem up. n

The Devil has this same nature.

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the Hours oftJeanne dEvreux

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24

breathor the shepherdswake up, she he wordLuPuS,a Wolf,is derivedfrom the Greek,Licus. goes upwind. And if a twig or anything else shouldmake a noise when her foot Thev are called that in Greek on accountof theirbites. pressesit, she bites her own foot. A wolf'seyes shine at night like The wolf'sstrengthis seatedin his chest and jaws; in his loins thereis lamps, and its natureis that, if it sees a reallyverv littleof it. His neck is never man first, it strikeshim dumb and triable to turn backward. umphs overhim like a victoroverthe voiceless.But also, if it feels itselfto Wolves onlv copulateon twelve days in the whole year.They can suffer have been seen first, it loses its own hungerfor a long time, and aftermuch ferocityand cannot run. It is reportedthat on the backside fastingthey eat a lot. of this animal thereis a small patch of The femalewolf goes to the fold like a tame dog, at a foot'space, and, aphrodisiachair,which it plucks off lest the sheepdognotice the smell of her with its teeth if it happensto be afraid T

of being caught. Nor is this hair, for which people are always trying to catch it, of any use unless taken off alive. The devil bears the similitude of a wolf: he who is always looking over the human race with his evil eye, and darkly prowling round the sheepfolds of the faithful so that he may afflict and ruin their souls. bv Rampantwolf on a shieldsurrounded brionvleaves,ceramicdish. Spanish (Valencia), about 1450-1500

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animal is more sagaciousthan ~o

CANIS the Dog; for he has more

perception than other animals, for he alone recognizes his own name. He esteems his master highly. There are numerous breeds of dogs. Some track down the wild creatures of the wood. Others guard the flocks of sheep vigilantly against infestations of wolves. Others, the house dogs, look after the palisade of their masters, lest it should be robbed in the night by thieves; and these will stand up for their owners to the death. They gladly dash out hunting with master, and will even guard his body when dead, and not leave it. In sum, it is a part of their nature that they cannot live without men. So much do dogs adore their owners, that one can read how, when King Garamantes was captured by his enemies and sold into slavery, two hundred of his hounds, having made up a party, rescued him from exile out of the middle of the whole battle line of his foes, and fought those who resisted. When Jason was killed in a quarrel, his

dog refusedfood and died of hunger. The hound of King Lisimachusthrew itself into the flameswhen its master's funeralpyrehad been lightedand was burntup by the firein companywith him. When a dog comes acrossthe trackof a hare or a stag, and reaches the branchingof the trail, or the crisscrossof the trail becauseit has split into more parts, then the dog puzzles silentlywith himself,seekingalong the beginningsof each differenttrack. He

showshis sagacityin followingthe scent, as if enunciatinga syllogism. By rejectingerror,the dog finds truth. haveoften proDogs, moreover, duced evidenceto convictculpritswith proofsof murderdone-to such an extentthat theirmute testimonyhas frequentlybeen believed. Its way of life is reportedto be perfectlytemperate.What is more, the tongueof a puppy makes a salvefor men'sintestines,if they are wounded. In licking a wound, the tongueof a dog heals the same. The dog'snatureis that it returns to its own vomit and gobblesit up again. And if it happensto crossa river carryingsome meat or anythingof that sort, when it sees its reflectionit opens its mouth and, while it hastensto pick up the other bit of meat, it loses the one it had.
Above:Dog at the feet of his deceasedmaslid. ter,detailof a sarcophagus Spanish (Schoolof Lerida),1299-1314. Below: Recumbent dog, heraldicbadge inscribed (in Spanish)"loyal."Spanish,15th century

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Sheep, wooly,defenselessin name . its .body and placidin mind, gets its ab oblatione-from the burnt sacrifice-because in the old days among the ancientsit was not bulls but that wereofferedup. Asheep They call some of them bi-dents, and these are the ones that havetwo longerteeth among the eight. the approachof wintera sheep 0 $ ,On gets hungryat pastureand roots up the grassinsatiably-because it foresees the severityof the winterahead and hopes to stuff itselfwith greenfodder beforeall herbageshall fail it underthe nipping frost. detail a millefleurs of Sheep, tapestry. late Franco-Flemish, 15thorearly16th century

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RIES the Ram perhapsgets his name from Ares, the God of War-and hence, the males among the flocksare sometimescalled in LatinMares(Mars),or else the beast igmay get its name becauseit was or inally immolatedon altars-from . whence "Aries" becausehe was sacrificedaris (with altars)-and thus we get that ram in scripturewho was offeredup at the altar (ad aram).
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e get the name of APERthe WildBoar from its savagery (aferitate),by leavingout the letterF and putting P instead. In the same way, among the Greeks,it is calledsuagros,the boorishor country pig. For everythingthat is wild and rude we looselycall "boorish."

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and on Boar treading oakleaves acorns, last French escutcheon. carved (Herault), of third the12thto early13thcentury
nhe Greekscall rT name of boaenBos the Ox by the and the Latins

call these creaturestriones becausethey tread the earth underfoot

like the stars of that name [Ursus Majorand Ursus Minor,constellations that were thoughtto resemblea wagon drawnby oxen]. The kindnessof oxen for for their comradesis extraordinary, each of them demandsthe companyof that other one with whom he has been accustomedto drawthe plough by the neck-and, if by any chancethe second one is absent, then the firstone's kindly dispositionis testifiedby frequent mooing. When rain is impending,oxen know that they ought to keep themselvesat home in their stables. Moreover,when they foreseeby natural

instinct a change for the betterin the sky, they look out carefullyand stick their necks from the stalls, all gazing out at once, in orderto show themselveswilling to go forth. There are fiercebulls of the wild ox in Germany,which have such immensehornsthat, at the royaltables, which have a notablecapacityfor booze, the people make the receptacles for drink out of them. dish of detail a ceramic with Oxon a shield, thearmsof theBabau family. Spanish about Valencia (Manises, Province), 1450-70

their name dam gave CAMELS with good reason, for when they are being loaded up they kneel down and make themselvesloweror humbler-and the Greekfor low or humble is cam. Or else it is becausethe creatureis humped on the back and the wordcamurmeans "curved"in Greek. The Bactriansbreedthe strongest camels, but Arabiabreedsthe largest number.The two kinds differin this, that the Arabianshavehumps on the back. These Bactriansneverwear away theirhooves.They have fleshysoles with concertina-likepads, and from
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these there is a cushioningcounteraction for the walkers,with no hard impedimentto putting down the foot. They are kept for two purposes. Some are accommodatedfor carrying a burden. Othersare more speedy,but cannot be given loads beyondwhat is fitting; nor are the latterwilling to do more than the accustomeddistances. When they come into season, they are so unbridledby the matterthat they run mad for the want of love. They detesthorses. They are good at putting up with the wearinessof thirst, and indeed, when the opportunityto drink is given them, they fill up with enough

both for the past want and for whatever lack may come in the futurefor a long time. They go for dirty watersand avoidclean ones. In fact, unlessthere shouldbe foulerdrink available,they themselvesstir up the slime with busy trampling,in orderthat it should be muddied. They live for a hundred years. If they happento be sold to a strangerthey growill, disgustedat the price. camel,ordromedary, Single-humped about fresco. (Soria Spanish Province), 1120-40

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he spiritedness HORSES is of exultin battlefields: great. They they sniff the combat;they are excitedto the fightby the sound of a trumpet.They recognizetheirenemies in battleto such an extentthat they go for theiradversaries with a bite. Some will let nobodyon theirback except their master. The horse of Alexander Great, the called Bucephalus,wouldneverdeign to carry anybodyexcepthis master. Thereare many storiesof him in battles,in which he broughtAlexander safelyout of the most terrible The horse of CaiusCaesarwould havenobodybut Caesaron his back. Whena victoriousadversarywas tryingto plunderthe King of the Scythiansafterbeing engagedin single combat, he was cut to pieceswith kicks and bitesby the king'smount. When King Nicomedeshad been killed, his steedrid itselfof life by fasting. When theirmasteris dead or dying, horses shed tears-for they say that only the horse can weep for man and feel the emotionof sorrow.
scrimmages.

In this particularkind of animal, the length of life is greaterin the male. Indeed, we read of a horse havinglived to be seventyyears of age. Wealso find it noted that a horse went on copulating to the age of forty. At birth, a lovecharmis delivered with the foal, which they carry on their foreheadswhen they are dropped.And if this weretaken away,the mother would not on any accountgive her uddersto the foal to be suckled. It is a commonbeliefthat four things are necessaryin well-bred horses. These are: figure,beauty,merit and color.Figure:the body powerful and solid in strength,the heightconvenient to it, the flanklong and narrow, the haunchesvery large and round,the chest spreadingwidely,the whole knotted with a mass of muscles,and the hoof dry and firmedwith an arched horn. Beauty:that the head be small and sound with the skin holdingclose to the bone, the ears shortand lively, the eyes big, the nostrilswide, the neck erect, the mane and tail dense, and a firmcurveon the hooves.Merit:that it shouldbe audaciousin spirit, swift of

foot, and tremblingin its limbs. The latteris an indicationof courage, becausethen it is easilyexcitedfrom a stateof deepestreposeand, once speed has been got up, it can be maintained withoutdifficulty. Colorto be looked for principallyin these animals:bay, golden, ruddy,chestnut,deer-colored, pale yellow,grey,roan, hoary,silver, white, flea-bitten,black. Next in order therecomes a mixed coloron a ground of black or bay; lastly,a piebaldor a stripeis the worst. The pace of a horse is judged from the twitchingof the ears, its spiritfrom the twitchingof the limbs. The deeper a horse dips his nostrilswhen drinking, the betterhis prospectsas a sire. The when virilityof horsesis extinguished theirmanes are cut.
Opposite:Bridledhorse, aquamanile.North German,late 14th or early 15th century.

Above: Hunter on horseback and three

dogs, detailof a fresco.Spanish (Soria Province),about 1120-40

31

he is called Mouserbecauseshe is fatalto mice. The vulgarcall, the her CATUS Cat becauseshe catches things (a captura)while others say that it is becauseshe lies in wait (captat),i.e. becauseshe "watches." So acutelydoes she glare that her eye penetratesthe shadesof darknesswith a gleam of light. Catplaying a spindle, with illustramargin tionfromtheHours Jeanne d'Evreux of

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as if she were an elongated mouse. When she lives in a house, she movesfrom place to place with subtle cunning aftershe has had her .. babies, and lies each night in a differentlair.She pursuessnakes and mice.
There are two kinds. One keeps
afar

he is called a WEASEL (Mustela)

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off in the forest, and the other wanders about in houses. Some say that they conceivethroughthe ear and give throughthe mouth, while, on the other hand, others declarethat they conceive by mouth and give birth by ear. Weaselsare said to be so skilledin medicinethat, if by any chancetheir babies are killed, they can make them come aliveagain if they can get at them. fromtheUnicorn detail Weasel, tapestry series(seeinsidecovers)

32

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ow all BIRDSare called birds, but thereare a lot of them-for, just as they differfrom one anotherin species, so do they in diversity of nature.There are so many sorts of birdsthat it is not possibleto learn everyone, nor indeed is thereanybody who can penetratethe desertsof Scythiaand Indiaand Ethiopia,to know theirspeciesaccordingto their differences. They are called birds (a-ves) becausethey do not followstraight

roads (vias), but straythroughany byway.They are called the WingedOnes (Alites)becausethey mount with wings (alis) to the high places and reachthe heavenswith a rowingof plumes. The "wings" are the things in which the feathersallow exerciseof flight. Moreover, they are called wings

(alae) becausethe birds nourish (alant) and fostertheir chicks with them, by folding them up in these. It is known that the names of many birds are inventedfrom the sound of their voices. The particular kind of song they have suggestswhat men should call them. An odd thing is that the offspring of all birds are born twice: firstwhen the eggs are laid, then when they are formedand hatched by the heat of the mother'sbody.

:i

such wonderfuleyesightthat, when poised abovethe seas on motionlessplume-even out of human sight-he can see the little fishesswimming and, coming down like a thunderbolt,can carry off his capturedprey to the shore. And it is a true fact that when the eagle growsold and his wings become heavy and his eyes become darkened with a mist, he goes in searchof a
fountain, and, over against it, he flies up to the height of heaven, even unto the circle of the sun, and there he singes his wings and at the same time evaporates the fog of his eyes, in a ray of the sun. Then at length, taking a

the QUILA Eagle is said to have

the sunbeam is rejectedas being degenerate.Nor is it consideredworth educating such a molly-coddle. The mercyof a certainmere plebeianbird softensthis spartan headerdown into the fountain, he dips behaviorin the royalfowl. A bird himselfthreetimes in it, and instantly whose name is coot picks the baby up, he is renewedwith a great vigorof whetherit has been thrownout or just not recognized,and adopts the eagle's plumageand splendorof vision. It is claimedthat an eagle presents child and feeds and nourishesit with his young to the sunbeamsand holds the very same maternalzeal she shows the childrenup to them in mid-air with for her own offspring. his talon. And if one of them, when Above:Eagle with outstretched wings, lecstrickenwith the sun'slight, uses a tern from a pulpit. Italian(Schoolof Pisa), fearlessgaze of his eyes in staring at it, 14th century.Opposite:Eagle amid acacia that one is made much of, becauseit blossoms,undersideof a ceramicdish. has provedthe truth of its nature. But Spanish (Manises,ValenciaProvince), the one that turnsaway its eyes from about 1430-65

34

a I

"

the Cranetakes its name from its peculiarnote. For it is with such a cry (grus)that they make a low,continualmutteringsound to each other. Cranesgo about in propermiliformations.And, lest therebe a tary high wind that might preventtheirlight bodies from going straightahead to theirdestination,they eat sand and pick up small stonesto give themselves ballast.Then they rise quicklyto the heights, so they can see the territory they want to reach. Craneskeep a watchfulguard at night. Youcan see sentriesplacedin an orderlyway, and, while the remainder of the comrade-armyis sleeping, these march roundand roundto investigate whetherany ambushesare being attempted. They keep themselvesawakefor theirguard duty by holdingstonesin theirclaws and share the night watches equally,taking overin turn. If thereis an emergency,the sentriesshout. Youcan tell a crane'sage by its color,for in old age it becomesblack.
RUS

Crane,detailof a ceramicdish. Spanish (Manises,Valencia Province),about 1450-1500

he VULTURE does not make rapidflightson accountof the size of its body. Now vultures,like eagles, notice cadaverseven when they are beyond the seas. They see from a height, while flying, many things that are hidden from us by the mountainsin between. Vultures said not to mingle in are a conjugalmannerby way of nuptial intercourse.The femalesconceive withoutany assistancefrom the males and generatewithoutconjunction.The childrenthus born continue to a great age, so that theirlife is prolongedeven to a hundredyears. The bird can breedwithouta male, and nobody disprovesit. Yet when the betrothedVirginMaryherself so produces,people questionher modesty! Vulturesare accustomedto foretellingthe death of men by certain signs. The augursare warnedwhenever two lines of battleare drawnup against each other in lamentablewar-for the birdsfollowin a long column, and they show by the length of this column how many soldiersare to die in the struggle. T
Vultures, capital. Spanish (Segovia Province),about 1160

36

PSITIACUSor Parrot, which is a

nly from India can one get a

greenbird with a red collarand a large tongue. The tongueis broader than in otherbirds, and it makes distinct soundswith it. If you did not see it, you would think it was a man talking. It greetspeopleof its own accord, oo!" "or saying "What-cheer? "Toodle-

It learnsotherwordsby rote. A parrot'sbeak is so hard that if hurl the bird onto a rock from a you height, it savesitself by landingon its beak with its mouth shut tight, using the beak to absorbthe shock. Actually, its skull is so thick that, if it has to be taughtanything, it wants an occasional crackwith an iron bar. Up to two years

old, it learnswhat you point out to it quicklyenough and retainsit tenaciously,but afterthat it begins to be distraitand unteachable.
Parrots,detailof a brocadedcloth. Italian (Sicily),13th century

37

38

ENIX [Phoenix], the bird of Arain bia, is unparalleled the whole world. It lives bevondfivehundred years. When it notices that it is growing old, it builds itself a funeralpyreafter collectingsome spice branches;and on this, turningits body towardthe raysof the sun and flappingits wings, it sets fireto itself and is consumed.Then verily, on the ninth day afterward,it rises from its own ashes! It makes a coffinfor itselfof frankincense and myrrhand other spices, into which, its life being over,it enters and dies. From the liquidof its body a worm now emerges, and this gradually growsto maturityuntil, at the appointedtime, the phoenixassumes the oarageof its wings, and thereit is again in its previousspeciesand form! The symbolismof this bird thereforeteachesus to believein the Resurrection.

ELICANUSthe Pelicanis a bird

floral detail phoenixes Rising among sprays, of a brocaded cloth.Italian (probably 14thcentury Lucca),

that lives in the solitude of the River Nile, whence it takes its name. The pelican is excessively devoted to its children. But when these have been born and begin to grow up, they flap their parents in the face with their wings, and the parents, striking back, kill them. Three days afterward the mother pierces her breast, opens her side, and lavs herself across her young, pouring out her blood over the dead bodies. This brings them to life again. In the same way, Our Lord Jesus Christ calls us into being out of nothing. We, on the contrary, strike him in the face. That was why He ascended to the height of the cross and, His side having been pierced, there came from it blood and water for our salvation and eternal life. The Pelicanin Her Pietyv surrounded a bv vine-scrollmotif, brassplate. South
Netherlandish (Dinant or Malines). 15th

century

39

he SIRENAE [Sirens],

or Har-

the feet are winged. They give forth melodioussongs that are very lovely,

pies, so Physiologus says, are deadly creatures made like human females from the head to the navel, while their lower parts down to

and thus they charm the ears of sailormen and allure them. They entice these poor chaps by a wonderful sweetness of rhythm and put them to sleep. At last, when they see that the sailors are deeply slumbering, they pounce upon them and tear them to bits. That is the way ignorant and incautious human beings get tricked by pretty voices, when they are charmed by indelicacies, ostentations and pleasures, or when they become licentious with comedies, tragedies, and various ditties. Harpies,capital. Spanish (Segovia Province),about 1160

the PERDIX Partridgeis a cunning, disgustingbird. It is such a perverted creature that the female will steal the eggs of another female. But when the young are hatched and hear the call of their real mother, they instinctively run awav from the one that is brooding them and return to the one that laid them. Partridges cover their setts with thornv shrubs, so that animals that might attack them are kept off by the twigs. The females mostly carry away their young to foil their husbands, because the latter often attack the young ones when they are fawning on them impatiently. Desire torments the females so much that even if a wind blows toward them from the males they may become pregnant by the smell. When partridges notice that they have been spied out, they turn over on their backs, lift clods of earth with their feet, and spread these so skillfully over themselves that they lie hidden from detection. among flowers,detailfrom the Partridges
Unicorn Tries to Escape, from the Unicorn tapestry series

40

CCIPITERthe Hawk is even

betterequippedin its spiritthan in its talons, for it showsvery greatcouragein a very small body.It is avid at seizingupon others, whenceit is called the ravisher, thief. the Peoplesay that the hawk is unnaturallyspartantowardhis offspring,for when he sees that the youngstersare fit to try flying, he offersthem no food in the nest but beats them with his wings and drivesthem from the nursery,so that they shall not turn into sluggish adults. He gives up feedingthem to make them audaciousin the art of robbery. ornamental brasses from Hawks, (probably a chandelier). South 15th Netherlandish, century

41

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hat old bird CORNIX the Crowis called by its Greekname among the Latins. Soothsayersdeclare that it deals with the troublesof men throughomens, that it disclosesthe paths of treachery,and that it predicts the future. It is very wrong to believethat God entrustshis secretsto crows. Amongthe many omens attributed to this bird, they speciallymention the foretellingof rain by its voice. Let men learnto lovetheirchildrenfrom the exampleand from the sense of duty of crows.They diligently followtheirsons as an escortwhen they fly, and fearingthat the babies might pine away,they lay food in and do not neglect the choreof feedingfor a long
time.

Crows an attacking owl,capital. Spanish last of Province), quarter the12th (Segovia century

commonto all. All inhabitthe same dwelling, all are enclosedbehind the thresholdof one fatherland.Workis mutual to all, food is communal,labor
and the habit and enjoyment of flight are all held equally.

living, bees have children that are

EES (Apes)are born withoutfeet, for they only grow their feet and wings later on. They are skilledin the art of making honey.They live in definitehouses. They build theirhomes with indescribabledexterity, making them out of variousflowersand fillingcountless cells with spun wax. They havekings, armies-they go to war. Manypeople haveproventhat these creaturesare born from the corpsesof cows. The fleshof dead calves is beatenin orderto bring them forth, so that out of the rottingblood maggotsmay be createdthat finally turn into bees. One ought more accuratelysay that bees are born from oxen, hornetsfrom horses, dronesfrom mules, and wasps from donkeys. Aloneamong everyspeciesof the

Bees arrangefor theirown king. They createa popularstate, and, althoughthey are placed undera king, they are free. A king bee is formedwith clear naturalsigns, so that he can be distinguishedby the size of his body and by his appearance. Such bees as are disobedientto the laws of the king punishthemselves on being condemnedto penance, so that they die by the woundsof their own stings. Bees havestings and can produce

poison as well as honey,if provoked.In theirthirstfor revenge,they lay down theirown lives in the woundswhich they make. The moistureof honev-dewis pouredinto the mid-most recessesof the hives and little by little, it is refined into honey.Althoughit was originally liquid, it begins to take on the sweet, mellifluoussmell throughthe thickening of the wax and the scent of the flowers. Not only is honeydelightful,but it is healthy.It mollifiesthe throat,it heals wounds, it is administered a as medicine for internalulcers. Whiletheirking is safe, bees never alterdecisionsor changetheirminds. But if the king is lost, they abandonthe trust of preservinghis kingdomand tear themselvesawayfrom his honevstore, becausehe who held the officeof chief is destroyed. Bees flee from smoke and are irritated by noise.
Bee, detailof an intaglio-carved game piece. North German,about 1200-50

43

NGUIS the Snake is the origin of all serpents,becausesnakes can be folded and bent and are neverstraight.

COLUBER (another name for

snake) is called this becauseit glides with serpentinecoils (colubrosus) into slipperycourses. It is knownas "the slipperyone" becauseit slips away crawling,and like a fish, the tighterit is held, the more it crawls. SERPENS gets its name becauseit creeps (serpit)by secretapproaches and not by open steps. It movesalong

RACO Dragonis the largest the of all serpents,in fact of all living things on earth. The Greeks call it dracontaand hence it has been turnedinto Latin underthe name draco. When the dragonhas come out of its cave, it is often carried into the sky, and the air near it becomes ardent. It has a crest, a small mouth and a narrow gullet throughwhich it draws breathor puts out its tongue. Its strengthis not in its teeth but in its tail, and it inflicts injuryby blows rather than by stinging. So it is harmlessas regardspoison. But they point out that poisons are not necessaryto it for killing, since if it winds roundanyoneit kills him straightaway. Even the eleis not protectedfrom it by the phant size of its body; for the dragon, lying in wait near the paths along which elephants usually saunter,lassoestheir legs in a knot with its tail and destroys them by suffocation. Dragonsare bred in Ethiopia and India, in placeswherethereis perpetual heat. The Devil is like this dragon. He is often borne into the air from his den, and the air roundhim blazes, for the Devil in raisinghimselffrom the lower regionstranslateshimselfinto an angel of light and misleadsthe foolishwith false hopes of glory and worldlybliss. Above: by beingspeared a boy,canDragon late dlestick. Mosan, 12thcentury. Opposite: or Feathered two-footed dragon wyvvern, late German, 12thto early aquamanile. 13thcentury

by very small pressuresof its scales. The ones that havefour legs like lizardsand newts are not called serpents but reptiles.Serpentsare reptiles that crawlon theirbelly and breast. Of these creatures,how many poisons thereare, how many species, how many calamities,how many griefs, and what a lot of differentcolorsthey have got! Crozier a serpent with volute Saint and Michael the late French, slaying dragon. 12thto early13thcentury

/9

44

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he BASILISK the king of seris much so, that people pents-so who see it run for their lives, because it can kill them merelyby its smell. It destroysa man even if it looks at him. At the mere sight of a basilisk, any bird that is flying past cannot get acrossunhurt, rather-although it mouth may be far from the creature's -it gets frizzledup and is devoured.

Nevertheless,basilisksare conqueredby weasels. Men put these into the lairs in which they lie hid, and thus, on seeing the weasel, the basiliskruns away.The weasel followsand kills itGod nevermakes anythingwithouta remedy. The basilisk, like the scorpion, also frequentsdesertplaces, and before people can get to the riversit gives

them hydrophobiaand drivesthem mad. It can kill with its noise and burn people up, as it were, beforeit bites them. Finally,a basiliskis striped lengthwisewith white marks six inches in width.
Basilisk,voussoirof an arch. French (Languedoc),12th century

46

he ASPgets its name becauseit injectsand spreadspoisonwith its bite. Indeed, it alwaysruns about with its mouth wide open and steaming,the effect of which is to injureother speciesof animals. Now it is said that when an asp realizesit is being enchantedby a musical snake-charmer, who summons it with his own particularincantations to get it out of its hole, the asp, unwilling to come out, pressesone ear to the groundand closesthe otherear by stickingits tail in it. Thus, not hearing the magical noises, it does not go forth to the chanting. Such indeed are the men of this world, who pressdown one ear to worldlydesires,and truly by stuffing up the other one they do not hear the voice of the Lord. relief. by Aspbeingtrampled a lion,carved about1250 Spanish,

47

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his is called an AMPHIVENA becauseit has (Amphisbaena) two heads. One head is in the right place and the otheris in its tail. Withone head holdingthe other,it can bowl along in eitherdirectionlike a hoop. This is the only snake that stands the cold well, and it is the firstto come out of hibernation. T
Two-headedcreature,perhapsan amphisbaena, voussoirof an arch. French (Languedoc),12th century

he snake SCITALISgets that name because it is so splendid in the variegation of its skin that a man stops dead on seeing its beautiful markings. Owing to the fact that it is a sluggish crawler and has not the power to overtake people by chasing them, it captures them as they stand stupefied by its splendor. Moreover, it glows so much that even in winter time it displays the blazing skin of its body. creatures, Opposite:Scitalia,or scitalislike detailof a brocadedcloth. Italian (Sicily), 13th century

49

has its name because it prevails against fire. Indeed, it lives in the middle of the blaze without being hurt or burnt-and not only because the fire

heSALAMANDRA

does not consumeit, but becauseit actuallyputs out the fireitself. Of all poisonouscreaturesits strengthis the greatest,for,although others may kill things one at a time, the salamanderkills most at one blow. If it slowlytwines itself about a tree, all the

fruitsget infectedwith venom, and thus it kills the people who eat them. Even if it falls into a well the powerof its toxin slays those who drink the water.
doorknocker Salamander, wrought-iron (left rearleg is missing). WestEuropean, 15th or 16th century

he SCORPION land worm is a

which we classify with worms rather than with snakes. It is a stinging creature, and is called the Archer in the Greek language because it plunges in its tail and injects its poisons with a curving wound (aculeus: arcuatus). The oddest thing about a scorpion is that it will not bite you in the palm of your hand. of Scorpion,from a bas-de-page the calendar from the HoursofJeanned'Evreux

50

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ISH (Pisces) are known as reptiles becausethey have the same shape and naturaldispositionfor swimming about. Howeverdeeply they plunge into the abyss, in swimming they are slow movers.

AMPHIVIAare a kind of fish that

havethe habit of walking about on dry land or swimmingabout in the sea; i.e., they live in the wateror on the shore, like seals, crocodiles,and hippos. Among all the kinds of animalsliving in the sea, we have knowledgeof one hundredand forty-four. the Fishrepresenting zodiac Pisces, sign detail fromtheBelles Heures Jean,Duke of of Berry

here is an ocean monstercalled a

WHALE (Cetus) becauseof the

frightfulnessof its body and becauseit was this animalthat swallowedJonah;and its belly was so great that people took it to be Hell. This animal lifts its back out of the open sea and then anchorsin one place; and on its back, what with the shingle of the ocean drawnthereby gales, a level lawn is producedand 52

bushes begin to growthere. Sailing ships that happen to be going that way take it to be an island and land on it. Then they build themselvesa fire. But the whale, feelingthe hotnessof the fire, suddenlyplungesdownwardand pulls the anchoredship with it into the depths. Wheneverthis monsterfeels hunit opens its mouth and exudesa gry pleasant-smellingbreath;and when

the smallerfishesnotice the odor,they crowdtogetherin the mouth. Naturally, when the monsterfeels his mouth to be full, he shuts it at once. Thus he swallows them down. of Fanciful whale,fromtheborder a stained French (Ile-de-France), glasswindow. about1320

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the Red Mullet, is called that becauseit is soft (mollis) and very tender.They say that lust can be cooledby eating it, and they also dull the eyesight.People who frequentlyconsumemullet smell of fish. If a mullusis drownedin wine, those who drink the stuff afterwards get a loathingfor wine-drinking.

-ULLUS,

ELFINES the Dolphinshavethat

Fish, detailof a ceramicdish. Spanish (Manises,ValenciaProvince),about 1430-70

particularname eitheras a description,becausethey follow the human voice, or else becausethey will assembletogetherin schoolsfor a symphony concert. Nothing in the sea is fasterthan are, for they often outrunships, they leapingout of the water.Whenthey are sportingin the wavesand smashing into the masses of comberswith a headlongleap, they are thoughtto portend storms.

Thereis a speciesof dolphinin the RiverNile, with a saw-shapeddorsal fin, that destroyscrocodilesby slicing up the soft parts of the belly.
Dolphinsdancingatop waves,detailof a fresco.Spanish (BurgosProvince),early 13th century

ning stratagem,due to his greed. He is very fond of oysters and likes to get himselfa banquetof theirflesh. Althougheagerfor dinner, he understandsthe pursuitis as difficult as it is hazardous.It is difficult becausethe fleshof the oysteris contained within very strongshells. Nothing can open the closedoysterby force, and thus it is dangerousfor the crab to insert his claw.Betakinghimself to artfulness,therefore,the crab lays an ambushwith a plot of his own. Becauseall speciesdelightin

ANCERthe Crabadopts a cun-

relaxing, the crab investigates to find out whether at any time the oyster opens that double shell of his in places

remote from all wind and safe from the rays of the sun. Then the crab, secretly casting in a pebble, prevents the closing of the oyster, and thus, finding the lock forced, inserts his claws safely and feeds on the flesh. Some people relate that if ten crabs are compounded with a handful of basil, all scorpions in the neighborhood will be gathered to that place. There are two kinds of crab, river ones and sea ones. of Crab,from a bas-de-page the calendar from the HoursofJeanned'Evreux

55

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