Simulation Models Relevant to the Protection of Synchronous Machines and Transformers

by Dharshana De S. Muthumuni

A dissertation submitted to The Faculty of Graduate Studies in

partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy

The Department of Electrical and Cornputer Engineering The University of Manitoba

Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada

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SIMULATION MODELS RELEVANT TO THE PROTECTION OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

A Thesis/Practicum submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies of The U a ~ e i s i t y of

Manitoba in partid fiilnllment of the requirement of the degree

of
DOCTOR OF PEILOSOPHY

Permission bas been granted ta the Libray of the University of Manitoba ta tend or seU copies of this thesis/practicum, to the National Library of Canada to microfdm this thais and to lend or seU copies of the fim, and to Univenity MicmCilmb Inc, to publish . abtract of this tbesislpracticum. a

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To my parent8 and family

Acknowledgements
1 wish to express my deep appreciation to Professor Peter McLaren. 1consider myself plivileged to have had the opportunity to work under his guidance. 1 wish to thank
him for his counsel, guidance, patience and encouragement during the course of this
work.

1 wish to thank Professor Aniruddha Gole for al the support and guidance. He was l always willing to share his knowledge of synchronous machine modeling, despite his busy schedule. Professor M. R. Raghuveer is also thanked for his usehil comments and suggestions.
Professor Rohan Lucas deserves a special word of thanks for encouraging me to pursue
my doctoral studies a t the University of Manitoba and ananging the opportunity to
do so.

1 am thankfid to the test of the staff and my colleagues at the Power Systems Research Group. 1 acknowledge with great appreciation, my friend Dr Rohitha Jayasinghe, who was never too busy whenever 1 needed information. Professor Udaya h a k k a g e , in addition to his encouraging ways provided expertise on CT modeling. Pradeepa, Vajira, Waruna, Namal and Sudath were generous and could be counted upon whenever 1 needed their valuable tirne. This acknowledgement would not be complete without thanking my family. 1 extend my heart felt gratitude to my parents. They were aiways there for me and were always understanding. 1 th& them, my brother and my sister for a l the love and support. l My wife, Punya, gave up her career so that 1 could continue my studies. 1 wish to let her know that she was the source of inspiration which kept me going. Thank you.

Abstract
The purpose of this research is to develop models which can be used to produce redistic test waveforms for the evaluation of protection systems used for generators and transformers. Software models of generators and transformers which have the capability to calculate voltage and current waveforms in the presence of interna1 faults are presented in this thesis.
The thesis dso presents accurate models of current transformers used in differential

current protection schemes. These include air gapped current transformers which are widely used in transformer and generator protection.

The models of generators and transformers can be used with the models of current
transformers to obtain test waveforms to evaluate a protection systern

The models are validated by comparing the results obtained fiom simulations with
recorded waveforms.

Table of contents
Acknowledgements Abstract
1 Introduction 1.1 S u m m q . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 Synchronous generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3 Protection of synchronous generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4 Protection of the stator winding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5 Methods usec! to protect the stator winding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5.1 Protection against turn to ground faults . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5.2 Protection against tum to tum and phase to phase faults . . . 1.6 Transfomers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.7 Methods used to detect interna1 faults in transformers . . . . . . . . . 1 8 Current transfomers in protection schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.9 The need for machine and transformer models to sirnulate internal faults ln

...

iv

2 Interna1 fault simulation in synchronous machines 2.1 Siimmary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 Overview of the avaiiable machine models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 Some fundamental aspects of machine modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 3 1 Transformation of the Phase windings and the Park's transfor.. mation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4 Drawback of the d-q-Oapproach in the presence of internal winding fadts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5 Phase domain mode1 of a synchronous machine . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Development of a machine mode1 for the analysis of interna1 faults 3.1 Srimmary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3 Overview of the available machine models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4 Description of the machine windings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

22 22 22 23
26
30 35
40 40 40 41

42

35 . 3.6 3.7

Calculation of the inductances involving the fadted coils . . . . . . . Estimation of the leakage inductances of the windings . . . . . . . . . Results and cornparisons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

46 51 54

4 Interna1 f a d t simulation ia tramformers 58 4 1 Stimmary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . O . . . . . . . . . . . 58 . 4.2 Introduction . . . . . . . . . O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - 58 4.3 Simulation o intemal faults in transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 f 4 3 1 General . . . . . . . . . O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . t . .60 .. 4 3 2 Intemal tum to ground fault . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 .. 4.4 A method to calculate the leakage inductance of two windings wound on the same leg of a transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 4.5 Magnetic saturation and hysteresis in the transformer core . . . . . . 72 4 5 1 Modeling saturation and hysteresis effects . . . . . . . . . . . 73 .. 4.6 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
5

Simulation results and observations 5 1 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2 Synchronous machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 2 1 Consistency of the equations derived for the faulted coiis . . . .. 5.2.2 Simulation results for interna1 faults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3 Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.2 Simulation results for interna1 faults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.3 Saturation in transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

80 80 80 80 83 LOO 100 101 11 1

6 Application of the machine model and the transformer model in protection studies 119 6 1 Siimmary . . . . . . . . . . . . O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - . . . . . 119 . 6.2 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 6.3 Effects of saturation in current transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 6.4 Behavior of air gapped current transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 6.5 Behaviour of three current transformers connected in delta for transformer difFerential protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 6.6 Behaviour of several ielaying schemes used in machine and transformer protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
7 Conclusions 7 1 Surnmary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 2 Main contributions of the thesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 3 Recommendations for futther work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

138 138 138 140

vii Appendices

A Elements of the inductance matrix of a synchronous machine

B Solution to the machine equations using Trapizoidal integration

141
143

C Conversion of the d-q-Odata to the a-b-c domain

D Inductances of coils sharing a common flux path

145 149 152

E Elements of the inductance mat*

of the four pole synchronous machine

F Calculation of winding inductance parameters for simulation of intemal faults in synchronous machines 154 F.1 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 F.2 Description of the machine windings and the inductances under normal conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 F.3 Description of the machine windings and the inductances in the presence of a turn to ground fault . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 F.4 Inductances between the winding Al and the normal windings. . . . . 162 F.5 Inductances of the coils of phase A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 F 6 Mutual inductances between A l and the other coils in Phase A . . . 170 . F.7 Self inductances of coils A2, A3 and A4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 F.8 Mutual inductances between A2, A3 and A4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 F 9 Mutual inductance between the phase B winding and a coil in phase A 179 . F.10 Mutual inductance between the phase C winding and a coil in phase A 184 F.ll Mutud inductance of the field winding with the coils of phase A . . . 184 F 1 Mutual inductance of the the d-axis damper winding with the coils of .2 phaseA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 F.13 Mutual inductance of the the q-axis damper winding with the coils of phase A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 F.14 The calculated inductances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190

G Leakage inductance of the machine windings 196 G l Slot leakage calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 . G.2 End leakage calcdations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 G.3 Air gap leakage calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
H Modeling saturation in the transformer core in fault studies H.1 Turn to turn fault in a single phase transformer . . . .

203

...... ..

203
206

1 The simulation mode1 of current transformers in a delta configuration

J Inductance of a part of a phase winding on a spiral wound machine

K Details of the machine

212
216

L Equations to show the decay of the de offset, ratio error and the phase &if% in air-gapped CTs 218

M Simulation mode1 of the air gapped CT M . l Derivation of the simulation model of an air gapped CT . . . M.2 Derivation of the B-H data for the magnetic material . . . . M.3 Equations for the three air gapped CT connection . . . . . .
N Cornparison of simulation results for the machine mode1

..... . . . .. . ....

224 224
229 230

235 241
244

O Useful formulae and derivations

Bibliography

List of Figures
1.1 Fault current path for a turn to ground fault 1.2 Fault current path for a phase to phase fault 1 3 Fault current path for a turn to turn fault . .

High impedance grounding of a generator through a distribution tramformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.7 Ground differential protection of a Iow impedance grounded generator 1 8 Third harmonic undercurrent detection scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.9 Sub-harmonic voltage injection method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.10 Percentage differential relay connection and the operating characteristics 1.11 Self balancing protection scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.12 Split phase protection using six curent transformers . . . . . . . . . 1.13 Split phase protection using three single window current tramformers 1.14 Restricted earth f a d t protection on a transformer star winding . . . . 1.15 A biased difFerentia1 scheme for a delta - star transformer . . . . . . 1.16 A typical bias characteristic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Representation of the machine coils and the direction of their magnetic axes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Representation of the machine as a system of six magnetic* coupled coils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Representation of the machine coils referred to the direct and quadratureaxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Position of the phase windings and the referred windings . . . . . . . Winding diagram of a three phase 4 pole machine with 6 slots per pole Phase A of the winding shown in Figure 2.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Position of the phase A conductors and the directions of the magnetic axes of the different coils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Coils of the phase A winding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Representation of the fault at F1 and the directions of the magnetic axes of the phase A coils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.4 1.5 1.6

.............. .............. .............. Fault current in a grounded generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Low impedance grounding of a generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.10 Representation of the fault at F3 and the directions of the magnetic

axes of the phase A coils

axes of the phase A coils

.........................

2.11 Representation of the fault at F 2 and the directions of the magnetic 2.12 Representation of the fault at F 4 and the directions of the magnetic 2.13 2.14 2.15 2.16 2.17 2.18 3-1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14 3.15 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10

.........................

axes of the phase A coils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Representation of a generator connected to a remote source . . . . . . Comparison of results derived using the d-q-O domain model and the a-b-c domain mode1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Comparison of results derived using the d-q-O domain model and the a-b-c domain mode1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Comparison of results derived using the d-q-O domain rnodel and the a-b-c domain mode1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Short circuit current envelopes of the phase currents . . . . . . . . . . Short circuit current envelopes of the d and q axis winding currents .

The stator winding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Positions of the phase A conductors inside the stator. . . . . . . . . . 44 Representation of the phase A winding with a fault on one parallel path . 44 Representation of the machine coils under an interna1 short circuit . . 45 Two parailel coils sharing the same magnetic path . . . . . . . . . . . 47 One patallel path of Phase A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Flux pattern due to current in coi1 X . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Slot leakage and iEerentia1 leakage fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 End leakage field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Atumtoturnfauit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 A fault involving the two parallel paths of phase A . . . . . . . . . . 55 A fault between phases A and B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 56 Phase A to ground fault . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Two phase fault between phases A and B. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 Phase A to ground fault with a low grounding resistance. . . . . . . . 57 Single phase transformer cores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Three phase transformer cores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cross section of a three phase two winding transformer . . . . . . . . . The transformer represented as six coupled coils . . . . . . . . . . . . Representation of a turn to ground fault in coi1 (1) . . . . . . . . . . Schematic representation of the six coils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Three coils wound on a common magnetic core . . . . . . . . . . . . . Internai fault waveforms for a single phase transformer . . . . . . . . Interna1 fault waveforms for a three phase transformer . . . . . . . . . Leakage fluxpattern inside a transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 59 60 60 61 65 65 67 68 69

4.11 Non-linear characteristics of the core . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.12 B - H loop of a transformer core . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.13 M - Heloop of a transformer material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.14 Turn t o turn fault in a single phase transformer . . . . . . . . . . .

. .

4.15 Circuit representation of a turn to tum fault in a single phase transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - . .

5.1

52 .
5.3

5.4
5.5

5.6

5.7

5.8

59 .
5.10

5.11
5.12

5.13

5.14 5.15

5.16 5.17

Cornparison of the extemal fault waveforms derived using the normal machine model and the machine model developed to simulate intemal faults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A part of phase A of a six pole concentric winding . . . . . . . . . . . Two magnetic circuits to represent a portion of a concentric winding . A tuni to ground fault on phase A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Current in the machine windings for a turn t o ground fault at 20% fiom the neutral with the field de-energized before the machine is isolated from the system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Current in the machine windings for a tum to ground fault at 20% fiom the neutral with the field de-energized before the machine is isolated from the system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - . . . . . . . . Current in the machine windings for a tum to ground fault at 20%fkom the neutral with the field de-energized before the machine is isolated from the system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - Current in the machine windings for a turn to ground fault at 20%fiom the neutral with the field de-energized before the machine is isolated from the system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Current in the machine windings for a turn to ground fault at 20%fiom the neutral with the field de-energized before the machine is isolated from the system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Effect of winding resistance on the fault curent. . . . . . . . . . . . . Current in the machine windings for a turn t o ground fault at 20%from the neutral with the machine isolated before the field is de-energized . Current in the machine windings for a turn to ground fault at 20%from the neutral with the machine isolated before the field is de-energized . Inauence of the position of the fault and the grounding impedance on the currents in faulted windings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Effect of the higher order terms in the self inductance expressions with L4 set to 30% of L2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Effect of the higher order terms in the self inductance expressions with Lqset to 10% of L2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A turn to tum fault on phase A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A turn to turn fault involving 7.5% of the winding with Rtit equal to 0.1 Ohms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.18 A tum to turn fault involving 10% of the winding with RIIt equal to 1 Ohm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 5.19 A turn to tuni fault involving 10% of the wnding with Rtit equal to 1 Ohm, with the machine operating close to its MVA rating of 160 . . 99 5.20 A turn to turn fault involving 0.30% of the winding with Rtrt equal to I Ohm, with the machine operating close to its MVA rating of 160 . 100 5.21 Muence of the load current on the current in the faulted winding . . 101 5.22 Muence of the number of shorted t u n s on the current i the faulted n winding . . - . . . . . . . . . - . . . . . . . . . . . . . - . . . - . . . 101 5.23 Interna1 fault in a star-star connected transformer . . - . . . - . . 102 5.24 A turn to ground fault 5% from the terminal on the phase A winding 102 5.25 A tum to ground f a d t 5% from the terminal on the phase A winding 103 5.26 A turn to ground f a d t 5% from the neutral on the phase A winding . 103 5.27 A turn to ground fault 5% fiom the neutral on the phase A winding . 104 5.28 A turn to ground fault 5% fkom the neutral on the phase A winding with the transformer grounded through an impedance of 20 Ohms . . 105 5.29 A turn to ground fault 5% from the neutral on the phase A winding with the transformer grounded through an impedance of 20 Ohms . . 105 5.30 Interna1 fault in a star-delta connected transformer . . . . . . . . . . 106 5.31 A turn to ground fault 5% fiom the terminal on the phase A winding with the secondary side connected in delta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 5.32 A turn to ground fault 5% fiom the terminal on the phase A winding with the secondary side connected in delta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 5.33 A turn to ground f a d t 5% fiom the neutral on the phase A winding with the secondary side connected in delta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 5.34 Intemal fault in a delta-star connected three phase transformer . . . 108 5.35 A turn to ground fault 31% from the phase B terminal on the delta sidel08 5.36 A turn to ground fault 31% from the phase B terminal on the delta sidel09 5.37 A turn to g o u n d fault 31% from the phase A terminal when both sides are connected in star . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 5.38 A turn to ground fault 31% from the phase A terminal when both sides are connected instar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 5.39 A turn to turn fault on the delta side of a transformer . . . . . . . . . 1 1 1 5.40 A turn to turn fault involving 1% the winding . . . . . . . . . . 112 of 5.41 A turn to t u m fault involving 1% the winding . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 of 5.42 A turn to turn fault involving 10% of the winding . . . . . . . . . . 113 5.43 A turn to turn fault involving 10% of the winding . . . . . . . . . . . 113 5.44 A turn to tum fault involving 10% of the winding with the transformer supplying a higher load . . . . . . . . . . . . - . . . . . . . . . 114 5.45 A turn to tuni fault in a single phase transformer . . . . . . . . . . 114 5.46 The shape of the B- H loop of the transformer core material . . . . 115 5.47 Magnetizing current when the core is saturated . . . . . . . . . . . . 116

. .

5.48 A t u m to turn fault involving 4% of the winding . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.49 The remanent flux in the core . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.1 6.2
6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6

6.7
6.8 6.9 6.10 6.11 6.12 6.13 6.14 6.15
6.16

6.17 6.18 6.19 6.20 6.21 6.22 6.23 6.24

A single CT connected to a burden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fault currents with an initial dc exponential component for a fault occuring close to the generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Secondary currents in the CT under different burdens . . . . . . . . . Flux in the CT core under different conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . Secondary currents in the CT when air gapped CTs are employed . . Decay of the primary current and the flux in air gapped CTs . . . . . Primary and the secondary current in the CT to demonstrate the ratio error and the phase angle error. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Flux in the CT core when air gapped CTs are employed . . . . . . . Schematic diagram of an air gapped CT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Air gapped CT feeding a relay burden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CS with a 0.03% air gap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CT with a 0.2% air gap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CT with a 0.2% air gap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Three CTs comected in delta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Comparison of the calculated wavefonns with measured data to d i date the delta CT mode1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Comparison of the calculated waveforms with measured data to validate the delta CT mode1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Comparison of the calculated wavefonns with measured data to validate the delta CT mode1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Harmonies present in the secondary and line currents . . . . . . . . . Currents during a three phase fault . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Restricted earth fault protection on a transformer star winding . . . . The effect of remanence on the relay current during external faults . . Relay curent in the presence of an interna1 turn to ground fault on the star side of the transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Relay current in a restricted earth fault protection scheme. . . . . . . Dinerential relay cments due to a tum to ground fault on phase A .

C.1 Typical voltage and current wavefonn recordings from a slip test

...

D.1 Three coils wound on the same core. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D.2 Three coils wound on the same core with two of them comected in parallel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

F.l Winding diagram of the four pole machine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F.2 Rotor arrangement of a four-pole synchronous machine with salient poles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Schematic of the winding arrangement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 Schematic diagram of the six coupled coils of the machine. . . . . . . 157 Placement of conductors inside the stator slots . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 The coils of the phase A winding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 Representation of the phase A winding with a fault on one parallel path.159 F 8 Representation of the machine coils under an interna1 short circuit . . 160 . F.9 Winding X and arinding Y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 F.10 Flux pattern when coi1 X is energized . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 F . l l Flux pattern when coi1 A l is energized . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 F.12 Flux pattern when coi1 A3 is energized . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 F.13 Flux pattern when Phase B is energized with the rotor displaced by an angle of 1 O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 5 F.14 Flux pattem when the field winding is energized with a l other coils l kept open circuited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
F.3 F.4 F.5 F.6 F.7

G.l Slot leakage flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G.2 Slot leakage flux in a double layer wound machine . . . . . . . . . . . G.3 End leakage flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G.4 Air gap leakage f u . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lx H.1 Representation of a t u m to turn fault on a single phase transformer

197 199 200 202

203

1.1 Three delta connected current transformers feeding a star connected burden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 1.2 Simplified schematic diagram of the three delta connected CTs. . . . 207

J.1 Part of a spiral winding of a synchronous machine . . . . . . . . J.2 A simple magnetic circuit to represent the two spiral wound coils

...
..

212 215 219 219

224 225

L.l Schematic diagram of an air gapped CT

L.2

M.l M.2 M.3 M.4

N.l N.2 N.3 A turn to ground fault with a 2.5 Ohm grounding resistance . . . . . N.4 A turn to ground fault with a 15 Ohm gounding resistance . . . . . N.5 A turn to ground fault with a 3 Ohm grounding resistance and with the field current set to 110 % of its rated value . . . . . . . . . . . . . N.6 A fault between phases A and B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

................ Air gapped CT feeding a relay burden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Air gapped CT feeding a relay burden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Schematic diagram of an air gapped CT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . flux-mmf c u v e of an air gapped CT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Three CTs connected to a relay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The 6 pole machine with tappings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A tum to ground fault . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

229
231

235 236 236 237

237 238

N.7 A fault between phases A and B N.8 A fault between phases A and B N.9 A fault between phases A and B

..................... ..................... .....................

238 239 240

241

0.1 Coils wound on a magnetic core

.....................

List of Tables
41 .
Comparison of the measured and calculated leakage inductances

. . . 73

List of Symbols
Inductance matrix of the synchronous machine Inductance mat& of the faulted synchronous machine

Flux linkage vectot of the synchronous machine Flux linkage vector of the faulted syncbronous machine Position of the rotor in electrical radians with respect
to the axis of the phase A winding Position of the rotor in radians Effective number of tums per phase of a synchronous machine Instantaneous current in a winding Instantaneous voltage across a winding

Park transformation matrix of a synchronous machine

constants used to describe the modulation of coi1 inductance with the rotor position Leakage inductance of a phase winding of a synchronous machine

Self inductance of winding k

Mutual inductance between windings j and k Number of poles in a synchronous machine Leakage inductance of winding k Magnetizing component of the self inductance of winding k Stator dot angle of a synchronous machine

Number of tums in winding k

Number of series tunis per phase of a synchronous machine Pole pitch of a synchronous machine

Winding pitch of a synchronous machine

Diameter of the air gap of a synchronous machine Leakage factor between windings x and y in a transformer Leakage inductauce of windings x and y referred to winding x,

in a transformer Slope of the M-H curve of a magnetic material

Magnetization of a magnetic material Magnetic flux density Magnetic field intensity Magnetic flux

Reluctance of the air gap between the pole face and the stator
of a synchronous machine
Inductance matrix of the transformer Resistance matrix of the transformer

Chapter 1

Introduction

The purpose of this research is to develop models which will allow the engineer to produce realistic test waveforms for the evaluation of protection systems used for generators and transformers. Models of generators and transformers capable of r e p resenting internal faults are the most important elements of the project but an accurate mode1 for a current transformer used in dinerential current schemes also requires attention. Chapter 1 outlines the motivation and the reason for undertaking such
a project despite the fact that accurate models of synchronous machines and power

transformers are already avaiiable for system studies. This chapter also describes the importance of protecting these two important elements in an electrical power system

and examines the various protection schemes employed to detect faults when a probIem occurs inside the unit or in the system to which it is comected. The causes for
internal faults and the resulting adverse effects on the power system and the faulted

unit are aIso briefly addressed. The current transformer plays an important role in
the performance of a protection scheme and should be accurately represented when
studying a protection scheme. It is very cornmon in machine and transformer protection to employ air gapped current transformers. Models of solid core and air gapped

current transformers are presented in Chapter 6.

Chapter 1

12 .

Synchronous generators

The synchronous generator can be described as one of the most important pieces of equipment in an electrical power system. In an interconnected system, the proper functioning of the generators is critical in maintainhg an uninterrupted power s u p
ply to the customer. The ever increasing demand for electrical energy has made it

essential for most systems to be operated close to their capacity limits. In such a situation, the maloperation of a generator can cause the system to become unstable leading to possible supply interruptions. Undesirable conditions can occur inside the generator due to fadts in the extemal system to which it is connected and also due to faults inside the generator itself. It must be properly protected so that any abnormal condition is detected quickly, enabling corrective measures to be implemented. An
interna1 fault usually means that the machine is already damaged. Protection will limit further damage by de-energising the machine.

The protection of synchronous generators involves the consideration of more harmhil

abnormal operating conditions than the protection of any other power system element. As a result, the protection scheme of a generator connected to the system is complicated. The concern that this complicated scherne will operate when it should not is quite valid. However, even though an unnecessary tripping of the generator
is not desirable, the consequences of not tripping it in the presence of a fault and

l damaging the machine are far worse [Il. The generators in a system are not a l identical. They ciiffer in size, type, winding design and many other features. Thus, any
given generator must be studied with due attention to its design before the protection

engineer can corne up with the appropriate protection. The engineer needs a variety

of information about the generator, the system to which it is connected, the method
used to ground the generator, the equipment to be used in the protection scheme and

the type of loads to which the generator is expected to be connected.

Chapter f

13 .

Protection of synchronous generators

A generator protection scheme has t O consider many possible abnormal conditions. Some typical situations requiring protection are listed below [4].
1 Fauits in the stator winding . These are caused by the failure of the insulation between the conductors
or by the faiiure of the insulation between a conductor and the iron core.
2. Faults in the rotor windings

The insulation of the rotor windings can break down giving rise to ground faults. Open circuit faults can occur in the rotor circuit due to damage to the structural parts of the rotor.This is a consequence of heating due to unbalanced stator currents and over-speed.
3. Abnormal currents in the stator windings due to faults in the extemal system

Extemal short circuits can cause large currents through the stator. Generators which are grounded through a low impedaace are the ones at a higher risk.

This is mainly due to a sudden loss of load caused by a transmission line

tripping.

This is also caused by a sudden loss of load.

6. Motoring

This is caused by the la& of sutncient prime mover energy.

7. Mechanical faults

Chapter 1

These include malfunctioning of the cooling system, vibration and bearing problems.

1 4 Protection of the stator winding .

In order to set the protective relays to recognize winding faults, it is necessary to have
a prior knowledge of the current and voltage waveforms which would occur under such situations. This is especiaiiy tme in the case of turn to ground faults as the fault current depends on the location of the fault as well as on the method used to ground the generator. If the f a d t is close to the neutral or if the grounding impedance is high,
the fault current would be small and usually less than the sensitivity of the differential

relay. Turn to turn faults in the same phase are not detected by dinerential relays and split phase relaying is generaily used to detect them. The dielectric strength of the insulation gets weakened due to factors such as age, presence of corona inside the machine, presence of moisture, baking of the insulation

and accumulation of dirt. This can ultimately lead to interna1 short circuit faults.
Over-voltage too can seriously damage the winding insdation and give rise to internai faults. The over-voltages are caused by lightning surges, switching surges, or over speed and over voltage due to a sudden loss of load.

A wlliding fault in the stator is considered serious as it causes severe damage to the
winding itself and possibly to the shafts and couplings of the machine [2]. When a fault is detected inside the windings, it is necessary to isolate the machine from
the rest of the system and to de-energise the field supply. If the field is not shut
off, the fault current will continue to flow inside the machine as can be seen fkom
the schematic diagrams shown in Figures 1.1, 1.2 and 1.3. The fault current will

continue to flow for a kw cycles even after the machine is isolated and the field shut off, because of the energy stored in the magnetic field inside the machine [2].

Heavy fault currents can badly weaken the insulation of the stator. I the fault can f be cleared before the laminated core is affected, then the repair cost and the repair

Chapter 1

FiIed current

Phase A winding
Phase 0 winding
I I 1 I
I

1 1

Phase C winding

_L -

Fault current fault

Breaker

Figure 1.1: Fault current path for a tum to ground fault

Field winding

Filed current

d
Phase A winding
I
1

1 -

Fault cumnt

Phase to phase fault

---Breaker

Figure 1.2: Fault current path for a phase to phase fault

Field winding

Filed current

Phase A winding

,
Phase B winding
I I I I I

----I 1 I 1

I
I
I I I

Phase C winding

I
I

l----l

Fault currenc T m to mm fault fauIt

Breaker

Figure 1.3: Fault current path for a turn to turn fadt

Chapter 1

Fault current
Grounding impedance

tif

Fault current fmm the remote system

Figure 1.4: Fauit current in a grounded generator

t h e will be relatively low. However, if the laminations are dected, the consequences

are much more severe. The asymmetric nature of the winding faults gives rise to

unbalanced currents which, in-turn, exert unbalanced magnetic forces. These forces
cause the machine to vibrate and, as a result, the shaft and couplings of the machine

can be damaged. Also, the windings can be displaced fiom their original location inside the slots. The possibility of a f i e is another concern and the fault should be
cleared before there is a chance for this to occur. To minimize the damage arising

Fom interna1 faults they are detected and cleared in the least possible tirne. Several protection strategies are employed to achieve this objective and to protect the stator.

15 .
1.5.1

Methods used to protect the stator winding

Protection agaznst turn to ground faults

The fault current in the event of a turn to ground fault is influenced by the method used to ground the generator, as can be seen Fom Figure 1.4.

If the generator is solidly grounded, an external line to ground fault will produce
a very high magnitude fault current in the machine windings. In an ungrounded

system, the fault current is generdy extremely small. However, the neutral point voltage can shift to a high value in the presence of an external line to ground fault
and, as a result, the winding insulation may experience a large stress that may lead

Chapter 1
H-V system

Generator transformer

Figure 1.5: Low impedance grounding of a generator to an insulation failure. Both the above situations have the potential to extensively
harm the machine and, thus, these two grounding methods are almost never used in

practice.
The grounding impedance should ideally be sufficient to limit any fault curent to a

moderate level and a t the same time it should not be too large to cause severe over

n voltages. Two methods widely used i practice are the low impedance grounding
shown in Figure 1 5 and high impedance grounding, shown in Figure 1.6. .

Neutra1 over-voltage detection method

This met hod is shown in Figure 1.6 and it is used in high impedance giounded systerns.
The relay is connected across the grounding resistance and can detect the fundamental voltage developed due to the fault current in the neutral lead. Since the grounding resistance is much higher than the generator leakage reactance and resistance of the stator windings, the voltage of the faulted phase will be impressed across it. The
magnitude of the voltage available for detection will get smaller as the fault gets

closer t o the generator neutral. As a consequence, faults that are very close to the

H V system .
I

T
Dism%ution transformer

Generator transformer

Generator

-Tirne delayed over voltage relay Grounding resistance

Figure 1.6: High impedance grounding of a generator through a distribution transformer

neutral, typicdy up to 4% nom it, cannot be successfully detected by this scheme

[5]. The t h e delay of the relay should be coordinated with the other relays in the

system t O minimize the possibility of mwanted operation.

DifFerential protection of the stator winding

Phase diaerential relays can provide ground fault protection for faults close to the
machine terminais. However they will not detect phase faults that are closer to the
neutral. The ground dinerential scheme shown in Figure 1.7 is used in low impedance
grounded systems to detect tum to ground faults. The current in the neutral CT is

fed t o the restraining coi1 and the differential current is fed into the operating coii of
the relay. This scherne is extremely sensitive to intemal ground faults.

Chapter 1
Generator
n -

CT-1
l I l

Cr-2

relays

OC - Operating coi1 RC - Restraining coi1

Figure 1 7 Ground differential protection of a low impedance grounded generator .:

Third harmonic detection method

The two methods stated previously cannot be reliably used to detect ground faults

which are very close to the neutrai. The third harrnonic detection method uses the
fact that, for most machine designs, the third harmonic current in the neutral wire for
such faults is very small. Thus, a third harmonic under-voltage detection relay is used

with filters tuned to the appropriate fiequency to detect faults which are very close

t O the neutral. The conventional fundamental over-voltage detection relay provides

protection for the rest of the winding. Thus 100% protection c a n be attained for the
winding using a combination of these methods. This technique is illustrated in Figure
1.8.

Sub-harmonic voltage injection method

This is another method used to provide 100% winding protection against stator ground faults. It is used in situations where the machine design does not give rise to sufficient third harmonic voltages to use the third harmonic detection method. In this scheme a sub-harmonic voltage signai, synchronized with the generator fkequency, is injected into the neutrd of the machine. This signal is provided by a separate source

Chapter 1

#
Grounding unit
Generator

Generator

RI - Over voltage relay R2 - Third harmonic undervoltage relay

Figure 1.8: Third harmonie undercurent detection scheme

li

Grounding resistance

G - Sub-hannonic source LP - Lowpass filter R3 Relay to detect sub-barmonic c w e n t

Figure 1.9: Sub-harmonic voltage injection method

Chapter 1
and this is shown in Figure 1.9. A 15 Hz signal in a 60

11

EIz system is typical. The

resulting sub-harmonic current in the neutral is increased in the presence of a ground fault and this is used to operate the relay. This scheme can provide protection to the entire winding and its performance is independent of the operating conditions of the generator. The disadvantage of the method is the need to provide a sub-hannonic source. This method can be used to detect open circuits in the neutral circuit because
an open circuit wiU reduce the harmonic current to zero.

1.5.2 Protection against tvrn to t u m and phase to phase faults

The fault currents in the cases of tuni to turn fauits and phase to phase faults are limited only by the resistance and the leakage reactance of the tums linked to the fault.

The number of t u s involved aiso determines the induced voltage across the faulted section which will drive this fauit current. Since these faults can cause severe damage
to the machine, high speed protection with no intentional time delay is generally employed to detect them. High speed dinerential relays are used to detect phase to phase faults. They can detect three phase and two phase to ground faults as well. However, differential relay schemes cannot detect turn to turn short circuits on the
same phase since the curent at the two ends of the winding would be the same despite

the presence of the fault. Split phase relaying is used to detect turn to tum faults in machines where there are two or more coils in parallel in each phase winding.

The current tramformers make up a very important portion of almost all protection
schemes. Their behaviour influences the performance of the relays and therefore this must be carefdiy taken into consideration at the design stage of the protection

and when setting the relays. T i is especially tme in Merential and split phase hs
protection since external fault currents with a sigxdicant dc exponential and high magnitude, caused by faults close to the generator, can saturate the CTs leading to malfunction. The following methods can be used to protect the machine h m phase to phase and
turn to turn faults.

Chapter 1

OC - Operanng coi1
RC Reshaining coi1

Figure 1.10: Percentage diEerentia1relay conneetion and the operating characteristics

Percentage differential protection

This is outlined in Figure 1.10. This scheme is more tolerant to current transformer
errors and is widely used with larger machines.

High impedance differential protection

This is similar to the percentage differential relay conneetion. However there are no
restraining coils in the relay and the operating coil has a high impedance. The relay

responds to the voltage across the operating coil. Identical CTs with very low leakage inductances should be used to feed the relays.

Chapter 1
Generator

w
Relay
Grounding resistor

Figure 11 : Self balancing protection scheme .1

Self balancing differential protection

This scheme is outlined in Figure 1.11. Under normal conditions the flux in the CT

core is zero and thus the relay current will be zero as well. Only three CTs are used here and this scheme can detect phase to phase and turn to ground faults inside the
winding.

Split phase protection

Split phase protection is used to detect tum t o turn faults in the same winding. Two

variations of this method are illustrated in Figures 1.12 and 1.13. The method can
only be employed in generators with two or more pardel windings per phase. The

parallel windings of each phase are grouped into pairs and the currents are compared.

A turn to turn fault WU resdt in unequal currents flowing in the coils of a group. An
instantaneous over-curent relay with a very inverse characteristic is generally used here. T i relay should be carefully set so that it can discriminate between interna1 hs faults and normal unbdanced conditions. The cunent transformer behaviour must be considered carefidly when the relay settings are made as non-identical CT behaviour

WUcause the relay to operate for external faults.

Chapter I

Figure 1.12: Split phase protection using six curent transformers The method shown in Figure 1.12 uses two current transformers per phase while the one shown in Figure 1.13 uses only one current transformer per phase.

16 .

Transforrners

The power transformer is an important apparatus in a power system. This has a

simpler construction compared to the synchronous machine and it is generally a very reliable piece of equipment. This reliability is achieved through proper design, proper

construction, maintenance and the provision of an adequate protection system [6],

[7]. Like in a generator, the interna1 faults in transformers are considered serious. In
addition to damaging the w i n h g s and insulation, there is the risk of fire. System instability due to prolonged voltage dips is another concern resulting fkom transformer fadts not being detected and dealt with quickly.
The current due to a turn to ground fault in a transformer is determined by the

location of the fault and the grounding impedance, and aiso by the leakage reactance
of the windings. It is also d e c t e d by the three phase transformer connection. The

current in the case of turn to turn faults or phase fadts is determined by the fault

Chapter 1

Figure 1.13: Split phase protection using t hree single window current t ransformers location, the number of tums involved, the winding resistance and the leakage reactance of the faulted sections of the windings. These faults are caused mainly by
voltage surges arising due to switching or lightning. The citculating current within

the faulted loop can be very high. However, this current would not be seen at the

terminais of the transformer due to the high turns ratio between the wlliding and the
fadted section of the coil. This makes turn to turn faults hard to detect.

Although the transformer hasi a simple construction, it presents certain challenges to

the protection engineer. Some challenges which are unique to transformers are listed below.
1. Different voltage levels

The voltages and currents on the two sides of the transformer are not equal as they are related by the turns ratio. This is further complicated by the taps available on most power transformers. The current transformer ratios stiould be selected accordingly.
2. Mismatch among current transformers

Chapter 1

16 The mismatch introduced by non-identical curent transfomers in a differential protection scheme must be carefully considered to avoid false trip-

P~WS
3. Magnetizing in-rush current

The differential relays see the magnetizing in-rush curent as an internal fault. T i occurs when a transformer is switched on to the power system. hs The harmonic content present in the in-rush cwrent is used to distinguish
it h m internal f a d t currents.

4. Phase shift at the two ends of the transformer

When the transformers are connected in a delta-star configuration, it introduces a phase shiR of 30 between the voltages at the two ends. The current transformers shouid be connected in a manner which accounts for
this phase shift.

Three phase banks made out of single phase transformer units, zig-zag transformer connections, auto-tramformers and multiple winding transformers make the task of protecting a transformer more complicated.

1 7 Methods used to detect internal faults in transformers .

Restricted earth fault protection
This is a relatively simple, economical way to protect the windings against internal
faults involving the ground. The method is outlined in Figure 1.14.

The relay operates only for faults in the star winding of the transformer. In the event
of a fault, the relay sees the whole fault current and this increases the reliability

of operation. The line currents flowing into delta connected windings or unearthed,
star connected windings will always add to zero unless there is a turn to ground

fault. Thus, normal earth fault protection can be applied to these windings. Here

Chapter 1
Transformer winding

Figure 1.14: Restncted earth fault protection on a transformer star winding

the fourth CT on the neutral can be omitted. The restricted earth fault protection

can be applied separately to both sides of the transformer.

Difkrential protection
Differential protection is used almost universally on Iarger transformer banks to detect
winding faults. Many factors must be carefully assessed before the relays are set. The

current transformers must be selected with special attention given to their saturation characteristics. Heavy external fault currents can saturate the CTs to dinerent leveis
and this can drive a Uerential current through the relay. Measures must be provided

to distinguish these fiom internal fault currents for which the relay is set to operate

Pl
Magnetic in-rush is another consideration in dinerential relay schemes for transformers

[IO]. This problem does not occur in generators since the generator voltage is built-up
gradually during initial startup. The in-rush current can be present when the unit is

energized, when an external fault i cleared or when it is connected in parailel with s

a second bank. Since the relay sees this as an internal fault a suitable method must

Chapter 1

Biascoiis

'Il

Figure 1.15: A biased Merential scheme for a delta - star transformer

be provided to avoid misoperation.

Figure 1.15 shows the connection of the CTs in a differentid scheme of a delta star connected three phase transformer. The CTs on the star side are connected in a

hs delta and those on the delta side are connected in a star. T i accounts for the phase
shift between the currents on the two sides of the transformer. Since zero sequence
currents cannot flow in the iines on the delta side of the transformer, the CTs on the

star side must be connected in delta to eliminate any zero sequence currents being diverted to the relay fkom this side.

The relays should be properly biased to account for tap changes and also for CT mismatches. A typical biasing characteristic is shown in Figure 1 1 where more .6 current is required to operate the relay as the through fault current increases [ ] 7.

18 .

Current transformers in protection schemes

The behaviour of the current transformers influences the performance of protection schemes in synchronous machine and transformers [2], [9]. Thus caretul attention must be given to the selection of current transformers. Their characteristics should
be measured before they are connected. Some of the key factors which must be

addressed with regard to current transformers are listed below.

Chapter 1

Through fault current (pu)

Figure 1.16: A typicd b i s characteristic
1. Saturation

The flux-magnetizing current relationship of the current transformer core is non-linear. As a result, heavy fault currents can drive the device into the saturation region. This gives rise to ratio errors. Since the magnetizing current required now is much larger than in the linear region, the primary current will not be accurately reproduced at the secondary. This problem is further complicated when the faults are close to the generator or the transformer. The fault current in a case iike this is likely to be limited by a highly inductive impedance, and, as a result, an initial exponential with

a long time constant can be superimposed on the fault current. This will
result in the CT being heavily saturated on one haIf cycle [51].
2. Hysteresis of the

B-H loop

The B-H characteristic of the CT core displays hysteresis. This leads to

s a remanent flux in the core once a fault i removed from the system. The
amount of remanent flux present on the core depends on the point on the

Chapter 1

20

wave of the CT secondary voltage when the primary current is interrupted. The remanent fluxcould cause the relays to malfunction upon re-closure
of the breakers leading to false tripping.

3. Mismatch of current transformers in Merential protection

The current transformers on either side of the Merential scheme must have identical characteristics. However two CTs with the same design will
show dissimilarities when their characteristics are measured [2]. These

dissimilarities must be measured and taken into consideration to avoid misoperation. This is fkther complicated in transformer protection where the two sides are a t ditlFerent voltages and carry different currents.

Thus, in protection studies, the accurate mathematicai representation of the current

transformer behaviour is important. Models that use curve fitting techniques to approximate the B -H characteristics give reasonable results but do not represent the remanent f u accurately [12], [13]. Current transformer models based on the physics lx
of magnetic materials have been shown to produce very accurate results[ll], [3]. In

these the remanence is accurately represented and, as a result, can be used in relay studies where a transformer or a generator is successively re-closed into a permanent
external fault [l4].

1.9

The need for machine and transformer models to simulate internd faults

The discussion thus far indicates the harmful effects of interna1 faults in machines and transformers and the need to provide adequate protection to minimize the harmful effects. It also indicates the complexities that arise when designing protection for these equipment. The design and the features of large synchronous machines and transformers are unique and thus each case must be studied independently. Also the fault currents and voltages depend not only on the design but also on the location of the fault, the external system which is connected to the device, and other factors. A

Chapter 1

21

prior knowledge of fault current and fault voltage waveforms is very usehi to the relay

engineer when designing a method t O provide protection for machines or transfonners. Although a prior knowledge of current and voltage waveforms is extremely usehl when designing a protection scheme and setting the relays, such waveforms are not
readily available. It i not practically viable to generate these waveforms using the s

machine or the transformer concemed. Suitable machine and transformer models

which can simulate internal faults and produce such waveforms would thus be very

usefid to the relay engineer. These models should be able to sirnulate internal faults taking into account the particular design, the fault type and location and the features of the system to which it is connected. Such models are not readily available at present and even the ones available do not
have the capability of taking into account most of the constructional features of the

devices rnentioned above and, as a result, have limitations. This research is aimed at developing synchronous machine models and transformer models which c m accurately
simulate int ernal faults under different conditions. The waveforms derived from such
a mode1 can be used, dong with accurate current transformer models, to design

protection schemes and to properly set the relays.

Chapter 2
Interna1 fault simulation in
synchronous machines

This chapter investigates the existing synchronous machine models which are widely
used in power system studies. The limitations of these models in interna1 winding
fault studies are outlined. The need to develop the machine mode1 in the phase

domain is explained and a method to calculate the inductances involving the machine windings is presented. The machine equations are then solved using a suitable

numerical technique. To show the vaiidity of the direct phase domain approach, comparisons are made between the simulated waveforms obtained using this method and

those obtained using standard machine models based on the d-q-O transformation.
These cornparisons were done on external faults.

2.2

Overview of the available machine models

The machine models available on most of the electro-magnetic transient simulation programs [17] based on the two reaction theory and the resulting Park transforare mations [39] [18][19]. This transformation makes use of the symmetrical nature of the windings inside the stator. However, an interna1 fault divides the faulted winding

Chapter 2

23

into a number of sections. The symmetry which existed earlier i no-longer present s

between these faulted sections and the rest of the machine windings. Thus, the above models cannot be used in internal fault studies and the transformations cannot be
readily applied in such a situation. A machine model in the direct phase domain,

which is capable of extemal fault simulation, is presented in [20], [21]. The data
supplied by the manufacturer can be readily converted tu a form which can be used
in this model [22], [18].

23 .

Some fundamental aspects of machine modeling

A synchronous machine can be represented as a system of six coupled coils [18]as shown i Figures 2.1 and 2.2. Here the damper winding is represented by two hyn pothetical windings whose magnetic axes are at right angles to each other. Figure
2.1 shows the directions of the magnetic axes of the windings. The voltage cunent

relationship is governed by the followng equation [18].

of rotation

C - Axis

B Axis

Figure 2.1: Representation of the machine coils and the direction of their magnetic axes

Chapter 2 where

The elements in the inductance matrix [Lsynl],and the matrix [Rsyni] are known

h m the data supplied by the manufacturer. [Rsynl] is a diagonal matrix and the
diagonal elements are the resistances of the six windings. In salient pole machines,
the elements of [Lsynl]depend on the position of the rotor and, hence, they are time
varying. The diagonal elements of the matrix give the self inductances of the machine

windings and the off diagonal elements give the mutual inductance between two given
windings. These elements take the form shown in Appendix A. The angle 8. is in

electrical radians. Equations 2.1 and 2.2 should be solved using a suitable numericd integration technique to get the winding currents. If trapezoidal integration is used as the numerical

method, the curent vector is given by the following equation. The complete derivation is shown in Appendix B.

[Il(t)]sxl= [ G 1 ] 6 ~ 6 [ ~ 1 (t~ ] ~ x- [ H l ] 6 r 6 [ ~ ] 6 x l -A ) l
The matrices G1and Hl are given by the following equations.

Figure 2.2: Representation of the machine as a system of six magneticaily coupled coils

Chapter 2

I.[

At [I- 7j- [Al]

-l

[I +

$[Al]

1 is the identity matrix and the matrices [A] and [BI are given by,

The matrices [Gi] [Hl]are funetions of the inductance matrix [Lsynl]. and Since the
depend on the position of the rotor, they are time elements of the matrix [Lsynl]

[Hl] to be evaluated at each have time step in order to determine the current vector [Il]. is a heavy computational This has burden, especially since the matrix [Lsynl] to be inverted at every calculation
and dependent. As a result the two matrices [G1]
time step.

This drawback is overcome by representing the machine windings with equivalent

fictitious windings placed on two perpendicular axes as shown in Figure 2.3 [38]. Here the phase windings A, B and C of Figure 2.1 are represented by the windings D and Q.
The two axes are named the direct axis and the quadrature
&. S

T i representation hs

arises fkom the two reaction theory of altemathg current machines. The d-axis is chosen to be dong the direction of the magnetic axis of the fieId winding. As a result,
the field winding and the two windings representing the dampers can be placed on

the d-axis and the q-axis without any transformations.

Chapter 2

26

2.3.1

Transformation of the Phase windings and the Park's tmnsformation

The two transformed windings D and Q in Figure 2.4 are assigned

,/&~ of number

turns where Neff is the eEective number of turns per phase. These two hypothetical windings should produce the same mmf that the three phase windings would in any
given direction. Thus if we consider the mmf in the direction of the d-axis and the q-axis we will get the following equations [18].

iq =

&

(i, sin (S.)

+ issin (8. - -+ i c s i . ( B e + % ) ) ~)

A third variable zo, which is proportional to the zero sequence current is defined as
follows. (
Quadrature
(q a i s )

hh

Direct s i s (d - ais)

Figure 2.3: Representation of the machine coils referred to the direct and quadrature axes

Thus, the three phase currents, ,.z

to the d-q-O

ib, and ic shown in Figure 2.4 can be transformed

domain using the transformation matrix [Pl.

where [iOdp]==-[io,id, i,]'

, [i&] = [i., is,i,]' and

cos (e. -

[Pl =

fi

COS

(e.)

F)

cos (0.

sin (O.)

sin (B. - ajT)

s n (0, i

+ $) + $)

Figure 2.4: Position of the phase windings and the referred windings

This approach of analyzing the syndvonous machine was first proposed by Park and the transformation matrix P is tenned the Park Tkansformation- The above
definition for P is slightb dinerent fiom that used by Park [39][40], but the new

definition further simplifies the numerical calculations. The transformation mat*

also valid for voltages and flux linkages. Thus in general,

is

Chapter 2

[foc41 = Pl[foscl
where [f] represents curent, f u iinkage or voltage. Thus, lx

The inductance mat& in the a-b-c phase domain is given by [L&].The elements of

[L&]are shown in Appendix A.

Chapter 2

where

The quantity [L&o]can be considered to be the transformed inductance matrix of

the machine in the d-q-O domain. If the machine inductances are assumed to take
the form shown in Appendix A, this becomes a diagonal matrix and the elements are
independent of the position of the rotor. Hence

where

Chapter 2

and

La and L, are calied the direct axis and the quadrature axis inductances of the machine respectively, and Lo is c d e d the zero sequence inductance of the machine. The
transformed inductance matrix is time independent and, as a result, if the machine equations are solved in the d-q-Odomain, the matrut need not be inverted at each calculation time step. This is the major advantage of the Park Transformation. Most

of the existing machine models are based on this approach. Since faults extemal to
the machine do not alter the direction of the magnetic axes of the phase windings,

this approach can be readily used to analyze extemal faults. However, faults on the machine windings do affect the direction of the magnetic axis of the faulted phase
winding. In addition, the fault would effectively break the faulted winding into a

number of sections. As a result, in the presence of an interna1 fault, the machine in

general cannot be represented by six coupled coils. The geometrical symmetry that
existed between the phase windings in the un-faulted machine would not be present

between the faulted sections of the winding and the other phase windings. This is described in detail in the following section.

2.4

Drawback of the d-q-O approach in the presence of internal winding faults

The representation of the three phase coiis of a synchronous machine is shown in Figure 2.4. The coils are symmetrically placed with the magnetic axis of any one

winding placed 120 fiom the other two. This representation holds tme for all types
of winding configurations. The inductances involving these windings take the form
shown in Appendix A.

Now consider a machine of which the winding diagram is shown in Figure 2.5. Phase

A of this winding is shown in Figure 2.6 for clarity. Each coi1 bas N number of t u r n s

Chap ter 2

31

and the coils belonging to a particular phase are connected in series to form the phase
winding.

Figure 2.5: Winding diagram of a three phase 4 pole machine with 6 slots per pole

Figure 2.6: Phase A of the winding shown in Figure 2.5

The phase A winding shown in Figure 2.6 can be considered to have 8 coils connected
in series. Coils Pl1 and Pl2 have their sides under poles 1 and 2. The directions

of the magnetic axes of these two coils and the direction of the magnetic axis when the two coils are in series are shown in Figure 2.7.
The two coiis Pl1 and P12, when connected in series, form coil P l . Coils P 2 , P3 and P 4 are d e h e d in a similar manner and are depicted in Figure 2.8. The magnetic axes of the other coils are also shown in Figure 2.8. These axes are 90 apart nom each other and the resulting effect

of the 4 sets of coils can be represented by an equivalent coil A as shown in Figure

Chapter 2
2.4. The representation is further simplified by the use of the 'elect~ical angle',

32

a.,

as

opposed to the actud mechanical angle, 0 [33]. If the machine has p number of poles

As described in the previous section this representation leads to the d-q-O approach of analyzing the machine.

Figure 2.7: Position of the phase A conductors and the directions of the magnetic axes of the different coils

CntbPI 1 d PI2

CoilrEI &PZ2

CoikP3l d P 3 Z

COILPI1 d PI?

Figure 2.8: Coils of the phase A winding

Now consider a tum to ground fault occurring at point F1 which is the end of coi1 P l . This breaks the phase A winding into 4 parts as shown in Figure 2.9.
Figure 2.9 shows the directions of the magnetic axes of different coils. inductances of the coils P l , P 2 , P3 and P 4 will take the following form

The self

Chapter 2

where i = 1, 2, 3, 4. Ll,

Li and

C2 are constants which define the elements of

the inductance matrix [Lsyni]. These elements are as shown in Appendix A. The
constants kl and k2 depend on the position of the fault and they are described in Chapter 3. The inductance matrix of the machine representing the fault will indude
the above constants kl and k2 i four of the diagonal elements. The mutual inductance n

tenns involving the faulted winding w i l l also consist of similar constants. The coii 'al' shown in Figure 2.10 for a fault at F3 will have a self inductance of the
form

where the constants k3, k4 and 0 depend on the position of the fault and the slot

angle.

While it is possible to diagonalize the inductance matrix of the faulted machine, due to the presence of these additional constants the diagonal elements would no longer be

Figure 2.9: Representation of the fault at of the phase A coils

F1 and the directions of the magnetic axes

Chapter 2

34

time independent. This would again require that the transformed inductance matrix

be inverted at every time step when the fault current is calculated. In addition, the representation of the faulted machine depends on the fault type, the location of the fault and the design of the stator winding. The representation of the machine wiadings for faults at different locations are iliustrated in the Figures 2.9, 2.11, 2.10
and 2.12.
PsrrofPIIdoxrm
r m i d A ( m i l 31)

RrrofPlIc~osa~~
coi1 Pl2 (coi1a 3

PI2

P2

PI

Pa

Figure 2.10: Representation of the fauit at F3 and the directions of the magnetic axes of the phase A coils

Figure 2.11: Representation of the fault at F 2 and the directions of the magnetic axes of the phase A coils

It is clear from the above discussion that each fault has to be treated as an individual
case with attention given to the fault type and location and the winding details. It

was also mentioned that diagonalizing the inductance matrix of the fadted machine
would not guarantee a transformed matrix with non tirne varying elements. This

Chapter 2

35

takes away the main advantage of performing such a transformation. For this reason,
it was decided to develop the machine model in the direct phase domain. As the

first step, a machine model was developed in the direct phase domain where extemal faults could be simulated. This is described briefly in the next section.

2.5

Phase domain model of a synchronous machine

The phase domain model of the machine i very straightforward as it involves directly s

. . n .. solving the machine equations described in Equations 2 1 and 2 2 i Section 2 3 The

same equations are listed below.

where

The above equations were solved using the trapezoidal d e of numerical integration

and the resulting equations are shown in Appendix B. A suitable calculation tirne step

Fault at Fa

Figure 2.12: Representation of the fault at F 4 and the directions of the magnetic axes of the phase A coils

Chapter 2

36

must be selected to minimize the errors. The components of the inductance matrix

are held constant over the calculation time interval. This leads to inaccuracies if
the time step used is not sutticiently smaii. Simulations carried out on a number of identical cases using t h e steps of l p s and 20ps gave matching results. Thus a time step of 20ps was chosen to be adequate.

The machine data supplied by the manufacturer or those computed by performing

the standard tests on the machine are in a form that can be readily used in standard
d-q-O models. The information needed to d e h e the inductance matrix [Lsynl]must
be derived fiom this information. The method to convert the data to a form that can be applied to the phase domain model is outlined in Appendix C.
'--'--'------'-r---'-r--'-r-r -- - - - Generator
1

I - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,

Figure 2.13: Representation of a generator connected to a remote source

Simulation results using the phase domain model are shown in Figures 2.14 through
2.16. The system i Figure 2.13 was considered and the results show the phase A n

current and the phase A voltage foliowing a three phase short circuit at the machine terminals. The point on the voltage waveform at which the fault occurs is different
in the four cases shown. These results are compared with wavefom s i d a t e d using

a d-q-O based model of the machine and the close agreement of the cornparisons

Chapter 2

Figure 2.14: Comparison of results derived using the d-q-O domah model and the a-b-c domain model

Figure 2.15: Comparison of results derived using the d-q-O domain model and the a-b-c domain model

indicate the validity of the a-b-c domain approach and the method used to convert the machine data fkom the d-q-O domain to the a-b-c domain. The current envelopes
following a three phase short circuit at the terminah are shown in Figures 2.17 and

2 1 . These envelopes show the same characteristics described in publications and .8

standard texts [38], [55].

The next step was to extend this machine model so that it can be used to simulate interna1 faults in the windings. The main challenge here is to derive the elements of the inductance rnatrix that wodd represent the faulted machine. The method used to derive these elements is described in the following chapter.

Figure 2.16: Cornparison of results derived using the d-q-O domain model and the a-b-c domain model

Chapter 2

05

1 5

25

15

45

rune (SI

Figure 2.17: Short circuit current envelopes of the phase currents

Figure 2.18: Short circuit current envelopes of the d and q axis winding currents

Chapter 3

Development of a machine model for the analysis of internal faults

3.1

Summary

The need to have synchronous machine models for internai fault studies was discussed
in Chapter 1 This chapter outlines the method used to calculate the winding induc.

tance parameters necessary for the fault current caiculations. The machine rnodel is developed in the phase domain. A method to calculate the inductances involving the faulted windings is outlined using a four pole, lap wound machine. The machine equations are then solved using a suitable numerical technique. Comparisons are made between the simulated waveforms and recorded waveforms to ver* the model. the accuracy of

32 .

Introduction

There has been a need for a machine model to simulate internal faults for a long
time. The main use of such a model would be in power system protection studies as

indicated in Chapter 1. However, models or methods which can be generalized and applied to any type of machine are not readily available. Due t o the nature of the problem, the models based on d-q-O transformation [39] canmt be used in internal

Chapter 3
fault studies.

41

It is essential that the models be validated by comparing the results with recorded waveforms before these can be used confidently. The absence of recorded data is another major drawback to the development of a mathematical mode1 to study internal faults [16].

33 .

Overview of the available machine models

The machine models available on most of the electro-magnetic transient simulation

are programs [17] based on the two reaction theory and the resulting Parks transformations [39] [18][19]. It was explained that these models, based on a transformation which reduces the computational requirements, are not suitable to study internal faults. The model described in this section is derived in the phase domain [20], [21],
[22] for this reason. A machine model in the phase domain which is capable of extemal

fault simulation was presented in Chapter 2. The data supplied by the manufacturer

can be readily converted to a form which can be used in this model as can be seen
from Appendix C.
The performance of a machine under internal faults has not been widely published

and recordings of internal fault wavefonns are very hard to corne by. There are
few machine models available for internal fault analysis [23],[24], [25], [26]. Most
of these methods do not consider the placement of the conductors inside the stator

in an effort to simplify the andysis.

However, the fault current depends on the

winding arrangement and any model that does not consider this will lead to errors.

The method used in [23] and [24] neglects the higher order harmonics and this leads t o errors since intemal faults give rise to stronger harmonics. The rnethod used in
[25] does not consider the winduig arrangement inside the machine and, hence, it is

Limited in application. The method described in [26],[46], and [47] considers a two pole, sinusoiddy distributed winding. Such winciings are hardly ever found in power systems and, hence, it is also iimited in application.

The method present ed in t his thesis t akes intO account the winding arrangement inside

the stator and, hence, it can be extended and used for any type of winding design

[41].A turn to ground fault is considered here but any fault type can be analyzed in
a similar manner. The machine is represented as a system of coupled coils and the
number of coils i this system is determined by the nature of the machine winding n

and the type of fault. The main challenge is to derive the self inductances of these
coils and the mutual inductances between any two of them. The following sections describe the metbod used in this thesis to compute these elements. A machine with four poles is considered to outline the method.

3.4

Description of the machine windings

The two equations below give the voltage-current relationship of a synchronous machine, represented as six coupled coils [18].

where

The elements in the inductance matrix [Lsyni], and the matrix [Ri] known fiom are
the data supplied by the manufacturer. In salient pole machines, the elements of
[Lsynl] depend on the position of the rotor and hence are time varying.

Consider the four pole machine of which the winding diagram is shown in Figure 3.1.

It has two parallel paths per phase and each phase coil occupies two dots per pole,
as shown in Figure 3 2 This winding arrangement is used to outiine the procedure ..

used in this thesis to calculate the inductances involving the faulted windings. In this

example, the two sides of any given coil are placed either at the top or at the bottom of the respective slots. Whde this does not represent the practical arrangement (one top, one bottom conductor) it ailows us to express the magnetic axis positions in multiples

Chapter 3

43

of the dot angle, 6. The actual displacement of the magnetic axis of any single coii
will M e r fkom the values used in this thesis by a very small angle, the tangent of

which is the slot depth over the coil pitch. Neither of the latter measurements are
readily available.

--------

Top layer

No. of paralle1 paths No. of Slots

= 21

=3

No-of Pales = 3

Bottomiayer

Figure 3.1: The stator winding.

Consider a short circuit fault to ground on coil (6) which is on one parallel path of phase A. This breaks coil ( 6 ) into two parts, A3 and A4 as shown in Figure 3.3. The phase A winding can now be considered to be made up of five parts, A l , A2, A3, A4 and A5.
Winding A l consists of coils (1) - (4) connected in series. A2 is coil (5). A4 is the

portion of coil (6) that is connected to coil (7). A3 is the other portion of coil ( 6 ) and it is connected to coil (5). A5 is the combination of the coils (7) and(8), connected
in series. This arrangement is shown in Figure 3.3. The machine can now be viewed

as a system of 10 coupled coils.

Figure 3.2: Positions of the phase A conductors inside the stator.

Figure 3.3: Representation of the phase A winding with a fault on one pardel path.

Chapter 3

45

The matrix equation governing the voltage-curent relationship of the machine in

the presence of an intemal turn to ground fault can be expressed as follows. The directions of the currents and voltages are shown in Figure 3.4.

Figure 3.4: Representation of the machine coils under an interna1 short circuit.

where
[A2110xl

= [LsY%] 10 [ ~ 2 1 1 0 x 1 10x

The inductance matrix of the system is symmetric and hence there are 55 independent
elements of which 10 are self inductance terms. The self inductance of a coi1 and the mutual inductance between two coils for a given position of the rotor depend on the
following features and parameters.
1. Geometry of the winding or the windings concemed

2. How the windings are placed on the stator or on the rotor.

3. Length of the air gap.
4. Permeability of the iron core.

I the machine is assumed to be operating near the knee point of the B - H c u v e f

then the effects of saturation can be negiected. The permeability of the iron core of the stator and the rotor would be constant. Thus, under this assumption, the
self inductances of the normal windings are not affected by the fault. The mutual

inductance between any two normal windings is also not affected by the presence of
the fa&. Such elements in [Lsyna] are directly known from the inductance matrix [Lsynl] of the normal machine. Thus, 40 elements involving the faulted coils need to
be evaluated to define the inductance matrix [Lsynz]and to solve the equations to

h d the fault currents.

35 .

Calculation of the inductances involving the faulted coiis

The winding A l in Figure 3.3 makes up one parallel path of the phase A winding. The self inductance of the phase A winding is given by the foilowing equation where

Li, and L2 are constants. LI

The angle 0 in this case is the actual mechanical angle of the reference pole on the
rotor shown in Figure F.2, with respect t o the magnetic axis of coils (1) and (2) or coils (5) and (6) shown in Figure F.5. This is explained in detail in Appendix F. The
relationship between the 'electrical angle', O., and the actual mechanical angle, 0, is

given by

where p is the number of poles in the machine.

The winding of the machine shown in Figure 3.1 has four poles. The inductances of

the windings of this machine are given in Appendix E with the actual mechanical
angle used to describe the position of the rotor. Using the actual mechanical angle

Chapter 3

47

was found to make the analysis far less complicated and th% is the reason for using

this rather than the more common approach of using the 'eleetrical' angle. Eiuther,
in intemal fault studies, there is no real advantage of transforming the angle to an

equivalent 'electrical' angle as was pointed out in Chapter 2.

The magnetizing f u due to a current flowing in any one pardel winding of phase A lx
shares a common path. This situation c m be depicted by the simple magnetic circuit

shown i Figure 3.5. Thus, it c m be shown that the magnetizing component of the n self inductance of the phase A winding is equal to the magnetizing component of the self inductance of any one parallel path of this winding. This is proved in Appendix

D. As a result, the self inductance of the winding A l can be written as

Figure 3.5: Two parailel coils sharing the same magnetic path

Lal, is the leakage component of the self inductance and can be computed using
the methods explained in [27], [33]. These methods are described in Section 3.6 and

Chapter 3
Appendix G .

48

Since the two parallel windings have a common flux path, it can be shown that the mutual inductance between A l and any other unfauited winding i equal to the mutual s inductance between the phase A winding and that unfaulted winding. This can be seen from the results derived in Appendix D. This leads to the following inductance terms involving the un-faulted paralle1 path Al.

Now consider any one parallel path of phase A. This can be thought of as being made
up of two windings,

3 7 The winding X is .. made up of coils (5) and (6) and the winding Y is made up of coils (7)and (8). If this parallel path is energized with a voltage, V I , with the rotor kept stationary a t the position shown in Figure 3.7 and if the current drawn is il, then the voltage current relationship can be written in terms of the self inductance of the coi1 as follows.
as shown in Figures 3.6 and

X and Y,

Figure 3.6: One paraliel path of Phase A

The two windings X and Y can be viewed as two identical windings, placed 180

apart on the stator. Thus they will have the same self inductance,

L. Let the ,

mutual inductance between them be M,. Using the fact that X and Y make up the

the faulted paralie1 path we can show that

As the windings X and Y are 10 apart the leakage flux of any one coil does not 8'
couple the other coil. Using this fact and combining Equations 3.13 and 3.14 the

following relationship can be denved. The details of the derivations are shown in
Appendix F.

, Lpma, is the magnetizing component of L.

Figure 3.7: Flux pattern due to current in coil X.

Chapter 3

50

Now consider a case where a current, ., is passed through the coil X with all other i,
windings kept open circuited. The resulting flux pattern can be approximated as
shown in Figure 3 7 Appiying Amperes circuital law to these flux paths w can show .. e
that

Lpms 361 -- - - = 3
M P

4 1

From Equations 3.15 and 3.16

Equations (3.19) and (3.20) give the magnetizing portion of Lx, and LX,Y when the
rotor angle 19 = 0'. For any other position of the rotor, with the leakage inductance also taken into account, Lx and LXVY can be expressed as foilows.

The winding A5, which consists of the coils (7) and (8) is identical to winding (Y).
Thus the self inductance of this coil can be written as

Chapter 3

The axis of the coil A2 is shifted by an angle (6) fkom the axis of the coiI X. The
angle (6) is the slot angle as shown in Figure 3.2. Using the relationship between the
inductance and the number of tu-

in the coil, the mutual inductance between the

coils A2 and A5 can be written as follows. The detailed description of this is given in Appendix F.

The other unknown elements in the inductance matrix can be derived in a similar
manner. These are shown in Section F 1 . The details of these calculations are .4

presented in Appendix F.

36 .

Estimation of the leakage inductances of the windings

The mutuai flux that crosses the air gap and couples both the stator and the rotor
windings causes the energy transfer from one point to the other. In addition to the

mutual f u ,there are flux lines that link only one winding. Such a f u is called the lx lx
leakage f u . In synchronous machine studies, a flux line that would couple two stator lx

windings but would not couple any rotor windings would also be considered part of
the leakage f u . The effect of the leahge flux is to distort the shape of the main or lx

the mutual flux and hence to reduce its effectiveness in generating an electro motive

Chapter 3

52

force in the armature windings 1331, [35], [42]. Thus, the effect due to the leakage flux
c m be treated as

an interna1 reactance and it is termed the leakage reactance. The

correspondhg inductance is the leakage inductance.

Figure 3.8: Slot leakage and differential leakage fields

Figure 3.9: End leakage field

The leakage reactance of a generator is signiscantly small compared to the grounding impedance. Thus the effect of the lealcage inductance on the fault current in turn

Chapter 3

53

to ground faults i negligible. However, the fault current i the case of turn t o turn s n faults is limited by the leakage inductance of the faulted section of the coil and the resistance of that section. The fault current in phase to phase faults is limited by the resistances and the lealcage inductances of the involved coil sections. Machine designers treat the estimation of the leakage inductance in many difEerent
ways. The Ieakage flux is divided into Merent categories which are considered sepa-

rately. The resultant leakage inductance is the s u m of all these components [35], [54].

The following categorization of leakage fields is commody used for design purposes.
These fields are f i s t r a t e d in Figures 3-8 and 3.9.
1. Slot leakage

2. End winding leakage

3. DXerentiaI or a r gap leakage i

Slot leakage accounts for the flux that crosses the dot where the coil is embedded.

In the computation of this portion of the leakage inductance, the reluctance of the
stator core can be neglected compared to that of the air path. A method to estimate
the slot leakage of a phase winding is given in [35]. This method can be used, with

modifications, to compute the slot lealrage inductance of part of a winding. Since the slot dimensions , the way the coils in the slot are electrically connected and the
position of the conductors inside the slot must all be considered in the calculations,

each case must be considered separately. Appendix G shows how the method is
applied to the machine considered in this chapter.

End winding leakage fields are shown in Figure 3.9. These fields are formed around the coil ends protruding fiom the dots at the two ends. The estimation of this part is mainly based on formulas derived empiricaliy. The formula described in [42] and [35] is widely used. T i is used to compute the end leakage of the entire phase winding hs and takes the following form.

D is the diameter of the air gap and y is the winding pitch. The other parameters are explained in Appendix G. This formula is used with suitable modifications in Appendix G to calculate the end leakage of a coi1 of the example machine considered
in t his chapter.

The dinerential or the air gap leakage is due to the flux that crosses the air gap but which does not couple the rotor windings. This flux accounts for the space harmonies
present in the air gap magnetic field. In [42], this leakage is considered in two parts

named zig zag leakage and belt leakage and an empirical formula i presented to s estimate it. The total leakage inductance of a coiI is the sum of these three components.

3 7 Results and cornparisons .

Once the inductance matrix of the system is known, the system in Figure 3.4
CaR

be solved. The machine described in Section 3.4 gave rise to a system of 10 coupled coils. This number would be' different for another machine with a different winding design or a dinerent type of fault. However, in the case of a tum to ground fault, the
final system can be reduced and be viewed as a system of 8 coupled coils and hence

is described by a matrix equation of the order 8. It has the following form where [RI
is the diagonal resistance matrix of the system.

This reduces to

Chapter 3
This equation was solved numericaily using the trapezoidal rule of integration.

55

Figure 3.10: A turn to turn fault

Figure 3.11: A fault involving the two parallel paths of phase A

Faults between phases and turn to turn faults can be analyzed in a similar manner.
Figures 3.10, 3.11 and 3.12 illustrate a few possible fault situations inside the machine
of Figure 3.1.

The method outlined in the earlier section was applied to obtain the inductance parameters of a 4 KVA salient pole type machine with six poles. A number of faults were applied on the stator winding and the resulting waveform recordings were compared with those obtained fkom simulations. Three cases are shown in Figures 3.13,
3.14 and 3.15. More cornparisons and the description of the test system are given

Chapter 3

Figure 3.12: A fault between phases A and B

094

0.96

0-

1.a2

1 .M

1.a6

1.O8

Time (s)
A G FAULT r 50.. or&c &g

Figure 3.13: Phase A to ground fault.

098

1.04

Figure 3.14: Two phase fault between phases A and in Appendix N. The close match observed between the cdculated currents and the recorded currents is a good indication of the validity of the method used to compute
the inductance parameters.

Chapter 3

O OS

0.97

009

1.01

1.O3

1.Q5

Time ( 5 )

Figure 3.15: Phase A to ground fault with a low grounding resistance.

Chapter 4

Interna1 fault simulation in

t ransformers
41 .

Summary

This chapter deals with calcdation of interna1 faults in transformers. Single phase

transformer units and three phase , three limbed two winding transformers are considered here. The method used to estimate the leakage inductances of faulted winding

sections is described and it is validated by comparing the calculations with measured

data.

4.2

Introduction

The transformer is an important element in a power system. It has a relatively simpler

construction compared to the synchronous machine . The operating characteristics of the transformer depend on the construction and the design, and the way the windings

are connected. A three phase transformer made from three single phase units will
behave quite differently under fault situations fkom one which is made up of a single core. The following figures show some commody used core types [29].

The fault current in the case of a turn to ground fault depends on the grounding
58

Chapter 4

Core type

Sheli type

Figure 4.1: Single phase transformer cores

Threee phase shell type

Threee phaK five Iimbed

Thme phase three lirnbed

Figure 4.2: Three phase transformer cores practice employed to ground the star point of the transformer comection. Unlike in synchronous generators, it is common to have solidly grounded transformers. In such
a case the fault current is limited only by the resistance and the leakage inductance

of the faulted part of the winding. The voltage driving this current is the induced

voltage across this faulted section. There could be some magnetic flux trapped in the core once a transformer is deenergized upon the detection of a fault. If the transformer is re-closed onto the fault, the current is influenced by the trapped flux in its core. Thus, it is important to accurately represent the saturation of the core and the remanent flux. The presence
of the air gap in the synchronous machine causes the trapped flux to decay at a much

faster rate. Thus this is not a major concem in synchronous machine simulation.
1441

Chapter 4

4.3

Simulation of interna1 faults in tramformers

GenemI

4.3.1

Phase B

Figure 4.3: Cross section of a three phase two winding transformer.

Figure 4.4: The transformer represented as six coupled coils Consider the three phase two whding transformer shown in Figure 4.3. The s x coils i
can be schematically represented as in Figure 4.4. This arrangement cari be viewed as six coupled coils whose behavior is govemed by the following dinerential equation.

[W.

Chapter 4
where

The element Li represents the self inductance of the coil i and the element Lia r e p resents the mutual inductance between the two coils i and j .

The components of the [Rt] matrix and the [L,] matrix are known from the data
supplied by the manufacturer or they can be computed using standard excitation and
short circuit tests[l9].

4.3.2 Interna1 turn to ground fault

X
Y

Fault

Figure 4.5: Representation of a turn to ground fault in coil (1)

Chapter 4

62

Consider a turn to ground fault in coil(1) of Figure 4.4 which divides coil(1) into two
parts (x) and (y) as shoam i Figure 4 5 Now the voltage current relationship is n ..

governed by the equation

where

If the matrices IRt] and [Lt] known, then in [R'], and R, are the only unlmown are R,
elementS.

N, = number of tums in c i x ol N, = number o tums in coil y f

N,

+ N,

= NI = N3 = N5 = number of tums in coil (1)

Chapter 4 N, and N, determine the position of the fault .

In the matrix [R'];

It is important to accurately calculate the leakage inductances of the faulted parts (x)

and (y) since the fault current wili largely depend on this quantity in low impedance
and solidly grounded transfomers [31].

The leakage factor between any two c i s (a) and (b) is defined as follows. ol

Llab is the leakage inductance of coils (a) and (b) referred to coii (a). Thus for coils

(4 and (Y)

& ,

is the leakage inductance of the coils (x) and (y) referred to coi1 (x).

A method to calculate Lm when the coiis a and b are wound on the same leg of the transformer is shown in Section 4-4.
The self inductance of any winding (k) can be expressed as foilows.

Chapter 4

64

L?q is the leakage component of Lk and L, k ,

is the magnetizing component [33]

Since the leakage part of the inductance of the coils (x) and (y) is very small compared
t O their magnetizing part,

where Nz and N, are the number of turns in coils x and y respectively.

If (x) and (y) were connected in series and a current, i, is passed through them, the total flux Iinkage produced, (A, + A,), should be equal to the f u linkage of coil (1) lx when the same current i is passed through it.

Once L. is known, fkom Equations 4.3, 4.4 and 4.5, L,,L, and L, can be found. F, ,
Consider any coil (j) other than coil (1)where the fault is located. The location of
the coils on the transformer core are schematicdy depicted in Figure 4.6

Consider the simple magnetic circuit shown in Figure 4.7. I S is the reluctance of f

Chapter 4

Figure 4.6: Schematic representation of the six coils

the magnetic path 1, m, n, O , then the mutual inductances LP,,,, and L ,

Lb+,), are

given by the foilowing equations. The complete derivation of the results is shown in

Appendix O.

Figure 4.7: Three coils wound on a common magnetic core

Chapter 4

If the coils p and q are connected in series to form the coi1 (p + q) then

Extending the above results to the situation in Figure 4.6 we can mite

For coi1 (2) which is on the same leg as coil(1) let

LFZ2and LF12 can be calculated using the method shown in Section 4.4. L2, and
LZycan then be calculated using the Equations 4.6 and 4.7.

For coils (3), (4), (5), and (6) which are not wound on the same leg as (1) ,

Using Equations 4.6 and 4.8,

and Le,, can be Lecr computed. Now Equation 4.2 can be solved to find the internal fault cwrents.

hc, L5,Zl L*,=,

The above method can be easily extended to analyze turn to turn faults. Also, the same method can be used to analyze intemal faults in single phase tramformers and
in three phase banks made of single phase units.

The calculated inductances can be used to s i d a t e internal faults on the electro-

Chapter 4 magnetic transient simulation program PSCAD/EMTDC

67

[ I Simulated currents V.

and voltages for an internal fault occurring at 33%fkom the high voltage side neutral,
of a 415/11000 Volt, single phase transfomer are shown in Figure 4.8.

Simulated currents and voltages for an internal fault to ground occurring at 33% from
terminal B on the delta side of a 33/11 kV, deltalwye, three phase transformer are
shown in Figure 4.9.
TEILMINALVOLTAGE ON HIGH VOLTAGE SIDE

UNE CRRENT ON KIGH VOLTAGE SIDE

FAff LT CURROVTTO GROUSD

Figure 4.8: Internai fault waveforms for a single phase transformer

Chapter 4

Star sidc linc cumne

DI,,

arc

Figure 4.9: Interna1 fault waveforms for a three phase transformer

4.4

A method to calculate the leakage inductance of two

windings wound on the same leg of a transformer

Consider two windings (a)and ( b ) , wound on the same leg of a transformer as shown
in Figure (4.10).

The leakage f u pattern in Figure 4 1 . 1 can be used to estimate the leakage induclx .0() tance of the windings [3l], [34], [35], [37]. To find the leakage inductance of wuidings (a) and (b), referred to winding ( a ) , consider that the Mnding (a) is energized and

Chapter 4

Figure 4.10: Leakage flux pattern inside a transformer

that the winding (b) is short circuited.

If i, and ib are the currents fiowing in the two windings and if the relative permeability
of the core is assumed to be very high compared to that of air then,

The mmf in the space between the winding (a) and the transformer leg, mmfin, is
given by

mmfin = Ki, - Nbb= O

(4.10)

The mmf in the space between the winding (a)and the winding (b), mrnf2,is

Chapter 4

The mmf outside the winding (b), mmfat, is

Since the permeability of the core is much greater than that of air, the magnetic field
intensity, Hy the inter-winding space, H2can be approximated as in

where h is the window height of the transformer.

Since mmfh and mmf,, are both zero, the magnetic field in the space between the
winding (a) and the leg and that beyond the winding (b) are zero.

If the curent density inside the taro windings is assumed to be uniform then H will
vary linearly inside the two windings as shown in the Figure 4.lO.(2).

The energy stored in a magnetic field, spanning a volume V is given by the volume integral

where H is the magnetic field intensity inside the incremental volume W . For the
case considered here

and shown in Figure 4.10

Chapter 4

7 1

If the magnetic field is assumed to be symmetrical about the axis of the cote, then
dV c m be written as

dV = (2mh)dr
where the distance r is measured from the axis of symmetry. Then,

If the leakage inductance of the windings (a)and (b) referred to the winding (a)is
Ltab

thefl

Hence we can find Llobas

Hl, and & can be expressed in the foIlowing form with k 6

= 1,2,3

In the above equations, Hd is independent of the current

Thus LIabcan be found as

The above expression gives the value of the leakage inductances of coils (a)and (b) referred to coi1 (a). The method described above was used to calculate the leakage inductance of the windings of a nurnber of transformers. The cornparisons are shown in Table 4.1. The measured d u e s were obtained fiom the manufacturer dong with the details of the transformer necessary to do the calculations. The measured and the calculated inductances agree very closely and this is a good indication of the validity of the method used.

4.5

Magneti saturation and hysteresis in the transformer c

core
It was pointed out in an earlier section that the fault current will be iduenced by
lx the trapped f u in the transformer core if a breaker is re-closed while the fault is
still present. Hysteresis and saturation are considered difficult to be included in
the transformer models of electro-magnetic transient simulation programs [l?] In .

the program E M T D saturation is accounted for by placing a non-linear current ~ ~ source in parailel with one of the windings. The non-hear characteristics are modeled
by a simple anhysteretic cuve which has the form shown i Figure 4.11. n

I this n

model, hysteretic effects are not considered. Difnculties encountered when modeling

Transformer type Single phase, cote type, IOOKVA, l l k V / 415 V Single phase, core type, 250KVA, l l k V / 415 V Three phase, core type, Wye/Wye, lOOKVA, l l k v / 415 V Three phase, core type, Delta/Wye, lOOKVA, l l k V / 415 V Three phase, core type, Delta/Wye, lOOKVA, 33kV / 415 V Three phase, core type, Delta/Wye, lOOKVA, l l k V / 415 V Three phase, core type, Delta/Wye, IGOKVA, 33kV / 415 V Three phase, core type, Delta/Wye, 250KVll, 33kV 415 V Three phase, core type, Delta/Wye, 630KVA, 33kV / 415 V Three phase, core type, Delta/Wye, 2500KVA, 33kV / 400 V

Measured Calculated inductance (H) inductance (H)

O. 127 0.052 0.119 1.855 1.800 1.741 1.119 0.130 0.052 0.123 1.797 1.814 1.770 1.142 0.809 0.427 0.121

0.815
0.423 0.122

Table 4.1: Comparison of the measured and calculated leakage inductances

saturation and hysteresis are pointed out in[17].

Mathematics based on the physics of ferromagnetic hysteresis presented in [Il] and [3]
can be applied to mode1 hysteresis and saturation in tramformers [36]. The process is outlined in the following section with a turn to tuni fault in a single phase transformer considered as the example case.

4.5.1

Modelfng satumtion and hystemsis effects

The B - H relationship of the magnetic material of the core takes the form of a hysteresis loop like the one shown in Figure 4.12.

Cbapter 4

Magnetizing current

Figure 4.11: Non-linear characteristics of the core

Figure 4.12: B - H loop of a transformer core

The relationship between the magnetic moment, M, and the magnetic field intensity,

H, is given by the following equation [Il].

Chapter 4

75

The effective magnetic field intensity, He, i defined as follows. The parameter a s accounts for the inter-domain coupling inside the material and is a constant.

Using the above relationships, the B - H loop can be converted to a loop between M
and He. The anhysteretic magnetization curve, La,,can be derived fkom this loop as

shown in Figure 4.13.

Figure 4.13: M - Heloop of a transformer material

The function f (He) could be any function that can represent the anhysteretic magnetization. The foliowing form is used in [14],[43] and [44]. It was shown to give accurate results. The constants
al,an,

a3 and b are estimated using a suitable curve

fitting technique such as the non-Iinear least square method [45].

Chapter 4

76 e in terms of the anhysteretic

The derivations in [Il] lead to the slope of the M-H m magnetization curve.

The function Mm can be derived from the B-H loop of the transformer core material.
The parameters c, a and k are constants for a given material. 7 takes the value +1

or -1 depending on the sign of

$.

Load
%

-- -

Figure 4.14: Tum to turn fault in a single phase transformer

Consider a single phase transformer connected to a load as shown in Figure 4.14. The

turn to turn fault on one of the windings has broken this winding into three segments.

The circuit representation of this scheme is given in Figure 4.15. The flwces passing
through the windings (a), ( ) (2) and (3) are all equal since they are on the same l,

core. The leakage fluxes are neglected in the calculations, assuming that they are not
significant compared to the main f u . However, the voltage drop across the leakage lx
inductances cannot be neglected and these inductances, represented by

La, Lz LI,

and L3 should be calculated using the method given in Section 4.4. The following
equations describe the behavior of the system shown in Figures 4.14 a d 4.15.

Chapter 4

Figure 4.15: Circuit representation of a tum to turn fault in a single phase transformer

A is the area of the core. Niis the number of turns in coi1 j for j = 1, 2 or 3. Since
the flux density, B, c m be expressed in terms of M and H ,

If the dope of the M-H cuve,

is equal to s, then

1 is the mean length of the core. Moreover, from Kirchhoff's voltage Law,

Chapter 4

Since ali coils in Figure 4.14 experience the sanie f u , lx

for j = 1, 2 or 3. Equations 4.23, 4.24, 4.25, 4.26 and 4.27 can be solved to find
the fault currents. The complete derivation is shown in Appendix H. Simulation

results are shown in Chapter 5. Other faults can be analyzed in a similar manner. Dimensions of the core and the B - H loop for the core material are the essential
data for this analysis. The parameters a,k, and c are generally not supplied by the

manufacturer, In the absence of such information, these parameters can be estimated. This is explained in [14].This is a suitable mode1 t o study the in-rush phenornena
in transformers as well. The same theory can be applied to three phase transformers

and other core configurations. Here, the problem becomes more involved since the

f u density is not equal in al the limbs. This is the main focus of another ongoing lx l
research in the power systems group at the University of Manitoba.

4.6

Conclusions

A method to calculate intemal fault currents in transformers has been presented. InternaI faults were simulated and some results are presented. Inclusion of hysteresis

Chapter 4

79

and saturation was discussed briefly. The calculated leakage inductances were com-

pared with measured values to verify the method used to do the calculations. The
main drawback here is the unavalability of measured fault waveforms to compare

with the calculated ones.

Chapter 5

Simulation results and observations

51 .

Summary

The developed models of transfomers and machines were used to simulate diBetent
types of interna1 faults. Some results are presented in this chapter. In addition,

results from tests performed on the models to verify their consistency are presented.

5.2

Synchronous machine
Consistency of the equations derived for the faulted coils

5.2.1

The relationships between the inductances of the coils of the faulted machine should
be consistent with those of the normal machine. Thus the elements in the inductance matrix [Lsyn2] described in Equation 3.4 must satisfy the following constraints.

with

Chapter 5

Li and Lilj the elements in mat* [Lsy*] and L(l+2+--,) is the self inductance are when all n coils in a faulted path are connected in series. LOfZf can be regarded as a diagonal element in matrix [Lsynl] described in Appendix A. The second constraht involves any two coiis of the faulted machine and is shown in Equation 5.4. If this constraint is not satisfied the inductance matrix cannot be inverted and hence the equations cannot be solved. The shift in magnetic axes of the faulted coils mwt be given careful consideration in order to satisfy this condition. Equation 5.5 gives to the third condition to be satisfied for the matrix [Lsy*] be consistent aith the
matrix[Lsynl]. Lc1+2+...n),k the mutual inductance of coil k with n number of coils is of the faulted path connected in series.

the

constraints Listed above are satisfied, then the inductance matrix [Lsyn2]which

represents the fault shown in Figure 3.4, should reduce to matrix [Lsynl] under the
conditions given in Equations 5.6, 5.7 and 5.8. e, is the voltage across the phase A

winding when no intemal faults are present. vj is the induced voltage across any coil
j as illustrated in Figure 3.4.

Chapter 5

The above test was performed on the inductance matrix [ L s y n z ] , descnbed in A p pendix F. Equations 5.9, 5.11, 5.12 and 5.13 shown below are the proof for element
Laxfin [Lsynl]. Once the conditions in Equations 5.6, 5.7 and 5.8 a e applied to r [Lsyn2], Laxfshould be given by the following equation.

Substituting the equations for &ai,t from Section F.14 (page 190) in AppendIx F,

i d

x
5

k t = M F c o s 2 8 t ( -4 cos~ 2 ( B - % ) )co 6

MF

= -M'cos~@+

3
2

(*z6)

- [2 cos 26 cos 61

Chapter 5

Equation 5.9 is satisfied. A similar analysis can be used for a l other elements. Thus, i
if al1 elements in [Lsyn*]meet the above conditions the system shown in Figure 5.4

should behave exactly the same way for extemal faults as a normal model derived
on the a-b-c domain or on the d-q-O domain. The fault resistance Rtit in Figure 5.4

was set to a very large value so that conditions in Equations 5.6, 5.7 and 5.8 are
met. An external fault involving h e A and ground was simuiated using the n o d machine model described in Section 2.5 and the model described in Section 3.7. The
comparison of the results obtained fiom the two are shown in Figure 5.1. The line

currents, the field current and the c m e n t in the damper windings indicated in Figure
5.4 are shown in Figure 5 1 ..

The agreement shown by this comparison is further evidence that the inductances derived in Appendix F are accurate and consistent.

5.2.2 Simulation results for interna1 faults

The results shown in this section were derived using methods outlined in Chapter 3 and Appendix F. A six pole machine was selected and the winding diagram in Figure 5.2 shows the phase A of the stator winding. The data for the machine is given in Appendix K. As can be seen from Figure 5.2, this machine has a concentric winding

in the stator. This type of winding, also known as a spiral winding, is very cornmonly

Chapter 5
0

84
ia
O

ia

L i e A ro ground fault

o i b

oib

a ikd

ikd

XI

o-~

-1-5 4 480

500

520
O

540

560
ikq

580

600
x io

ikq

-~

x 1 o9 Time (Sec)

XI

o4

Figure 5.1: Cornparison of the external fault waveforms derived using the normal machine mode1 and the machine mode1 developed to simulate interna1 faults

Figure 5.2: A part of phase A of a six pole concentric winding

used in synchronous machines. This wnding is different from the winding considered
in Chapter 3 and, as a result, the derivation of the inductances of the faulted coils

are not exactly the same-as explained in Appendix

F. It was stated earlier that each

machine must be considered separately when analyzing internai faults. However the

Chapter 5

Figure 5.3: Two magnetic circuits to represent a portion of a concentric winding sarne principles used in Appendix F can be used here and the general approach is the same. The derivations in Appendix J indicate how a spiral winding is t a d e d . There,
it is shown how a spiral wound coii can be represented by two simple un coupled

magnetic circuits as in Figure 5.3. The areas Ai and A2 are defined in Appendix J.

Source

Field

Figure 5.4: A turn to ground fault on phase

Waveforms in Figures 5.5 and 5.6 show the current in Merent windings of the machine
when an intemal tum to ground fault occurs in one of the parallel paths in phase A. The currents are as indicated in Figure 5.4. The grounding impedance is taken as 10

Ohms. The fault was initiated after 1 second. The field current is interrupted, 0.3
seconds after the fault and the machine i isolated fiom the rest of the system 0.7 s seconds after the fault. The line currents increase once the field i de energized. This s results from the remote source feeding more current to the machine windings as the

Chapter 5

86

0.8

1-35

iflt

2.45

2.45

3
Time (Sec)

Figure 5.5: Current in the machine windings for a turn to ground fault at 20% from the neutral with the field de-energized before the machine is isolated from the system
induced voltage across them drops when the field current is interrupted as can be seen

from the 6rst graph of Figure 5.6. T i can be seen clearly from the third graph of hs Figure 5.7 where the waveforms are expanded for clarity. The line currents ia,ib and
ic undergo a phase shift when the field is removed. Once the generator is isolated, 0.7 seconds after the fault, there is still a circulating current in the faulted phase.

The fault causes a current to fo in the damper windings. Sime the magnetic field lw
in the air gap is now distorted, the damper current does not die out when the fault

current reaches a steady state. This was not the case with balanced extemal fadts where the damper currents died out after a few cycles from the inception of the fauit.

Chapter 5

0.8

1 -35

ikd

2.45

xl03

753
-1

1.
0.8
1-35

ikq

2.45

-400.c 08 .

I
1 -35 2.45

3 Tirne (Sec)

Figure 5.6: Current in the machine windings for a tum to ground fault at 20% fiom the neutral with the field de-energized before the machine is isolated fiom the system

The removal of the field current causes the direct axis damper to be severely afFected. The effect on the quadrature axis damper is not so prominent as this winding does
not " see" the direct effect of losing the field current. The waveforms in Figures 5.5
and 5.6 are expanded in Figures 5.8 and 5.9 to show details.

It was mentioned in Chapter 1 that the fault current will continue to flow in the
windings even after the machine is isolated and the field de-energized. This can be

clearly seen from the above simulation. The magnitude and the duration of the current

Chapter 5

0.95

0.98

ifit

1.O7

1.1

1.28

1-29

ikq

1.31

1-32

1.2

1 -3

1-4

1-5

1-6

1.7

1 -8

Time (Sec)

Figure 5.7: Current in the machine windings for a turn to gound fault at 20% fiom the neutral with the field de-energized before the machine is isolated from the system

Chapter 5

1.8

1 -9

Time (Sec)

Figure 5.8: Current in the machine windings for a turn to ground fault at 20% from the neutral with the field de-energized before the machine is isolated from the system

Chapter 5

0.9

0.95

ikd

1.2

1-25

1.3

0.9

0.95

ikq

1-2

1.25

Time (Sec)

13 .

Figure 5.9: Curent in the machine windings for a turn to ground fault at 20% fkom the neutral with the field de-energized before the machine is isolated fiom the system

Chapter 5

91

after the removal of the field depends to a large extent on the winding resistance. The

waveforms in Figure 5.10 lustrate this situation where the phase resistance is changed

from the original value of 0.0015 Ohms to 0.003 Ohms. The damper currents are also

dependent on the damper resistance.

400

i2 - 0.0015 Ohms

i - 0.0030 Ohms 2

70 0

400

i - 0.00 15 Ohms 3

i - 0.0030 Ohms 3

700

Time (Sec)

Figure 5.10: Effect of winding resistance on the fault current.

The results in Figures 5.11 and 5.12 are obtained by isolating the machine before the field is de-energized after 0.7 seconds. This would prevent the fault being fed by the remote source. Such analysis can be used to determine the protection strategy for
synchronous machines.

The fault current and the current in the windings of the faulted phase are d e c t e d by the position of the fault and the grounding impedance. The graph shown i Figure n

Chapter 5

2.5

3.5 Time (Sec)

Figure 5.11: Current in the machine windings for a turn to ground fault a t 20% from the neutrd with the machine isolated before the field is de-energized
5.13 shows the variation of the current 12 in one of the faulted coils for three different

grounding impedances. The rated current of this machine is 6.15

kA. If the machine

is solidly grounded, the fault current is limited only by the winding tesistances and
the leakage impedances of the respective windings. The current i2 for a fault at 1 %

from the neutral when the machine is solidly grounded is 4368 A peak. This is more
than 100 times the value if the grounding impedance was 5 Ohms. This explains why
synchronous machines are almost never solidly grounded in practice.

It is necessary to meet the conditions described in Section 5 2 1 and maintain the ..

Chapter 5

3
O-,

<
Y

c:

L i

- 2

z
E

-9 -12O

-3 -6

0.5

if

2.5

400 -r

300 200
100

O
0.5
1

0
ikd

2.5

xl03

7r 5

3
1 -1

. r

0.5

ika

2.5

Tirne (Sec)

Figure 5.12: Current in the machine windings for a turn to ground fault at 20% from the neutral with the machine isolated before the field is de-energized

consistency of the equations if faults very close to the neutral are to be analyzed. The machine mode1 presented here can be used to simulate faults at any location on the winding since those conditions are satisfied.

Certain relaying schemes use the harmonic content of the line currents to identify the presence of a ground fault inside the machine. Such a scheme which employs the third harmonic content is described in Chapter 1 Due to the distributed nature of . the windings, the inductance terms are not purely sinusoidd. The expressions for

Chapter 5

12

1 6

20 24 % turns from neutral to the fault

Figure 5.13: Influence of the position of the fault and the grounding impedance on the currents in faulted windings

ie the inductances, which are shown in Appendix A, neglect the higher order s n and
cosine terms to keep the analysis simple. When the higher order terms are taken into

account, the inductance of phase R would take the following form [22].

Similar expressions c m be written for other inductance terms and are shown in 1221.
The data required to estimate the additional parameters are not readily a d a b l e

and thus are generaiiy not considered in machine analysis. However [22] explains a
method to estimate them by performing tests on the machine. The waveforms in

Figures 5.14 and 5.15 show the results when the fourth harmonic term in the self
inductance of the phase windings is considered. The fault is at 2.5% from the neutral

Chapter 5

200

300

350

k'

x0 13

150 410 400 390 380 370 . 360 4 150 25 12 .5

200

i f

300

350

200

a ikd

ikq

300

350

O
-.5 12
-25

Time 6)

'o lJ

Figure 5.14: Effect of the higher order terms in the self inductance expressions with

L4 set to 30% of L2

150

200

ikd

ikq

300

350

v v v v
150

vvvYvVvvVVvvvv
300
Time (s)
XI

200

350

O"

Figure 5.15: Effect of the higher order terms in the self inductance expressions with L4 set to 10% of L2

Chapter 5

96

with the groundig resistance is set to zero. The winding currents show the presence

of hannonics.

I
Source

' F

Figure 5.16: A turo to turn fault on phase A The diagram in Figure 5.16 shows a turn to turn fauit in phase A. Turn to turn faults
can occur when the minor insulation separating the turns breaks d o m . These fauits are generally hard to detect and if left undetected for a polonged period could lead

to more damage to the insulation. In machines where more than one parallel path is
present, split phase relaying is employed to detect turn to turn faults. The foilowing

figures show the currents in dinerent windings when such faults are present. Point
in Figure 5.16 is at 12.5% from the neutral.

The waveforms in Figure 5.17 result when the fault is at X and involves 7.5% of the
winding. The current i3 is very high The currents in the other windings of phase A

are higher than the currents in phases B and C. If the fault resistance Rtit is high

the current in the faulted section would be smaller and this effect is shown in Figure

5.18
There is no noticeable difference in the line currents before and after the fault. Currents il and i 2 are almost 10 out of phase indicating a circulating current. Since 8' these two currents are monitored in spt phase relaying, this fault would be easily
detected by the relay.

Chapter 5

-80 4 100

150

200
ikd

250
XI

300

o-~

ikq
1.5 1

XI 0-3

x1

Tirne (Sec)

XI

o~

Figure 5.17: A turn to tum fault involving 7.5% of the winding with Rfit equal to 0 1 Ohms .

Chapter 5

1O0

150

200

300

350
XI

400

Time (Sec)

o-~

Figure 5.18: A t m to tum fadt involving 10% of the winding with Rfit equal to 1 Ohm

Chapter 5

x103
h

S.
c .

2
O

-2
-4 1O 0

130

160

190

220
XI

250

i3
x103 10
1

o-~

O 5
-5

-10

100
XI

Current i the faulty section n

130
160
U

190
O

220
XI

250

ia

ib

i c

03

6
4

o-~

2
O

-2
-4 -6 1O 0

160

190

220
XI

250

Time (Sec)

o4

Figure 5.19: A tum to tum fauit involving 10% of the winding with Rfit equd to 1 Ohm, with the machine operating close to its MVA rating of 160

If the fault occurs while the machine is supplying a higher current to the system, the circulating current tends to get smaller. T i can be see fiom the waveforms i hs n Figures 5.19 and 5.20.

The graph in Figure 5.21 shows the influence of the load current on the current in the shorted section of the winding. Figure 5.22 shows the influence of the number of shorted turns on the current in that part of the winduig. In both cases the extemal fault resistance Rfit is set to 0 1 Ohms. .

Chapter 5

25.
0

Currcnt in the fauIty section

1

-2.5 -5
1O 0

130

160

190
O

220
XI

n ia

ib

ic

o3

250

100

130

160

190

220
XI

250

Time (Sec)

O~

Figure 5.20: A turn to turn fault involving 0.30% of the winding with Rtir equal to 1 Ohm, with the machine operating close to its M V A rating of 160

5.3.1

General

The simulations were done using the transient simulation program E M T D C ~ Pa~.
rameters of the faulted coils were calculated using the methods outlined in the previous chapter and these values were fed into the program.

' Current i3 (kA)

I

15% of tums shorted/

5% of tums shorted

Rfl t = 0.1 Ohms

Figure 5.21: Muence of the load current on the current in the faulted winding
'Current i3 &A) 24-

8?' ' /

4-

, /

The load supplied kept constant

M = 0-1 Ohms t

Figure 5.22: Influence of the number of shorted tums on the current in the faulted winding

5.3.2 Simulation results for interna1 faults

The waveforms presented in Figures 5.24,5.25,5.26 and 5.27 show current and voltage
waveforms during turn to ground faults in the phase A winding.

The currents and

voltages are as indicated in Figure 5.23.

Chapter 5
cal

HV Side

LV Side

Figure 5.23: Interna1 fault in a star-star connected transformer

The three phase transformer is made up of three single phase units and hence there
is no magnetir. coupling between the phases. I the first case the fault occrus closer n

to the terminal and in the other case it is closer to the neutral. The fault current to ground, if, and the current i3 in the winding are larger in the second case whereas
the line current is larger in the first case. The currents would be much less if the
transformer is grounded through an impedance. This can be seen fiom the waveforms

Figure 5.24: A turn to gound fault 5% fiom the terminal on the phase

A winding

Chapter 5
0

1 0.5

ibl

icl

=:
"
4

o.

"

-.

0.8

w fi

0.9

"

s
E

2. 45
-1

0.4

0.5

0.6

. ?

0.7 i3

0.4

0.5

O.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

Time (s)

Figure 5.25: A tuni to ground fadt 5% fiom the terminal on the phase A winding

Figure 5.26: A turn to gound fauit 5% from the neutral on the

phase^ winding

Chapter 5
in Figures 5.28 and 5.29.

The waveforms shown in Figures 5.31, 5.32 and 5.33 result when the low voltage side of the transformer is connected in delta as shown in Figure 5.30. The fault is located on the high voltage side. Line currents on the delta side after the fault behave Werently than when it was connected in star. The waveforms presented so f r are a 1 for three phase banks consisting of three single phase, 1 kV/415 V, transformers.

The results shown in Figures 5.35 and 5.36 are for a three phase, three limbed, 33

k V / l l kV,transformer. The 33 kV side is connected in delta as shown in Figure

5.34. Since all the phase coils are magneticaily coupled to each other, the behavior

under intemal faults c m be different from the cases discussed previously. The fault
is doser to the terminal of iine B and it can be seen that the fault is fed mainly from
O

ibl

icl

O -4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

Tirne (s)

Figure 5.27: A turn to ground fault 5% fkom the neutral on the phase A winding

Chap ter 5
0

cal

ebl

cc1

Figure 5.28: A tum to ground fault 5% from the neutral on the phase A winding with the transformer grounded through an impedance of 20 Ohms
n ibi
O

icl

1
O -4

0.5

0 -6

0-7

08 .

09 .

Time (s)

Figure 5.29: A turn to ground fault 5% fiom the neutral on the phase A winding with the transformer grounded through an impedance of 20 Ohms

Chapter 5

Figure 5.30: Interna1 fault in a star-delta connected transformer

line B. This is not reflected to the star side since the current in the phase A winding
of the delta side carries the fadt current.

Figures 5.37 and 5.38 show the results when the windings are connected in star on

both sides.

0'

O .4

0.5

0.6

O.? ia 1

0.8

0.9

Figure 5.31: A turn to ground fault 5% from the terminal on the phase A winding with the secondary side c o ~ e c t e d delta in

Chapter 5

0.4

0.5

0.6

0-7

0.8

0.9

Time (s)

Figure 5.32: A turn to ground fault 5% fiom the terminal on the phase A winding with the secondary side connected in delta

0 1

ebl

ecI

Figure 5.33: A turn to ground fault 5% fiom the neutral on the phase A winding with the secondary side connected in delta

Chapter 5

Figure 5.34: Internai fault in a delta-star connected three phase transformer

eah

ebh

ech

Time (s)

XI

om3

Figure 5.35: A tum to ground fault 31% from the phase B terminal on the delta side

Chapter 5

450

c:
L-

O --4

-87 400

500

550 iad

600

650
XI

700

o3

1 M

icd

1 7

x 1 O"

-1

1
400 450

J
500

550

600

650

700
XI

Time (s)

o3

Figure 5.36: A tum to ground fault 31% fkom the phase B terminal on the delta side

Chapter 5

eah

ebh

Cr

ech

Time (s)

x i o3

Figure 5.37: A turn to ground fault 31% fkom the phase A terminal when both sides
are connected in star

Figure 5.38: A turn to ground fault 31% fkom the phase A terminal when both sides are connected in star

Chapter 5
eah

Figue 5.39: A turn to turn fault on the delta side of a transformer

Tuni to turn fadts can be simulated using the models and Figures 5.40, 5.41, 5.42,
5.43 and 5.44 show simulation results for faults on the delta side of a transformer.

The transformer connection is schematically shown in Figure 5.39. The fault curent
depends on the number of tums in the faulted part. It can be seen that the fault

current is not reflected onto the currents in other sections of the winding or on the other side of the transformer. This is because the turns ratio between the faulted section and any other winding is very small when only a few turns are shorted. The influence of the load current on the fault current is not s i w c a n t as can be seen from Figures 5.43 and 5.44.

5.3.3 Saturation i transformers n

A method to include saturation and hysteresis was outlined in Sections 4.5 and 4.5.1. This method was used to simulate the turn to turn fault on a single phase transformer
shown in Figure 5.45. The complete derivation of the mode1 is shown in Appendix H.

The B-H loop for the transformer material is shown in Figure 5.46. The input voltage, Ea, was increased above the rated value in this simulation t o drive the core

n eal

ebl

eci

400

450

500
O

iaI

550 11 A 3

600
icl

650

-.

700

-4

L ,

400

450

500

550 n z O i 3

600

650
XI

700

o9

xl04
200
O

-200
-400 400
450

V -V
500

W V
550

V V V -V -V -V-V -V
600
650

-1
700

Time (s)

x1o4

Figure 5.40: A tuni to turn fault involving 1% of the winding

400

450

500

550

600

650

700
x10-3

Time (s)

Figure 5.41: A turn to tum fault involving 1% of the winding

Chapter 5

400

450

500
O

ial

550 ibl

600
A

650

700

icl

*IO-3

400 . 200 . -200-400 -600

600
O

.
Time (s)

XIU

XI

o3

Figure 5.42: A tum to turn fault involving 10%of the winding

Figure 5.43: A tum to turn fault invoIving 10%of the winding

Figure 5.44: A turn to tum fault involving 10%of the wincling with the transformer supplying a higher load

Figure 5.45: A turn to turn fault in a single phase transformer

Chapter 5

115

deeply into the saturation region. The B-H loop at the rated voltage can be seen in the fkst graph of Figure 5.48. If the supply voltage Ea is maintained sinusoidal, then

the flux density B too will show a sinusoidal variation even in the saturation region

and the current w i l l be distorted. This can be seen from the waveforms in Figure
5.47.

The waveforms shown in Figure 5.48 display the situation when there is a turn to turn fault in the high voltage winding. The important thing to note is that the core
does not go into saturation as a result of the fault.

Figure 5.49 shows a case where the supply was interrupted at a current zero. The flux

in the core does not drop to zero but maintains its remanent value. This feature makes
this mode1 suitable to analyze the effects of in-rush currents when a transformer is energized or when the breakers are re-closed after the detection of an external fault .

B-H IOOP

H (Am XI o3 Figure 5.46: The shape of the B- H loop of the transformer core material

Chapter 5

-300

100 Magnetic Field Intensity

H(Am)

300
x1 o3

150 Magnetising current on the LV side

Tuneta) 100

200

xi03

2 2

5
O

O 4
-

-6

50

Tme(s)

100

150

200
xl O"

=O

Erne@) 100
ia

150

200
XI o9

if

iL

Figure 5.47: Magnetizing curent when the core is saturated

Chapter 5

Figure 5.48: A turn to turn fault involving 4% of the winding

Cbapter 5

Timc (s)
U

Erne (s)

Figure 5.49: The remarient flux in the core

Chapter 6

Application of the machine model

and the transformer mode1 in
protection s t udies
6.1

Summary

The models developed in the previous chapters can to be used to design protection

schemes for transformers and synchronous machines and to study how they would behave in difFerent situations. Current transformer models are developed in this chapter
to be used in such studies. Behaviour of certain protection schemes are presented with

the fault waveforms obtained fkom the machine model and the transformer model being used as the input to the CTs.

6.2

Introduction

The fault wavefonns obtained kom the machine and transformer models can be used
to analyze the behaviour of protection schemes. The current transformer plays a very important role in the protection schemes and must be properly represented in such studies. Zkipping of the breakers due to signals fkom Merential relays is treated
with utmost precaution and the unit is never re-closed. Thus, it is important to set

Chapter 6

120

the differential relays so that they would not operate for external faults. Extemal faults with a high initial exponential component and a large t h e constant tend to saturate the current transformers giving rise to a number of p r o b h . Such fault currents are common if the fault occuts close to the transformer or the machine. It is
very common for utilities to use air gapped current transformers in transformer and

machine protection to overcome t hese problems. However, the higher magnetizing current drawn by air gapped CTs leads to 1! arger ratio errors and larger phase angle errors. These must be carefully studied before such CTs are used. Models of solid core current transfonners which have been tested for accuracy are available and can
be used in protection studies [14], [48]. However analytical methods to predict the behaviour of a r gapped CTs are not readily available [50]. An analytical method to i

51 predict the behaviour of gapped current transformers is presented in this chapter 1 1 .

Sransformers connected in star-delta configuration require that the CTs on the star
side be connected in delta to account for the phase shift in the luie currents on the two

sides of the transformer. If the current harmonies produced in the delta connected secondary windings are not considered carefidly false tripping could occur. To study

such situations, a delta configuration of three current transformers is modeled and

tested [49].

63 .

Effects of saturation i current transformers n

Figure 6.1: A single CT connected to a burden

Chapter 6

121

Transmission line faults occurring ciose to a generator give rise to a fault current of

very high magnitude. In addition, since the fault wili experience a high reactance to resistance ratio X/R, there will be an initial dc exponential component in the
fault current which will decay very slowly. Figure 6.2 shows typical fault currents
during a line to ground fault for two different values of

XIR. I the X/R is high f

the dc exponential component will decay slowly. Now consider the simple single
CT connection shown in Figure 6 1 The resulting secondary currents for different ..

burdens are shown in Figure 6.3. The CT in this case is made of a solid core with no
air gaps. Methods described in [l4] and [48] were used to simulate these secondary
currentS.

x10-3

25
Y

<

50

100

150

200

250

Time ( s ) XI o - ~ Figure 6.2: Fault currents with an initial dc exponential component for a fault occuring close to the generator.

The secondary current is distorted in the high burden case. The amount of distortion depends on the burden as w U as the remanent flux trapped in the core at the instant e of the occurrence of the fault. Figure 6.4 shows the flux i the core during and n

Chapter 6
0

Iprimary-(scaled)

[sec-l

- High irnpedance

[sec-2

- Low impedance

-12 J 80

1
120

160

200

240

Time ( s ) XI o - ~ Figure 6.3: Secondary currents in the CT under different burdens

after the fault. The remanent f u depends on the current magnitude, the initial lx

exponential in the primary current, the burden and the instant at which the fault
is cleared. This can be seen fkom Figure 6.4. The remanent flux does not decay to
a lower level upon the clearance of the fault. If the breakers are re-closed while the

fault is still present, the secondary curent then will be influenced by this remanent

flux. It is very important to understand the effects of remanence on the performance

of the relays. It is also very necessary in generator protection to employ methods to reduce the levels of remanence [53],[52]. This is achieved by employing CTs with an
air gap of suitable len! gth.

6.4

Behavior of air gapped current transformers

Figure 6.5 shows the secondary currents if the solid core CT in Figure 6.1 is replaced
by an air gapped CT. The primary current, referred to the secondary side, is also

Chapter 6
t~
A
1

XIR = 40, High impedance (B 1)

X/R= 40, High impedance (B3)

X R =100, High impedance (B2) XIR = 40, Low impedance (B4)

50

100

150

200

250

Time (s) XI o4 Figure 6.4: Flux in the CT core under different conditions

depicted in this figure. DiEerent gap lengths were used in the simulations. The shape and the magnitude of the secondary current depend on the gap length. The initial exponential component in the primary current waveform is not as prominent in the secondary currents in the cases where the gap length is larger. This is an important feature of a r gapped CTs. Another feature to note is the ratio error i
between the primary and secondary waveforms. This is caused by the magnetising

current which builds up the flux in the core and the air gap. The larger the is air
gap, the more current is required to maintain the flux and, as a resdt, the ratio

error increases with the gap length. This error is also infiuenced by the relay burden, the secondary impedance of the CTs and the lead impedances since these determine the voltage across the CT secondary coi1 and this voltage, in turn, determines the
flux density in the core. The slow decay of the primary current and the rapid decay of the remanent flux upon the removal of the fault can be seen in Figure 6.6. The

higher magnetising currents also give rise to a larger phase angle error between the

Chapter 6
0

Iprimary scaled

Isec - 0.03% gap

Isec - 125% gap v

Isec - 2% gap

1O0

120

140

160

180

200

220

XI o9 Time (s) Figure 6.5: Secondary currents in the CT when air gapped CTs are employed

primary and the secondary currents. Figure 6.7 illustrates these two errors that must be accounted for before the relay settings are determined. These effects get very

complicated to visualize in protection schemes where multiple CTs are connected together i .different configurations and accurate simulation models become an absolute
necessity.

The flux in the core for the cases presented in Figure 6.5 is shown in Figure 6.8. It is
clear from this diagram that the problems caused by saturation can be controlled by

having an air gap of suitable length in the CT core. Upon the removal of the fault
the trapped flux decays a t a much faster rate. This would result in a lower level of

remanence when the breakers are te-closed and hence less chance for the protection
system to malfunction. The features of the gapped CTs highlighted in this section

can be verified analytically using simple electric and magnetic circuits. I the primary f
current with an initial exponential i expressed as follows s

Chapter 6
n Ipri-(scaled)
0

Isec
1

m-,

60

100

140

180

220

260
XI

300
O"

Time (s)
Isec
20

60

100

140

180

220

260 x i o9

300

Tirne (s)
B

5
m

o..
-1

-2 +

Time (s)

XI

o9

Figure 6.6: Decay of the prirnary current and the flux in a r gapped CTs i

the secondary current can be shown to be equal to., .i

the fluxare shown in Figures 6.9 and 6 1 . .0

. The currents, voltages and

i, ,

=Al

The exponential component is attenuated by a factor of

f ik1-$

The phase angle

Chapter 6
0

Iprimary - scaled 0

Isec - 0-7% gap

50

100

150

200

250

Tirne (s) x i o9 Figure 6.7: Primary and the secondary current in the CT to demonstrate the ratio error and the phase angle error.

error is 6 and the ratio error is due to the term

. The constants K I , K2,

K3, and K4 depend on the magnetising inductance, La==, the secondary coi1 and of
the mutual inductance, MW,between the two coils. The details of this derivation are given in Appendix L.

The simulation resdts in Figures 6.6, 6.7, and 6.8 display the characteristics, the
above equations describe. The derivation of the model, based on Figures 6.9 and 6 1 .0

B-1

1.25%gap O

B-2

- 0.03%gap

B-3

- 2%gap

02 1 .

Time (s) XI o - ~ Figure 6.8: Flux in the CT core when air gapped CTs are employed

Air gap

Figure 6.9: Schematic diagram o an a r gapped CT f i

and the three Equations 6.5, 6.6 and 6.7 i shown in Appendix M. s

Chapter 6

Figure 6.10: Air gapped CT feeding a relay burden

The model of the air gapped CT was validated by comparing the simulated waveforms
with those recorded from a relay manufacturer's synthetic test plant in Stafford, UK.

Three air gapped CTs were connected in a star and the currents in the CT secondary
windings were recorded. Figures 6.11, 6.12, and 6 1 show the calcdated and the .3

measured secondary current for two different cases. The close agreement of the two waveforms indicates the accuracy of the model. The high fiequencies observed in the measured waveforms are due to noise introduced by the measuring equipment.

6.5

Behaviour of three current transformers connected in

delta for transformer differential protection

Delta connected CTs are still very cornmon in differential protection schemes of star -delta connected transformers. Modem relays based on microprocessors do not

Chapter 6
Phase A current (CalcuIated)
0

Measured

Time(s)

Figure 6.11: CT with a 0.03% air gap

0

Phase A current(Calculated)

Measured

-10 J
1.25 1.3 1.35 1.4 1-45 1.5 1.55 1-6

Time(s)

Figure 6.12: CT with a 0.2%air gap

0

Phase B current(Calculated)

Measured

Figure 6.13: CT with a 0.2% a r gap i require such a connection since the relay can be programmed to account for the phase

shiR between the line currents on the two ends of the transformer. However, most utilities still use this method and the delta connected CTs have to be matched with the star connected CTs on the other side of the transformer. The mode1 developed

Chapter 6

Figure 6.14: Three CTs comected in delta

s here is based on methods similar to those presented in [48] and i outhed in

Ap

pendix 1. Figures 6.15, 6.16 and 6.17 show the cornparisons of the simulations with

data measured at a relay manufacturer's test plant in Stafford, UK. The connection
is illustrated in Figure 6.14.

a Calculated
30
I

Measured

Line A

2.8 15
6
h

2-85

2.9
0

2.95 Calculated 0

3
Measured

3.05

3.1

S.
4

-3
-12

-21

1
2.85

10 Ohm lead A-N fault with flux dnvcn in the opposiiedirection

-30 2.8

2.9

2.95

3.05

3.1

Time(s)

Figure 6.15: Comparison of the calculated waveforms with measured data to validate the delta CT mode1

Chapter 6
0

Calculated
Line A

Measured

s
=

'

-5
-15
10 Ohm lead, A-N huit wiih fluir driven in the same direction

-25 4 5.7

I
5.75
5.8 5.85 O Calculated 0

5.9 Measured

5.95

Line B

Figure 6.16: Cornparison of the calculated waveforms with measured data to validate the delta CT mode1

An interesting feature observed i the delta connection is the presence of a circulating n

current in the delta windings. This effect is amplified when the CTs are driven into

saturation by larger fault currents with a slowly decaying initial exponential. A substantial proportion of second and third harmonics are present in the CT secondaries.

In addition, the line currents feeding the relays contain a significant amount of second
and third harmonics. The CTs on both sides must be selected with due care to avoid unnecessary trippings due to these harmonics that are seen only on the delta side of the differential scheme. These effects can be seen fiom the simulation results shown
in Figures 6.18 and 6.19. The secondary currents i the fkst graph of Figure 6.19 are n

almost in phase which indicates a circulating current. It s W d be noted that the third harmonics in the three lines are unbalanced and that they do add to zero.

Chapter 6

30

Line A

-30 f 33 . 30

13.5 Ohm lead. A - B C fklt

33 .5

3-4

a Calculateai

34 .5
0

35 .
MeaswPd

35 .5

36 .

Line B

Figure 6.17: Cornparison of the calculated waveforms with measured data to validate the delta CT mode1

6.6

Behaviour of several relaying schemes used in machine

and transformer protection

Interna1 faults were simulated using the methods presented in Chapters 3 and 4. The
fault current waveforms were fed to the CTs as their primary current. This wodd

enable the calculation of the relay currents under a given situation. This information
can be used

1. to decide on the proper setting for the relay

2. to decide on the size and class of the CTs to be used
3. to take steps to minimise false trippings etc.

Chapter 6
C secondary current i Phase A - isl ' n

1 O0

200~urrent i the phase A relay - IL1300 n

400

CI

50
14GI

'Oo

i ~ 1

200

Frequency (Hz)

-Z a 2

10.57
0

3.5O

+
50

7
100

7
1 50

0
200

Frequency (Hz)

Figure 6.18: Harmonies present in the secondary and line currents

The following figures show simulation results where the fault currents calculated using

the simulation models were used as the primary current input to the CTs in the protection scheme. Figures 6.21 and 6.22 show the behaviour of the restricted earth
fault protection relay connected to the 33 kV side of a transformer. Figure 6.20 shows

the way the four CTs are connected in this configuration.

Figure 6.2 1shows the relay current during an extemal fault close to the transformer.

In the two cases considered, the same primary current was applied to the CTs. The
remarient f u on the CT of phase A was set at different levels and this has an effect on lx

the relay current as can be seen fiom the waveforms. The relay curent is d u e n c e d
by the relay impedance and the lead impedances connecting the CTs to the relay. The

Chapter 6

134

40

70

100

Time (Sec)

330

160

190
XI 04

220

Figure 6.19: Currents during a three phase fault

CTs tend to saturate when the relay impedance is high and this too influences the
current passed to the relay. The e s t two relay current waveforms in Figure 6.22 are

for a turn to ground fault on phase A, at 31% from the neutral. The relay, whether

high impedance type or low impedance type, would not have a problem detecting this fault. However, if a fault occurs very close to the neutral, the relay current can get very small. The current into a relay, with a low impedance of 5 Ohms, due to a fault at 2.8% fiom the neutral is shown in Figure 6.22. This current is small and is comparable with the relay currents during external faults. Fault discrimination thus becomes a problem when the fault is close to the neutral.

Chapter 6
Transformer wiaduig

Figure 6.20: Restricted earth fault protection on a transformer star winding The performance of a restricted earth fault protection scheme is shown in Figure
6.23. The scheme is used to protect the star connected windgins of a three phase

transformer as shown in Figure 6.20. The transformer mode1 is used to derive the fault currents and these currents are fed to the primary windings of the CTs in the protection scheme. The relay current depends on the relay impedence and this can be seen Tom the results shown in Figure 6.23. The CTs tend to saturate when the relay impedence is high and as a result the the current to the relay gets distorted.

The dinerential relay current due to a tuni to ground fault on a synchronous machine
is shown i Figure 6.24. Six CTs are employed in this scheme as shown in Figure 1.7. n

The relay in this case had a low impedence.

The machine models, the transformer models and the CT models presented here provide the relay engineer with the necessary tools to simulate a protection scheme and decide on the relay settings. Such analysis would enable the engineer to enhance the performance of the protection scheme such as the speed of operation, fault discrimination and security.

Chapter 6
Rernanent flux = 2 T
0

Rernanent flux = O

-1

O 30 1

50

150 Relay current when initial flux = 2 T

1O0

200
XI

250

o3

O
*

50

100 150 Relay current when initial flux = O T

200
x1O"

250

50

1O 0

200

250

Time (s) XI om3 Figure 6.21: The effect of remanence on the relay current during extemal faults

Figure 6.22: Relay curent in the presence of an interna1 tuni to ground fault on the star side of the transformer

Chapter 6

Ir
50

Relay cwrent (Low irndance case,

k
Y)

Relay current (High irnpcduice case)

-50

150

200

250

300

350

400

4sa

Time (s)

xifl

Figure 6.23: Relay curent in a restncted earth fault protection scheme.

Figure 6.24: Dserential relay currents due to a turn to ground fault on phase A

Chapter 7 Conclusions

The main aim of this thesis has been to develop models of synchronous machines,
transformers and current transformers which c m be used in power system protection studies. Models with the capability to accommodate faults inside the windings have
long been sought after in the area of power system relaying because there is no recouse
to experimentation on the actual machine or the transformer to gather the necessary

information. Current transformers, considered a key element i protection systems, n

were also modeled as a part of this thesis.

7.2

Main contributions of the thesis

The following are considered contributions of this thesis.

1. The synchronous machine model

This model takes into account the way conductors are actually placed inside the winding. This is necessary because the fault divides the faulted coil into a number of sections. The method presented here is very general

and can be easily extended to study any type of fault on any type of winding configuration. Interna1 fault current was shown to be dependent
138

Chapter 7

139
on several factors such as the grounding method, position of the fault,
number of tums involved, the winding design and the loading condition.

2. Transformer models and inclusion of saturation

Interna1 fault current in solidly grounded transfomers is mited only by the winding resistance and the leakage inductance. The method used to calculate the leakage inductance was tested by comparing the calculations with those measured by a transformer manufacturer. Like in the machine, details of the winding and the core are necessary to calculate the parameters needed to simulate internai faults. A method to include saturation

and hysteresis was outlined and this is based on theories of ferro-magnetic

hysteresis.
3. Model of an a r gapped CT i

Air gapped CTs are widely used by utilities in transformer and machine
protection to overcome problems caused by CT saturation. Hysteresis and saturation are accurately modeled and the simulations were tested with recorded waveforrns to validate the model. A configuration in which three

CTs were comected in star was considered in these tests. There is hardly any published material covering this topic and this model would enable an engineer to select a gapped CT with the desired characteristics. It is important to match the gapped CT with the other CTs, gapped or solid core, to make sure of satisfactory operation of the protection. The air gap is considered as a series reluctance in the iron core. This allows the model
to display accurately key features of the component such as the slow decay of the secondary current once the fault is removed and the rapid decay of the trapped flux in the core.
4. Model of three CTs connected in a delta configuration

Delta connected CTs are common in tramformer differential protection.

Since the delta connected side shows characteristics that are not seen on

the star connected side of a differential relay connection, steps must be taken to avoid maloperation of the relays. In most cases problems occur when the CTs are driven into saturation by heavy fault currents. The presence of a large circulating current in the delta windings was observed
in the simulation results. The presence of third harmonies in the delta

winding as w l as in the lines connecting the CTs to the relays was another el

observation. The model was validated by comparing recorded waveforms

with the simulations.

It was shown how aiI the components modeled here are integrated to study the performance of a particular relay connection.

73 .

Recornmendations for h t h e r work

The transformer models should be tested with recorded waveforms during interna1 faults. Inchsion of saturation in the a-b-c domain machine models was not considered
in this thesis. The coefficients in the inductance terms that were treated as constants

would change in the presence of saturation and this change has to be calculated and
included in the model. Saturation and hysteresis in three phase transformers can be

treated in a fashion siniilar to how the saturation in a single phase transformer was treated.

Appendix A
Elements of the inductance rnatrix
of a synchronous machine
The elements of the inductance matrix, [Lsyni], can be expressed in the following
forms [l8].The angle 0. is in electrical radians. Ll, &, L2, M.,

LF,Lo ,Lp, MR, MF,

MD and Mq can be derived nom the data supplied by the manufacturer, as shown
in Appendix C. Li is the leakage inductance of a phase winding. Depending on the

position of the rotor, the self inductance of a phase winding will have a maximum value of ( 4

+ LI + L2 ) and a minimum value of ( Ll + L1 - L2 ).

Appendix B
Solution to the machine equations
using Trapizoidal integration
Equations 2.1 and 2.2 in Chapter 2 describe the behaviour of the syndvonous machine. These two equations can be combined to form the following equation.

[ [ ~ s m+ di [ L S Y ~ ~ I ] = - [ [ ~ s m l [I~I]- [Vil l (4
and written as s h o w in equation (B.5).

03.4)

If two matrices A and B are defined as follows then equation (B.4) be rearranged can

Appendix B

If a time step of At is used to numericaiiy calculate the vector [Il]at any time t, the vector [Il]is given by the following expression.

When the trapizoidai rule of integration is applied to the above equation, the following
equation will result.

Thus [Il]is given by the following equation with the matrices [G1], and the vector [Hl]

[V;]defined as s h o w below. [Il is the identity m a t e

Appendix C
Conversion of the d-q-O data t o the
a-b-c domain
The machine data supplied by the manufacturers or those derived fiom standard tests, are in a form applicable in dqO based models. These must be converted so that they can be used with abc domain models.
The leakage inductance of the machine is supplied in data sheets. It can also be

estimated by performing an open circuit test and the zero power factor test and then using the Poitier triangle approach [33]. The parameters Ld, and Lo are again supplied by the manufacturer. They can Lq
be estimated with reasonable accuracy by performing a slip test on the machine [59].

The following derivations show that the results of the slip test give the values of Ld and L, directly. A zero sequence test, where al1 three phase windings are connected
in series and a current passed through them can be used to estimate the value of

Lo.

In the slip test a balanced voltage is supplied to the three phase windings with the field winding kept open. The machine is tumed a t a speed slightly below or above the rated speed. The current in the phase A winding would be a minimum when the direct axis is in line with the axis of Phase A. Similarly it WU a maximum be when the two axes are 90 apart. Thus, maximum current occurs at 0 = 90" and the minimum current is at 0 = oO. The currents in the three windings would be balanced.

Hence at any given instant the currents are out of phase by 120" from each other.

Typical voltage and current waveforms for Phase A, obtained from this test are shown
in Figure C.1.

Figure C l Typical voltage and current waveform recordings fkom a slip test .:

At 0 = oO,assume that the current is a minimum in Phase A. If this has the magnitude I,m'" then phases B and C will carry a current -(Tl. voltage across Phase A The
would be a m d m u m given by V o.

The inductance seen at the Phase A terminais,

Lm,, is given by

Similarly, at 0 = go0,

(C.4)

For any position of the rotor, if the same current is passed through the windings, the resulting inductance Lo is,

Once the leakage inductance is known Li, and M, can be calculated. The value of L2

MF is estimat ed using the open circuit characteristics supplied by the manufacturer.

For a field current if if the induced peak voltage across the phase winding is VMPak,

The phase resistance and the field resistance are normally given by the manufacturer.
They can also be estimated fiom simple dc resistance tests. The resistance of the two

dampers are estimated using the direct-axis and the quadrature-axis time constants. The leakage inductances of theses windings and that of the field winding too can be
calculated using the same time constants [56][57]

The equations presented in

[la] and summarized below, can be used to calculate the

remaining iinknown parameten Lq, MQ, CD, MD, and MR LF,

(C.1) 1

(C.12)

Appendix D
Inductances of coils sharing a
common flux path
Consider the magnetic circuit shown in Figure D.1. The coils (a) and (b) are identical

and each has N number of turns. Let the number of turns in coil (c) be Nc.

. -

Figure D.1: Three coils wound on the same core.

When coi1 ( a ) is energized with the other two kept open circuited, the following equations can be written.

4 is the flux in the core, LI is the self inductance of coil

(a)and S is reluctance of the magnetic path. The flux is assumed to be contined to

the core. In Figure D 2 the two coits (a) and (b) are connected in pardel. The same .,
voltage V is applied across the coils. Since the voltage is the same, the f u in the lx

core has to be the same as in the earlier case where only coi1 (a)was excited.

From equations D.1 and D.4,

,/Y>

- ------

Fu lx

Figure D.2: Three coils wound on the same core with two of them connected in parallel.

Appendix

If Le, is the inductance of the parallel combination of coils ( a ) and (b) then,

The self inductance of the parallel combination is equal to the self inductance of any

one winding. This is tme when the two CO& are tightly coupled.

If the mutual inductance between eoils (1) and (3) is Ml> and if the mutual inductance
between coils (3) and the parallel combination is M(1C2p, then,

(D.10)

This shows that the mutual inductance between coil (c) and the pardel combination

is the same as the mutuai inductance between coil (c) and any one coii in the parallel
combination.

Appendix E
Elements of the inductance matrix
of the four pole synchronous
machine
The elements of the inductance matrix, [Lsynl],of a four pole machine can be expressed in the following foms. The angle 0 is the actual mechanical angle in radians.

Appendix F

Calculation of winding inductance

parameters for simulation of

interna1 faults in synchronous

machines

Inductances involving the faulted CO& are derived here to enable winding fault simulations. A four pole, lap wound machine with two parallel paths per phase is considered as the example case. However the method described can be easi-y extended for other types of windings. It is assumed that the inductances of the normal windings are
known from the data supplied by the manufacturer.

F.2

Description of the machine windings and the inductances under normal conditions

A 3 phase, 4 pole synchronous machine with a lap winding in the stator i shown in s
Figure F.1. The rotor is assumed to be of the salient pole type.

Each phase winding has two pardel paths with the number of series tums per phase

being equal to Nph. Thus, each dot carries

conductors.

Sub windings 1(In slots 1and 7), 2 (in dots 2 and 8), 3 (in slots 13 and 19), and 4 (in
slots 14 and 20) when connected in series as shown in Figured F.l form one parallel

path of the phase A winding and coils 5 , 6 , 7 and 8 fonn the other parallel path. Each
coi1 consists of

4 tums. The two parallel paths when combined, form the phase A

winding of the machine. The remaining slots carry the windings of phases B and C.

-----_-- -

Top layer Bottom layer

No- of piuailel paths

=2

No- o f Poles

=4

No. of Slors

= 21

Figure F.1: Winding diagram of the four pole machine.

The field winding F is on the salient pales of the rotor and the four coils are connected
in series as shown in Figure F.2.

The damper windiag can be represented by two short circuited coils, one with its axis along the d-axis and the other with its axis along the q-axis as shown in Figure F 3 ..

The system can now be viewed as a system of six magneticaliy coupled coils. This

-- - - -

Scuorsiois

Figure F.2: Rotor arrangement of a four-pole synchronous machine with salient poles.

of rotation

C-Axis

6 - Axis

Figure F.3: Schematic of the winding arrangement

Appendix F

157

arrangement is shown in Figure F.4,and the voltage current relationship is given by

the foUowing set of equations [l8].

where

The elements of the inductance mat*

and, hence, they are time varying.

[Lsynl] depend on the position of the rotor

Since the windings are placed symrnetricaiiy along the circderence of the stator,
we can make use of the "electrical angle" of displacement of the rotor axis from a

reference direction in order to define the position of the rotor at any given instant.
The elements of the inductance matrix [Lsynl] can be expressed as in Appendix A

[ l The axis of the phase A winding is taken as the reference direction. M.

When an interna1 fault occurs in one of the stator windings, then that divides the

Figure F 4 Schematic diagram of the six coupled coils of the machine. .:

Appendix F

158

faulted phase winding into a number of parts. Under such conditions, generally, the
geometrical symmetry which existed between the normal phase windings would no longer be present. Hence, to simplifjr the derivation of the elements of the inductance matrix under winding fault situations, the actual mechanicd angle of displacement
of the rotor as opposed to the "electrical angle " wll be used. However, it should be

noted that for most types of interna1 faults, it is still possible to use the "electricd
angle". The elements of the inductance matrix [Lsyni] as a h c t i o n of the actual

mechanical angle measured fkom the reference direction is given in Appendix E. The
magnetic axis when coiis 1 and 2 i Figures F.1 and F.5 are connected in series is n

taken as the reference direction. 0 is the angle between the reference direction and
the pole 1of the rotor shown in Figure F.2.

Slot angle

Figure F 5 Placement of conductors inside the stator slots .:

F .3 Description of the machine windings and the inductances

in the presence of a turn t o ground fault

...and 8 of the machine are shown in Figure F.5. The two parallel paths of the phase A winding, 4,iand 42 shown in Figure F.6. are
The positions of the coils 1,2, Consider a short circuit fault to ground on coil6 which is on the parallel path

4~ in

phase A. This breaks the coil 6 into two parts, A3 and A4 as shown in Figure F.7The phase A winding can now be viewed as made up of five parts, A l , A2, A3, A4
and A5.

A l consists of the coils 1 - 4 connected in series and is the same as

41.is the A2

coil 5. A3 is the portion of coil6 that is connected t o coil 5. A4 is the other portion of the coil 6 and it is connected to coil 7. A5 is the combination of the coils 7 and 8, connected in series. This arrangement is shown in Figure F.7. The axes of coils A2,

A3 and A4 are located under one pole and the axis of A5 is located under a pole 10 8'
apart.

The matrix equation governing the voltage-current relationship of the machine in

Figure F.6: The coils of the phase A winding.

Figure F.7: Representation of the phase A winding with a fault on one paraiiel path.

Appendix F

160

the presence of an internal tum to ground fault can be expressed as follows. The
directions of the currents and voltages are shown in Figure F.8.

7 Fault

m 'fld

Field

Figure F.8: Representation of the machine coils under an internal short circuit.

where

and

Lsyn* is a symmetric matrix and

Li Li

= self inductance of coi1 i

= mutual inductance between the coils i and j

Since [Lsyn2]is a symmetric matrix, w need to evaluate the 10 diagonal elements e

and 45 off-diagonal elements, in order to determine [Lsynz].SeIf inductances of the

normal windings and the mutual inductances between any two normal windings are

not affected by the fault. As a result, of the 55 elements mentioned above, 15 are
directly known fkom the inductance matrix [LsynJ. Thus, to fully define the matrix

[Ls ynz], only 40 elements need be deterrnined. A method t o e d u a t e these self and
the mutual inductances involving the faulted winding is discussed in the following
sections.

Appendix F

162

F.4

Inductances between the winding Al and the normal windings.

Winding A l makes up one parallel path of the phase A winding. The self inductance
of the phase A winding is given by the foIIowing equation.

Here, 8 is the displacement of the rotor pole 1 fiom the reference axis which is the
axis of the cols 1 and 2 when they are connected in series.

Lacan be further written

as

where

LI Lu-,g

= the leakage inductance of the phase A winding = the magnetising inductance of the phase A winding

The magnetic flux which is associated with the magnetizing inductance Lamg crosses
the air gap between the stator and the rotor and links a l windings on the rotor as l
well as the other windings on the stator. LI is constant where-as

depends on the position of the rotor.

The two parallel paths of phase A are placed inside the same slots as shown in
Figure F.5. The magnetizing flux due to each winding shares a common path. Thus
the magnetizing inductance of any one parailel path is equal to the magnetizing
inductance of the phase A winding. This is shown in Appendix D. Thus the self

Appendix F

inductance of the parallel path A l , Lal can be written as foliows.

Lall is the leakage component of Lal and can be found using the forms shown in
Appendix G . The results in Appendix D show that the mutual inductance between

A l and any other normal winding is equal to the mutual inductance between the phase A winding and the normal winding concerned. Thus,

F.5

Inductances of the coils of phase A.

Figure F.9: Winding X and winding Y

Consider the parailel path 42 phase A which is shown in Figure F.6. This consists of

of the coils 5, 6, 7 and 8 If we break this into two parts .

X and Y,as i Figure F.9, n

where the winding X is made up of coils 5 and 6 and the winding Y is made up of

8' coils 7 and 8, then X and Y can be viewed as h o identical windings placed 10 apart on the stator. This can be seen in Figure F.5. Let Lx and Ly be the self inductances
of these two windings and let LxgYbe the mutuai inductance between them. Due to

the symmetry mentioned above

Since the magnetizing part of the self inductance of the parallel path
as

A2is equal to

the magnetizing part of the self inductance of the phase A winding it can be written

Lap2i consists of the leakage inductances Lix and

Lw of the windings X and Y.

The leakage f u of one of these windings does not couple with the other winding. lx Assiiming each parallel path has the same leakage inductance, w can mite e

(F. 15)
Since the two windings are identical

Inductance Lap2is maximum when the salient pole is in line with the reference axis where 8 = O. Then

Appendix F

When the rotor is stationary at this position, if a voltage ul is applied to the winding
ApZwith a l the other windings open circuited and if the current 00-g l
is il then

Since coils X and Y make up Ap2

LXO, LYO, LX,YO and

LY.x0 are the d u e s of Lx, LY,

and LuIx when 0 = 0.

Equation F.19 can be simplified and written as

where

and

The sign of LX,Yshould be chosen correctly by considering the directions of the

respective windings. If this is not done properly, the inductance mat* From Equations F.18 and F.20 of the faulted
system wili end up being singular or will lead to an unstable system of equations.

Appendix F

I;, takes the form

Lait LP = -j- + Lpmg

where LpWg is the magnetizing part of

(F. 24)

4. Then

Consider the case where coil

is energized with coii Y and a l the other coils are i

kept open circuited. Since hF,Pa+ the flux pattern due to a current i in winding ,

Y when 8 = O can be approximated as shown in Figure F.10.

The reluctance of the magnetic materiai is very smail compared to the that of the air
gap. Let the reluctance of the a r gap between the stator and the pole face be Sa. i

For the path O-a-b-O Figure F.10, in

For the path O-a-b-c-O,

For the path O-a-d-O,

The flux Linking the coi1 X i s

41 + q52

+ 43 + t4 the flux linking the coii Y is 42 and

$3.

Thus Lpmg and Mp can be written as follows.

Equations F.27,F.28 and F.29 can be simplified to show that

and

Fkom Equations F-26and F.35

Equations F.38 and F.39 give the magnetizing portion of Lx, and, &,y
too taken into account, Lx and LxVuc a n be expressed as follows.

when the

rotor angle 0 = O. For any other position of the rotor,with the leakage inductance

The winding A5, which consists of the coils 7 and 8, is identical to winding Y. Thus
the self inductance of this winding can be written as

For coils X and Y,

For any other coil, 2,in the same slots as coi1 X and, with Nzturns,

Thus for A2 and A5

The axis of the winding A2 is shifted by an angle 6 fkom that of the winding X. The angle b is the slot angle of the stator of the machine. If n is the number of slots in
the stator then,

Considering this shifk caused by the distributed nature of the windings, the mutual inductance between the windings A5 and A2 for any other rotor position 0, can be expressed as follows.

(F. 47)
Then mutud inductances L(a3zas) L(04,05) and can be derived in a similar manner.

F.6

Mutual inductances between A l and the other coils in

Phase A
To estirnate the mutual inductances between A l and the windiogs A2, A3, A4 and

A5, consider the flux pattern shown in Figure F 1 . This occurs when 6 set to zero .1
and the winding A l is energized with all other coils kept opened. If the applied

voltage to this coi1 is

712

and if the current flowing is i2, then

For the path O-a-b-O,

But

Figure F l : Flux pattern when coil Al is energized .l

Therefore

N A S= 4Sa& ~Z

The total f u passing through the coil A5 i 2&,. Therefore lx s

From Equations F.27,F.33 and F.34

From Equation F.30

Therefore

By substituting this in Equation F.54

For any rotor position 8,

Using a sirnilar approach and considering the respective shift in their magnetizing

due to the slot angle 6, the mutual inductances, expressed as follows.

axis

La3,ai and La4,ai can be

Appendix F

F.7

Self inductances of coils

A2, A3 and A4

The axis of the coil A2 is shifted by an angle

inductance of A2 can be written as

from that of winding x. Thus the self

L = ,

NA^ (%),

(T+:

LaIl

(L1+L2cos4 (t)) e;)

F.8

Mutual inductances between A2, A3 and A4

A2 is coil 5. A3 and A4 when connected in series is coil 6

The inductance of coils 5 and 6, L5+6, when connected i series would be identical to n that of coil A5.
Therefore

when N5and 2V6 are the number of turns of coils 5 and 6

Thus, considering the winding arrangement, the self inductance of coil 6 can be
written as fouows.

(F. 73)
Let NA2 = a and NA5 b. =

If the mutual inductance between coils 5 and 6 is LSY6 then

and L(6)mg are the magnetizing component of the self inductance of the respective coils. Substituting the expressions in Equations F.42, F.67 and F.73 we can find L5,6

L(5 + 6),,

L(5),

(Cl +L2cos4B) -

( ' (i)[XiL* (cos 4 (e - ) + cos 4 (0 + f))]] ) ; + ;

(F.75) (F.76)

But in the case considered here

Therefore

Since A3 and A4 forms the coi1 6

and

Appendix F

The coils A3 and A4 occupy the same dots on the stator. As a result the magnetic coupling between those two is very strong. The mutual inductance between the two
windings takes the following form.

The factor g takes into account the leakage flux between the coils A3 and A4 and is
very close to unity. To calculate g, slot dimensions, arrangement of the conductors inside the slot, and the geometry of the end windings are required and the methods outlined in Appendix G c m be used.

In the absence of such information, Ldna4may be approximated using the following

Appendix F

method.

Figure F.12: Flux pattern when coil A3 is energized

Let the f u coupling the coil A3 when a current i3 is passed through it be lx inductance of this coil can be written as,

9A3.

This is shown in Figure F.12. Assume a l other coils to be open circuited. The self i

Fkom Equation F.68

AppendUc F
where

and

The f u ( 4 ~ 3passes through the winding A4 where-as only a portion of (&A3)1, lx )~ taken into account by another constant gl, (and greater than g) passes through this
winding.

The total flux passing through A4, due to a current i3 flowing in A3,
by

(bA3,ar,

is given

where gl < 1 .

Typically, the leakage inductance of a phase winding is much less than the magnetiing
inductance. Therefore

As a result,

Appendix F

L&,a4 N

NA^ (
i3

4 ~ )2 3

Under the above approximations, L03,a4 i l l take the foilowing fom. w

La3,a4

=4

(Nd2

'

(LI

+ L*cos 4

(B + ;))

(F. 100)

F.9

Mutual inductance between the phase B winding and a

coi1 in phase A

The mutua1 inductance between phase A and phase B is given by

The magnitude of L a , is maximum when = -6. If this is expressed by (La,b)-,

The approximate flux pattern when the phase B winding is energized with B = -5
is shown in Figure F.13. The positions of the conductors of phases A and B are also shown in the diagram.

If vq is the induced voltage across any one parallel path of the phase A winding when
phase B is energized with aU other windings open,

where i4 is the current in the phase B winding. The total flux passing through the coils 5 and 6 is the same as that passing through the CO& 7 and 8. Thus the voltage
across windings 5 and 6 and the voltage across 7 and 8 are identical. Coils 7 and 8

Appendix F make up winding A5. The voltage across this must be equal to

180

7. If (Lb,a5)-

is

the mutual inductance between A5 and Phase B, when the rotor is at this position,

t herefore

This relationship is d i d for any position of the rotor angle and LAS,L be written can
as follows

~ & , b = - =

2[ l

-M,COS~

(e t -3 1

When coils 5 and 6 are connected in series, the mutua1 inductance of this combination

Figure F.13: Flux pattern when Phase B is energized with the rotor displaced by an angle of 15O

Appendix F

w t the phase B winding, L(5t6),), the same as LoSgb ih is

If the induced voltage across these two due to current il is V S + ~ , then

If V5 and V6are the voltages induced in coils 5 and 6 respectively,

t herefore

hence

Where L5,b and LBCare the mutual inductances of the two coils 5 and 6 with the
phase B winding.

Considering the shift of their axes from that when the two coils 5 and 6 are in series,

L5,$ LsYb m be expressed in the fouowing form. and c

are positive constants. Let be the angle between the axis Mis, LmS,Ma6and of coil5 and the axis of the Phase B winding and let & be the angle between the axis of coil 6 and the axis of the Phase B winding respectivety. Then,

Coils 5 and 6 are identical except that they are displaced by an angle 6 If 6 << 60 . then we could make the foliowing approximation.

Thus, fiom Equation F.111,

Appendix F

Using Equations F-116and F.117

M a L - + - =2
2 2

2Mas + 2Lm5cos 6

Equations F.120 and F.121 give the values for the two constants Mas and LmS. NOW

L5$and L6,b are given by the fouowing equations.

These two expressions for LS,Land L6$are consistent with the conditions of equation
F.111
The mutual inductance of the coils A2, A3 and A4 with the Phase B windng can be derived using the above results.

Appendix F

184

F.10

Mutual inductance between the phase C winding and

a coi1 in phase A

The mutual induction between Phase A and Phase C is given by

(F.121)
Using an approach similar to that in section F.9, the mutual inductances of the phase

C with the coils A2, A3, A4 and A5 can be expressed as follows.

F.ll

Mutual inductance of the field winding with the coils

of phase A

The mutual inductance between the phase A winding and the field winding is given
by

It takes a maximum value of MF. If the field winding is excited with a current i5, and

if all other windings are kept open, the f u pattern when B = O is shown in Figure lx
F. 14

Figure F.14: Flux pattern when the field winding is energized with ali other coils kept open circuited

When 8 = O

(La,f)r=o MF = Nph=
Coi1 A5 has

2f 4
i5

(F. 135)

turns and its mutual inductance with the field winding is thus,

For any angle 8,

L(5+6)1f the mutual inductance of the series combination of coils 5 and 6 wth the is field winding. The foilowing equations, which are similar to those in Section F.9 can be written for inductances involving coils 5 and 6.

(F. 140)
Mg and Mg are constants. Since coils 5 and 6 are identical except for the displacement
in position by an angle 6,

(F. 141)
Therefore

(F. 142)

Appendix

MF M5 = Ms = ---4cos 6
Therefore

(F. 144)

(F.145)

(F.l46)

(F. 147)

F.12 Mutual inductance of the the d-axis damper winding with the coils of phase A
Mutual inductance between the d-axis damper winding and the Phase A winding is
given by

LkdVa MD COS 28 =

(F. 148)

Mutual inductance between the d-axis damper winding and the faulted coils of phase

A can be derived in a manner similar to that in Section F . l l and are given by the
following equations.

4 cos 6

La3cd =

(y; 4;usb cos 2 i;) M~

(8 + 4)

F1 .3

Mutual inductance of the the q-axis damper winding

with the coils of phase A

The mutual inductance between the q-mis damper winding and the phase A winding
is given by

Lrrp = MQ sin 29

(F.153)

It can be shown, as in section F.12, that the mutual inductance between the q-axis damper winding and the coi1 A5 , MA5,is given by

MQ = -sin 28 2
F.11,the following equations can be derived.

(F.154)

Considering the coils 5 and 6 and their series combination as was done in Section

and

(F.159)
Hence

(F. 160)
When 0 = 2,

-- - MSQ[sin MQ
2

(i 6) + (g + 6)]
-

sn i

- - - MSp[ 2

R 7r 7r 7r S ~ ~ ~ ~ O ~ ~ - C ~ - ~ ~ ~ ~ + S Y L - C O I ~ + C O S - S162) ~ ] U ~

(F.

MQ -= 2

7r M ~ Q sin 5cos 6 ) (2

(F. 163)

Mi? -= 2M&
2

COS

(F.164)

M5Q MsQ = = MQ
4 cos 6

(F.165)

Appendix F Therefore

(F. 166)

(F.167)

(F.168)

F. 14

The calculated inductances

Inductances involving the faulted windings.

(N;;)

NA4

MD cos 2

(B + ) ;

3 La11 3 Lo5 = -+ - L + -L~COS(~O) ~ 4 4 2

L ~ ~ , -= 1 [-M. cos 4 = La,b , 2 2

(B +

s)]

L, , ,

MQ = -sin 28 2

Niis the number of turns in the coi1 i Angle 6 is the dot angle. AU other constants .
are known fkom the inductance matrix of the un-faulted machine, [Lsynl].

Appendix G

Leakage inductance of the machine

windings
The different components of the total leakage flux were pointed out in Section 3.6. It
was said that any f u h e that would not aid the energy conversion process is treated lx

as leakage f u . The correspondhg inductance is seen as an impedance causing an lx

interna1 voltage chop in the winding.

G .1

Slot leakage calculations

Figure G.l shows the slot leakage f u of coil 6 of the winding shown in Figures 3.1 lx

and F.5. In the discussion in Chapter 3, the fadt is assumed to be located on this

winding. Let the total number of tums of coil 6 be Ng and let coil A3, described in Chapter 3 consist of the ATtlt turns closest to the bottom of the slot.
Let m be the axial length of the stator. Let

where

The incremental flux in an element of thickness dy is given by d& when the height
y is less than Z. The reluctance of the iron path is assumed to be small compared to

that of the air path. A current i is flowing in the faulted part of the coil.

Appendix G
by the following equation.

The inductance due to the flm lines above the faulted t u n i s would correspond to an
inductance

A similar analysis would yield the following equation for La2.

The total leakage inductance, both sides of the coil, is

due to slot leakage flux for this case, considering

Figure G.2: Slot leakage flux in a double layer wound machine The machine described in Section 5.2.2 of Chapter 5 had a double layer winding.

Figure G 2 shows the dot leakage f u when a fault occurs at a point on the top layer. . lx

The two windings are connected in series. The total slot leakage inductance,
for this case is calculated using a similar approaeh.

where,

Cd3= - -2 w 6

~6

PO^ 7

(hl - h2)

End leakage calculations

Figure G.3: End leakage flux

The following empirieal equation is used to calculate the end leakage inductance due to
winding ends protmding from the slots as illustrated in Figure G.3[35]. The diameter

of the air gap is D and the number of poles in the machine is p. The machines described in Chapters 3 and 5 are both fully pitched and hence the winding pitch is
equal to the pole pitch.

Appendix G

Y=

number of dots P

6.3

Air gap leakage calculations

Flux lines that cross the air gap but do not couple the rotor windings are treated as a part of the leakage field. If the faulted part of the co is confined to a single slot on each side, the flux pattern would look like that shown in Figure G.4. It can be seen fiom the diagram that this f u is not constant but depends on the rotor position even lx for cylindrical rotor machines. Using the forms given in [58], the leakage inductance due to fiux crossing the air gap can be approlcimated as follows. The average air gap
length is g and w is the dot width.

Figure G.4: Air gap lealcage flux

Appendix H

Modeling saturation in the

transformer core in fault studies
H.1

Turn t o turn fault in a single phase transformer

Appendix H

Niis the number of tums in coil i and vi is the voltage across the coil i.

s is the dope of the M - H curve of the core materiai [Il].

vi = (R.1
i=l

d + Raz+ R.3 + R) ii + (&1 + L a 1 + Li3 + L)-iL + RIZif La2z+ + d

dt (H.7)

The above equations will Iead to the following equations.

Appendix H

(H.10)

The fault curent can be calculated by solving the above equations using a suitable
numericd method such as the Tkapezoidal d e .

Appendix 1

The simulation mode1 of current

transformers in a delta

configuration
The arrangement of the three current transformers, connected in delta and feeding
a burden that is connected in star is shown in Figure 1.1. The schematic of this

arrangement is shown in Figure 1.2.

Figure 1.1: Three delta connected current transformers feeding a star connected b u den.
Assume that the CTs are identical and the three lines connecting the CTs to the
relays have the same impedance. The three relays are assumeci to have the same impedance as well. Thus,

Figure 1.2: SimpiSed schematic diagram of the three delta connected CTs.

Rs is the resistance of the secondary winding of any current transformer and La is

the leakage inductance of the secondary winding. Consider the circuit shown in Figure 1.2. Applying Kirchhoff's voltage law we can obtain the following equations.

Similarly ua2and vas can be written as,

But

Appendix 1

where

is the induced voltage across the secondary winding if CT (1) and linking the secondary winding of this CT.

$1

i the f u s lx

= NalAlpo(l+ sl)%

where sl =

2.

sl gives the dope of the M - H curve of the magnetic material [Il]. & and Ii are

the cross section and the length of the core of CT i respectively.

Using Equation 1.5 and Equation 1.4 we cari express val as foiiows.

Similar equations can be written for

v.2

and vas.

i Applying the Kirchhoff's current law to the circuit shown in Figure 1.2 , i ~ i ,

~ and 2

iL3 can be written as foilows.

Substituting Equation 1.9 into Equation 1.1 and applying the trapezoidal d e , we can

obtain the folIowing clifference equations.

V "

AV + -= (if? 2

- i $ f ) + 2(2Aial - Air2 - Ai,,). ~

Applying the trapezoidal d e to Equation (I.6), we get

old val

AV + -- & d l + 2

Aipl 1

) K 2 1 0

+ si)=
~

Ais1

Azal + R, -+ L=A G 1 2 .

Fkom Equations 1.12 and 1.13 we can obtain the foilowing equation.

Similarly we can show that

and

The Equations 1-14, 1.15 and 1.16 can be expressed in the matrix form,

where

[Ai,] =

(2 S ( 1 +SI) +

3)

Equation 1.17 can be solved to md the secondary currents in the current transformers.

Appendix J Inductance of a part of a phase winding on a spiral wound machine

Part of the spiral winding in Figure 5.2 in Chapter 5 is shown in Figure J.1.

Figure J.1: Part of a spiral winding of a synchronous machine Let the inductance of this part of the winding be LaPand let the magnetising part

Appendix J

213

of L be ,

Lm,. The value of L m , can be derived using the methods described in Appendix F. The f u h h g e of the two coils, coil 1and coil 2, can be approximated lx by the following equation. & and i2 are the currents flowing in the two coils. Lm,and

L,1 are the magnetizing parts of the inductances of coils 1and 2.

The total f u linking coil 2 when it is energized will aiso link coil 1 If they have the lx .
same number of t m s , then,

Lm*= M. Since the induced voltage across any coil is

the rate of change of flux linhge seen by that coil, the voltage across the two coils,
v, when they are in series is given by,

Rom the above equations,

Let n = number of slots in the machine, p = number of poles, pp = pole pitch of the
machine, D = stator diameter.

If SIis the reluctance seen by the flux due to curent in coil 1and S2 is the reluctance

lx seen by the f u due to current in cos 2, then

Appendix J

The areas Al and A2 are given by,

The results in Appendix O can be used to show that,

From equations J.l and 5.3,

The two independent magnetic circuits shown in Figure 5.2 represent the coi1 arrangement in Figure J.1

Air gap

Air gap

j r e a (A

-A) , -

Figure J.2: A simple magnetic circuit to represent the two spiral wound coils

Appendix K

Details of the machine

Machine ratings

Rated MVA = 160

Rated Voltage = 15.0 kV

Rated current = 6.15 kA Fully pitched Spiral (concentric) wound stator Nurnber of poles = 6
Stator slots = 36 Parallel paths per phase = 2
Winding Parameters

Li = 0.5595 mH LI = 3.78 mH

Ls = 0.076 m H
Md = 1.889 mH

LF = 2.189 H
LD = 5.989 mH

LQ = 1.423 mH & = 0.1079 mH

MF = 89.006 mH

MD = 4.7209 mH Mq = 2.2690 mH

Appendix L
Equations t o show the decay of the

dc offset, ratio error and the phase

shift in air-gapped CTs
Consider the air gapped current transformer shown in Figure L 1 The self inductance, ..

Lgq2, of the secondary wiii have a leakage component, L a ,and a magnetising

component Lrngop. The mutual inductance between the taro coIls is given by Mm.
Using the results shown in Appendix O,

Lm,

and M,,

c a n be expressed i the n

foilowing form.

The CT shown in Figure L.2 is carrying a current il in the primary coii and the

secondary is connected to a relay with a resistive burden. The following equations can be written for this configuration.

Figure L.1: Schematic diagram of an air gapped CS

Figure L 2 Air gapped CT feeding a relay burden .:

=i2R

R is the total resistance of the secondary circuit. Thus

Appendix L

The primary current with an initial exponential component will take the following
form.

The steady ac component is given by i. and the dc component in the primary side l,
is given by il& where

Al, Az and T are constants.

d Al -zl - = -- e -t T

dt

- A2w s n wt i

From Equations L.3 and L.4,

)i2=(
Ligap

) (%? + A2u
+ &ap
7

sin

d -iz dt

+ kli2 = k2 (k&

+ k4 sin w t )

(L-5)

kl,k2, ka, and k4 are constants. The secondary current ia is given by the solution of

Appendix

Equation L.5.

22

cos ( w t

+ 4)

sin q = 5

The initial exponential component, f2&, and the steady state component, i 2 . ,
secondary current can be expressed in the following form.

of the

The angle 6 gives the phase shift between the primary current and the secondary
current.

The primary current was expressed as,

with

il,, = A2 COS w t

The constants kl, k2,k3 and k4 are as follows.

The equation i2,. for the steady state current shows the ratio error and the phase

angle error. The equation iad, for the initial exponential component shows that this
gets attenuated when it is transformed fkom the primary to the secondary. A larger
air gap in the core would result in a greater attenuation. In addition, a larger air
gap would aiso result in a larger ratio error and a larger phase angle error. This is

because, the presence of a larger air gap requires a heavier magnetising current to produce the required flux in the core. Thus, deciding on the length of the air gap
leads to a compromise between these errors and the attenuation in the exponential

component.

Appendix M

Simulation model of the air gapped

M.1 Derivation of the simulation model of an air gapped CT

Sec

bur

Rbur

Figure M.1: Air gapped CT feeding a relay burden

The arrangement of an air gapped current transformer comected to a burden is shown

in Figure M.1. Figure M 2 shows the schematic of the air gapped current transformer. .

Figure M.2: Schematic diagram of an air gapped CT.

Applying Ampere's law to the

CT i Figure M.2, n

Bai,

= PoH,,

Biron

= lira &on

and

where qb is the magnetic f u in the iron core and the air gap. lx

From Equations M 2 and M.8 .

(M-9)

(M.10)

The parameter s ,,

gives the dope of the M-H curve of the magnetic material ( i r m ) .

F'rom equations M.7 and M.8

Fkom equation M.4

(M. 14)
(M.15)

F'rom equations M 1 and M.3 .5

R o m equations M 1 and M.19 .2

Equations M.1 and M.20 can be solved numericaliy to find the current i8,. Applying
the trapezoidal ruie to these we get the Equations M.22 andM.23 where the constant

K is defined by the Equation M 2 . .1

Appendix M

dd

b e c i Aiaec + -= KNH-AAt, - KNaec2 At

From Equations M.22 and M.23

where

and

The new value of the secondary current,.i

is

(M.27)

Appenciix M

229

M.2

Derivation of the B-A data for the magnetic material

The M-H characteristic of the magnetic material of the air gapped CT is needed to solve the equations in Section M.1. If the flux-mmf relationship of the CT shown in Figure M.3 is available fiom measurements, the B-H characteristic of the magnetic material can be derived using the following equations. The fringing of the flux near the air gap causes AaiTto be clinerent from hm. effect is considered by using This the derivations given in [32].

Figure M.3: flux-mmf curve of an air gapped CT

Mr n io

4
A r o n PO

1
Lon

PO Aair

(M.38)

Equations M 3 and M.38 give the M - H relationship of the magnetic material. .5

M.3

Equations for the three air gapped CT connection

The schemetic of three CTs connected in a star configuration is shown in Figure M.4. The following equations can be written and the system can be solved for the
secondary currents.

Figure M.4: Three CTs connected to a relay

Applying the Trapezoidal rule to the above equations with Xdd denotjng the value

of any quantity X at time t - At,

Appendix M

Where

s1 =

dMiT, d&'m

Using the results for the single CT case in Section M.1,

The above equations lead to the matrix equation shown below.

of the incremental secondary currents.

is the vector

Appendix N
Cornparison of simulation results
for the machine mode1
The machine used for the tests is rated at 4 kVA, 220 Volts, and 21 A. The rated field current is 2.9 A and the field voltage is 125 Volts. The machine has 6 saiient
poles. The phase windings are tapped at 50% and the tappings were available to be connected in a desired manner. The windings are as depicted in Figure N.1. A tum
to ground fault on this machine is as shown in Figure N.2.

: Phase windings with a tap at the centre

1

----------------------------

1..- - - - - - - - _ I

A2

C2

Figure N.l: The 6 pole machine with tappings.

The following figures show the cornparison between the recorded and the calculated
235

Appendur N
results for a number of different cases.

Faut

11

'fld

Figure N.2: A turn to ground fault.

3 25-

field ~ u m n t

Figure N.3: A turn to ground fault Mth a 2.5 Ohm grounding resistance

The third graph in Figure N.4 resulted when the field was suddenly switched on while the fault was present.

-2

was nvircfmi on at I scc with the

-54

Figure N.4: A tum to ground fault with a 15 Ohm grounding resistance

Figure N.5: A tuni to ground fault with a 3 Ohm grounding mistance and +th the field curent set to 110 % of its rated value

The waveforms in Figure N 7 resulted when the field was suddenly switched on while .
the fault was present.

0.5 l l

Fidd cumnr

Figure N.6: A fault between phases A and B

Figure N 7 A fault between phases A and .:

Appendix N

239

The waveforms in Figures N.8 and N.9 resulted when the field current was set to 110

% of its rated value. The third and fourth graphs in Figure N.9 resdted when the field was suddenly switched on while the fault was present.

Figure N.8: A fault between phases A and B

The synchronous machine was driven close to its rated speed of 1200 rpm using an
induction motor. This was a drawback of the test system because the speed of the

induction motor would not remain constant once the f u t is switched on. al

Figure N.9: A fault between phases A and B

Appendix O

Useful formulae and derivations

Figure 0.1: Cos wound on a magnetic core

The induced voltage

the coi1

The flux, 9, in the core is

Appendix O

The reluctance of the magnetic path is S. When 1 is the length of the core and A i s its area of cross section,

Also

Flux linkage of the coi1 Ap is,

L, is the self inductance of coii P

Appendix O
Induced voltage i coi1 Q is n

Mutual inductance M, between the coils is,

When both coils are excited,

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