Lafarge The Production of Extended Cements & The Impact On Concrete Durability

Production of extended cements
& the impact on concrete

durability
Courtesy of Patrick Rimoux (architecte)
AGENDA
1. Introduction
2. About Lafarge
3. The Lafarge Specifier Handbook
4. Cement manufacturing & extenders
5. Soil Stabilization
6. Physical deformations on concrete
7. Chemical deformations on concrete
8. Masonry, Mortars & Plasters
9. Ready-mixed Concrete Products

2
ABOUT LAFARGE
3
LAFARGE INTERNATIONAL
 Lafarge is the world leader in building materials
 Number 1 in Cement
 Number 2 Aggregates and Concrete
 Number 3 in Gypsum
 15,2 billion Euros in Sales turnover
 68 000 employees
 Present in 64 countries
 Almost 130 million Euros dedicated to research,

product development and industrial process performance
improvement annually. With about 500 dedicated people world wide.
4
4
LAFARGE IN SOUTH AFRICA
 Safety is our number 1 priority
 Lafarge South Africa has 2500 employees
 All four divisions present in South Africa

 Cement
 Aggregates
 Concrete
 Gypsum
 First in the industry to sign a BBBEE deal in South Africa valued at

1.1 billion Rand
 Internationally recognized HIV/Aids campaign in place
 First cement producer to become a member of the Green Building

Council
5
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LAFARGE CEMENT FACILITIES
(SOUTH AFRICA)
 Manufacturing facility in Lichtenburg
 Biggest in the Southern Africa
 Capacity of 3,3 million tons cement
 Grinding facility in Richards Bay and Randfontein
 Strategic depots in
 Kaalfontein
 Polokwane
 Quality Department of Southern Africa

 One of the largest and most respected SANAS
accredited Civil Engineering testing facilities in
South Africa
 Complies with ISO/IEC 17025
 17 year track record of continuous accreditation
 Boasting 35 accredited test methods
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THE LAFARGE SPECIFIER HANDBOOK
7
ABOUT THE MANUAL
 The Lafarge Specifier Handbook has been designed to provide our
specifiers & engineers with application specific quick reference cement &
readymix guide
 In Volume 1 we cover the needs and solutions for each application,
including:
1. Roads & Earthworks

2. Civil Construction
3. Concrete Product Manufacturing
4. Masonry Applications
5. Specialised Applications
6. Readymix Concrete
 We have also included the SANS 50197-1: Common Cement Table & a
number of case studies for your reference
“ While maintaining our proud track record of technical excellence, our skills are directly
Dr Reinhold Amtsbüchler,
and indirectly employed to satisfy today’s cement market needs and to anticipate the
Pr Engineer and Manager
future needs of our customers.
Quality Department Southern Africa
Lafarge South Africa
This handbook is intended to provide a convenient guide for engineers and specifiers
8 when selecting quality, reliable performance cements for specific applications.”
CEMENT MANUFACTURING
Quintin Wolmarans
9
WHAT IS CEMENT?
Portland cement is an extremely fine grey powder manufactured

from some of the earth's most common minerals. It's the glue that
binds sand and gravel together into the rock-like mass we know as
concrete.
10
CEMENT MANUFACTURING
Quarrying Raw Milling & Packing &

Pre –blending
Burning Cement Milling Despatch
And
Storage Homogenisation
Crushing
11
CEMENT CONSTITUENTS
 The following materials are milled & blended before entering the kiln:
 Limestone -CaCO3
 Alumina source -Al2O3 (PozzSand, Bauxite, etc)
 Iron ore –Fe2O3 (Magnetite)
 Silica source –SiO2 (PozzSand)
 These materials are heated to temperatures of1450°C to produce a

partially molten combination called clinker.
 Clinker is then inter-ground with Gypsum to create cement powder.
 Other Constituents may be added at the mill (Limestone, Fly Ash, Slag,
etc)
12
Additives
Pozzsand
LIMESTONE QUARRY
Bauxite
Magnetite
Kiln feed Silo
To Raw mix
preperation
Quarry Crusher Limestone Raw Mill
Mining of limestone requires the use of drilling and blasting techniques.

The blasting techniques use the latest technology to insure vibration, dust,
and noise emissions are kept at a minimum. Blasting produces materials in a
wide range of sizes from approximately 1.5 meters in diameter to small
particles less than a few millimeters in diameter.
Material is loaded at the blasting face into trucks for transportation to the
crushing plant. Through a series of crushers and screens, the limestone is
reduced to a size less than 100 mm and stored until required.
 Limestone is mined from different faces in the quarry to produce a blend

of limestone that complies to chemical requirements set by the plant to
produce quality clinker
 The limestone is then transported to site where it is blended and stored

on a stockpile until needed for raw milling
13
Additives
Pozzsand
RAW MILLING
Bauxite
Limestone is proportioned with other Magnetite
corrective materials and then grinded in the
raw mill to a fine powder called kiln feed. Kiln feed Silo
Limestone on its own do not contain all the

elements needed to form good quality clinker.
Limestone
Quarry provide for CaCO3 the main
Crusher Limestone
component for clinker formation. Raw Mill
Pozzsand and Bauxite is added to introduce

SiO2 & Al2O3 and
To pre-heater
Magnetite is added to introduce Fe2O3
When proportioned correctly they will combine in the kiln

to form the following main components in clinker:
 C3S (Alite) 3CaO.SiO2 Tricalcium Silicate

 C2S (Belite) 2CaO.SiO2 Dicalcium Silicate
 C3A 3CaO.Al2O3 Tricalcium Aluminate
 C4AF 4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3 Tetracalcium Alumino Ferrite
14
CLINKER FORMATION
Kiln feed
Fuel
Preparation
Filter
Kiln Preheat Tower Stack

Cooler
Quenching to set clinker reactions:

CLINKER prevent C3S reversion to C2S
g+C
To Cement mill
 about 100°C-600°C:
free water evaporation
 800-1050°C:
CaCO3  CaO + CO2
 > 800°C
- iron oxide combines with alumina & lime to form C4AF
- then, the remaining alumina will react with lime to form C3A
- silica and lime start to form C2S
 > 1200°C
- formation of C3S (C2S reacts with remaining lime)
 > 1338°C:
C4AF and C3A generate the liquid phase
 accelerates solid/solid chemical reactions
(silica/ lime)
15
 contributes to burnability
Cement Milling
Fly ash
Clinker from clinker
storage
Finish Mill Cement Silo’s
Additions Gypsum
Limestone, slag etc
Clinker is grinded in the cement mill to a fine powder to increase the surface area
available for reaction with water. C3S + H2O = HCS +CaOH
This process is called hydration.
The finer the cement is milled the higher the strength of the cement will be.
During the hydration process C3A will also react with water and cause the cement to
set immediately. This is called Flash set.
To prevent this from happening Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) is added to the cement to
form a layer around the C3A crystals to slow down the reaction with water.
To create cement with different properties for different applications than normal
cement, Fly ash or slag or both can be added to the cement.
Each of these additives or extenders will give the cement enhanced properties that will
16 make it suitable for a wide range of applications
HYDRATION OF CEMENT
• A cement particle is:

• heterogeneous
Alites
• multiphase
Alkaline
sulfates
Aluminates and
aluminoferrites
Free lime
Belite
16 µ
All these phases will hydrate

17
CALCIUM SILICATES HYDRATION
• C3S + water = Hydrated calcium silicates + portlandite

CSH {C3S2H3 } CH {Ca(OH)2 }
2C3S + 6H  C3S2H3 + 3CH + heat
• C2S + water = CSH + CH

The same as C3S but much more slowly
2C2S + 4H  C3S2H3 + CH + heat
• CSH
• Not properly crystallised
• Chemical composition depending on hydration conditions
18
CSH & PORTLANDITE FORMATION
CSH
1 µm
CH
19
ALUMINATES & FREE LIME
• C3A + water =
 Hydrated calcium aluminates
C3A + C + nH  C4AH11<n<15 (mainly 13)
Ettringite (when sulfate existing)
C3A+ 3C + 3S + 32H  C3A(CS)3H32
• C4AF + water =
 The same as C3A but much more slowly
 F is reacting like A
• Free lime + water = Ca(OH)2 Portlandite

C + H => CH
!! Dangerous due to expansion if in excess
20
THE 5 COMMON TYPES OF CEMENT
SANS 50197
CEM I Portland Cement
CEM II Portland “Composite” Cement
CEM III Blast furnace Cement
CEM IV Pozzolanic Cement
CEM V Composite Cement
21
CEMENT NAMING
(EXAMPLE)
CEM II / B - M (V-S) 32.5N

Cement family:
CEM I : Portland cement

CEM II : composite Portland cement
CEM III : blast furnace cement
CEM IV : pozzolanic cement
CEM V : slag and ash cement
22
CEMENT NAMING
(EXAMPLE)
CEM II / B - M (V-S) 32.5N

Cement family

CEM IV : pozzolanic cement
Quantity of main constituents

other than
clinker (as a % added)
A: from 6 to 20%
B: from 21 to 35 %
C: from 36 to 65 %
(slag for EM III)
23
CEMENT NAMING
(EXAMPLE)
CEM II / B - M (V-S) 32,5N

Cement family

CEM IV : puzzolanic cement

other than
A: from 6 to 20%
B: from 21 to 35 %
C: from 36 to 65 %
(slag for EM III)
Cement with at least

2 main constituents
other than clinker
24
CEMENT NAMING
(EXAMPLE)
CEM II / B - M (V-S) 32.5N

Cement family Names of the main constituents
S: Aggregated slag from blast furnaces
CEM I: Portland cement V: silicious fly ash
CEM II: composite Portland cement W: calcic fly ash
CEM III: blast furnace cement L or LL: limestone (depending on the percentage
CEM IV: puzzolanic cement of organic carbon)
CEM V: slag and ash cement D: silica fume
P or Q: pozzolanic materials
T: Pre-fired shale
other than
A: from 6 to 20%
B: from 21 to 35 %
C: from 36 to 65 %
(slag for EM III)

2 main constituents
other than clinker
25
CEMENT NAMING
(EXAMPLE)
CEM II / B - M (V-S) 32.5N

S: aggregated slag from blast furnaces
P or Q: puzzolanic materials
T: Pre-fired shale
strength classes (minimum characteristic strength at
other than
28 days, expressed in MPa):
32.5 or 42.5 or 52.5
A: from 6 to 20%
B: from 21 to 35 %
C: from 36 to 65 %
(slag for EM III)

2 main constituents
other than clinker
26
CEMENT NAMING
(EXAMPLE)
CEM II / B - M (V-S) 32,5N

S: aggregated slag from blast furnaces
P or Q: puzzolanic materials
T: Pre-fired shale
strength classes (minimum characteristic strength at
other than
28 days, expressed in MPa):
32.5 or 42.5 or 52.5
A: from 6 to 20%
B: from 21 to 35 %
strength sub-classes (minimum characteristic strength
C: from 36 to 65 %
after 2 days, expressed in MPa).
(slag for EM III)
N: Normal
R: Quick
2 main constituents
other than clinker
27
CEMENT NAMING
(SANS 50196 TABLE)
Strength Class Compressive Strength , MPa
Early Strength Standard Strength
2 days 7 days 28 days
32,5 N - > 16,0 > 32,5 < 52,5
32,5 R > 10,0 -
42,5N > 10,0 - > 42,5 < 62,5
42,5R > 20,0 -
52,5 N > 20,0 - 52,5 -
28
CEMENT EXTENDERS
Fly ash / Pulverized fuel ash (PFA)
Fresh Concrete
 Improves workability and reduces water
requirement for a given slump.
 Slightly retards setting.
Hardened Concrete
 Slightly reduces rate of strength development.
 Increase later strength (eg.90 days).
 Reduce rate of chloride diffusion through concrete.
 Refine pore structure and reduce permeability.
 Inhibits ASR reaction.
 Improves sulphate resistance.
 Reduce rate of heat generation
from cementing reactions.
New specification SANS 50450-1:2011
29
CEMENT EXTENDERS
Ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS)

co Iron
Melting agent
ke ore
Fresh Concrete
 May improve workability slightly.
 Retards setting slightly.
Hardened Concrete = Blast-
1450°C furnace
 Slows development of strength. slag
floating
 Increase later strength, (e.g.. 90 days)
Cast-
 Refines pore structure and reduce permeability. iron
 Increase rate of carbonation.

 Retards alkali-silica reactions.
 Binds chlorides and reduce chloride induced corrosion of embedded steel.
 Reduce rate of heat generation caused by cementing reactions.
30
CEMENT EXTENDERS
Condensed Silica fume (CSF)
Fresh Concrete
 Reduces workability.
 Increases cohesiveness.
 Reduces bleeding significantly.
Hardened Concrete
 Increased strength.
 Reduces permeability.
31
LAFARGE PRODUCT RANGE
CEM IV/B-V 32,5R CEM II/A-M (V-L) 42,5R CEM II/A-V 52,5N CEM II/B-M (V-S) 32,5N
32
3
SOIL STABILISATION
Mike Fisher
33
SOIL STABILISATION
 Soil is important engineering material used in:
 Foundations
 Embankments
 Roads
 Numerous other situations
 When the soil has unsuitable properties, the Engineer has the following alternatives:
 Modify the design, to suit the insitu material
 Replace the insitu material with suitable material
 Upgrade the properties of the insitu material
 The latter is known as stabilisation, and one of the most effective methods of
stabilisation is to mix the soil with cement and re-compact it
34
SOIL STABILISATION
 Soil is a complex and variable material, and the result of treatment depend
on the properties of the particular soil.
 These effects must be understood and the testing and design process has
to achieve the design objectives.
 Soil Properties which concern the engineer include

 Strength and resistance to deformation (stiffness)
 Volume stability
 Durability (performance of strength stiffness)
 Permeability
35
SOIL STABILISATION
 Most soils have considerable strength when compacted at optimum
moisture content, but strength can be lost if moisture content alters
significantly
 Granular soils become friable when dry
 Cohesive soils become plastic at high moisture contents
 Soils containing clay undergo movements as moisture content changes
 Shrink during drying
 Expand when moisture content increase
36
SOIL STABILISATION
 When the pavement is designed to carry traffic, the designer requires a pavement that
acquires no permanent deflections from large numbers of repeated instantaneous
loads.
 The soil properties that allows for deflection recovery is stiffness and strength.
 When a load is applied to a soil surface, the stress causing deflection diminishes at
increasing depth below the surface, due to the effect of the load spreading over a
much larger area.
 Therefore the required strength and stiffness reduces as the depth below increases.
 Strength has two major components:

 Cohesion , in soils containing clay, and is dependant on clay content, density
and moisture condition.
 Internal friction, property of granular soils, relating to particle size, grading,
particle shape, density and degree of compaction
37
SOIL STABILISATION
 Most soils, when mixed with cement and compacted, will be stronger than if
compacted without cement.
 Exceptions are :
 Organic soils
 Soils with high salinity
 Soils with high sulphate content
 Soils with PI of above 18%
 The strength of the stabilised soils depend primarily on the cement content and the
degree of compaction
 Moisture content on time of test is also important, particularly in soils with high clay
content.
38
SOIL STABILISATION
 Effects of Cement stabilisation:
 Initially during the hydration process a series of nuclei is developed, this develops into
a lattice of hydrated cement in the soil, yielding strength.
 Associated with this process is the process of liberating lime witch has strengthening
effects on the minerals in certain clays.
 The extend of these effects will depend on the cement content, and the nature of the
soils involved.
 And the benefits from the barely observable cohesion and loss of plasticity, to the
strength an durability properties.
39
SOIL STABILISATION
 Shrinkage and Cracking of cement stabilised soil:
 At low cement concentrations a soil with a relative high clay content retains the
property of the shrinkage on drying and softening when saturated.
 Hydrated cement paste also shrinks, but to a lesser extend.
 The volume of shrinkage in clay soils is reduced as the cement content increase.
 Shrinkage of granular material may increase, as the cement content increase.
 Tendency of block cracking depends on:

 Extend of shrinkage
 Tensile strength at time of shrinkage
 Shrinkage potential can be reduced by reduction of the density
 Adjustment of initial moisture content.
 Excessively strong mixes can lead to wide spaced crack patterns, of sufficient crack
width to rupture the surface seal.
 This cracking and ruptured seal, allows for moisture ingress and leads to softening of
the sub-grade, leading to vertical cracking, that allows for movement of the material
on either side
40
ROAD CONSTRUCTION
 Road construction will continue to be one of the mainstay sectors of the
civil construction market.
 The market currently comprises of:

 15% - 20% new road building activity
 The balance falls into road rehabilitation
 SANRAL estimates backlogs in maintenance & rehabilitation on provincial

and municipal roads at R64 billion
 31% of total provincial surfaced road network is in a poor and very poor
condition compared to 10% benchmark of the World Bank
 Average of only 25km per year was rehabilitated since the year 2000
41
ROAD CONSTRUCTION
 Road construction will continue to be one of the mainstay sectors of the
civil construction market.
 The market currently comprises of:

 15% - 20% new road building activity
 The balance falls into road rehabilitation
 SANRAL estimates backlogs in maintenance & rehabilitation on provincial

and municipal roads at R64 billion
 31% of total provincial surfaced road network is in a poor and very poor
condition compared to 10% benchmark of the World Bank
 Average of only 25km per year was rehabilitated since the year 2000
42
SOIL STABILISATION
 Stabilization products are designed to reduce the plasticity index (P.I.)
of a wide range of paving materials.
 Enhance the strength of various road construction materials.
 Composite cements modify moderate soils similar to lime
SOIL STABILISATION PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS
 Strength: soil strength and bearing capacity is increased.

 Volume stability: controls the swell and shrinkage characteristic caused
by moisture changes
 Durability: increases resistance to erosion, weathering or traffic loading
43
SOIL STABILIZATION - PRODUCTS
CEM II/ B-M (V-S) 32,5N CEM IV/ B-V 32,5R

 Slower strength gain  Higher early rate of strength with
cementitious binder higher ultimate strengths
 Higher ultimate strength  Open time: 210 minutes
 Open time: 300 minutes (Cement only)
(Cement only)
44
CEMENT USAGE IN ROAD STABILISATION
 Based on an analysis of major road projects, cement usage in road

stabilisation is about 1 – 3% of project value. Examples of consumption
estimates by a large contractor and SANRAL are given below.
Estimated Cement Consumption (Sanral Projects)
12 180000
1.5 – 1.8% of Project Value

160000
10
140000
Total Project Value (R Billion)
Cement Consumption (Tons)

8 120000
100000
80000
4 60000
40000
20000
0 0
2008/09 2009/10 2010/11 2011/12 2012/13
45 Source: Sanral
THE STOLTZ SOLUTION
 Lafarge offers contractors a unique spreading solution for roadbinder

cements & alternative stabilising materials with its state-of-the-art Stoltz
Site Spreader.
 The first of its type in Africa, the spreader achieves impressive and rapid
application rates.
 Radar controlled automated application provides more accurate, even

spreading, resulting in savings in material and time
46
BENEFITS
 Control your own spreading schedule

 Flexible working time
 Consistent spreading, reducing risk of failure
 Increased productivity based on speed of application
 Reduced contingency margins based on efficient spreading rate
 Competitive qualitative advantage for pricing tenders
47
MOVE FROM THIS....
48
...TO THIS
 34t Capacity
 Independent Engine
 Digital Rate Controller

with radar
 Consistent spread
 Dust reclaimer
 Reduce labour cost
 Silo configuration
49
LABORATORY WORK
 Laboratory work based on the Polokwane ring road material.

 Material was used to conduct full stabilization evaluations using
Roadcem
Atterburg Limits Stabiliser Type % LL PL PI – 1 day
Before Stabilisation Neat 0% 26 20 6
After Stabilisation Roadcem 2% 25 25 0

4% 34 29 NP
6% 31 31 NP
50
LABORATORY WORK
LABORATORY COMPACTION DATA

EFFORT UCS (Mpa) Average ITS (KPa) Result
2% 100 3.6 320.0

90 2.1 254.0
4% 100 6.5 896.0
90 4.2 672.0
6% 100 8.3 706.0
90 7.1 635.0
51
LAFARGE ROAD PROJECTS:
CURRENT AND COMPLETED
Client Contractor Project Product Engineers Province
SANRAL Esor Franki N4 Mooinooi Roadcem UWP NWP
TRAC WBHO N4 Middleburg Roadcem Vela VKE MPU

(SMEC)
SANRAL Steffanutti N12 east Roadcem Vela VKE NWP
Stocks Driefontein (SMEC)
SANRAL Roadcrete N2 Piet Retief Roadcem Vela VKE MPU
Africa (SMEC)
SANRAL Roadcrete Amersfoort Roadcem Bigen Africa MPU
Africa
SANRAL KPMM N14 Roadcem Aurecon NWP
Carltonville
SANRAL Superway R37 Lydenberg Roadcem Goba MPU
SANRAL Concor Simon Roadcem SSI PTA

Vermooten
52
5
PHYSICAL DEFORMATION OF CONCRETE
Roelof Jacobs
53
CONCRETE
 Deformation of concrete
 Elasticity
 Creep
 Shrinkage
54
PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE
FOR THE DESIGNER
Designers of structures are concerned with:

Safety, Serviceability and Durability
Safety:
 Time dependant strains, may not change the load barring capacity of a
member, at failure.
 When stability is an issue, creep could play a role in failure load.
 This would lead to reduced safety of the structure.
Serviceability:
 Deflections and cracking plays the biggest part in serviceability.
 This has impact on both short and long term deflections.
Durability:
 This has the biggest impact on Economy of the structure
55
DEFORMATION OF CONCRETE
Influences on deformation:
56
ELASTICITY OF CONCRETE
Factors affecting E-Modules

 Factors affecting E-modules are strength of the cement paste.
 Stiffness of the aggregate.
 Aggregate cement paste interface.
 The stiffer the individual phases the higher the E-moduli will be, and the
lower the long term movement of the concrete.
 Typically the paste E-moduli will vary from 5 to 25 GPa dependant on

 w/c ratio
 Degree of hydration
 Air content
57
Structural implications
 Importance of E-modules depends on the sensitivity of the structure to

deformations.
 Where deflections are critical or secondary cracking is unacceptable E-

Modules predictions becomes important.
 In some cases lower E-Modules may be required, where cracking due to

restraint movement are to be avoided.
 E-Modules in high strength concrete are dependant on the coarse

aggregate rather than on the compressive strength.
58
59
 Powercrete Plus 42,5R and Civilcrete 32,5R, are extended with Fly Ash.
 The Pozzolanic reaction produces additional Calcium Silicate hydrate

gel, to fill pore spaces leading to a denser matrix, and reducing
permeability of the concrete
 Fly ash incorporation leads to increased paste volume, improving the

Aggregate / Cement paste interface.
 Lower water demand for given workability, compared to CEM I cements.
 Early age E-moduli of fly ash concrete could be lower which is beneficial
to minimise crack development.
60
CREEP OF CONCRETE
What is Creep
 Defined as the time dependant increase in strain of a solid body under

constant / controlled stress.
 Could also manifest as a relaxation stress under constant strain.
61
CREEP OF CONCRETE
What is the implications of creep
 Creep impacts on the Ductility of the structure.
 Could be beneficial
 Relieve stress caused by differential structural movements
 Restraint shrinkage
 Mostly detrimental to structures due to

 Increased deflections, resulting in cracking
 Loss of pre-stress
 Buckling of columns
62
CREEP OF CONCRETE
 Creep of concrete is the increased strain under sustained constant

stress.
63
CREEP UNDER CONSTANT STRESS
An applied compressive stress of

approx 40% of compressive
strength, creep would be considered
to be linear proportional to stress
64
CREEP UNDER CONSTANT STRESS
Characteristics of creep
 Creep occurs at all stress levels, but mechanisms are different at higher
stress levels, above 40% of short term strength.
 Concrete is heterogeneous in nature, leading to substantial stress

concentrations in the matrix.
 Micro cracks will form in the matrix between aggregate and cement paste.
These micro-cracks will grow with sustained / increased external loading.
 This leads to the additional component of creep at high stress levels
65
BASIC CREEP VS DRYING CREEP
Creep is simply considered to be

the deformation under load, in
excess of elastic strain and free of
shrinkage strain.
Basic Creep:
Creep that occurs when there is no
moisture movement between
concrete and the environment it is
in.
Drying Creep:
Additional creep that occurs when
concrete is drying while under
stress.
66
Structural effects of creep
 Creep will cause redistribution of stresses in concrete, this could lead to

deflections.
 Columns could undergo redistribution of stresses, stresses on steel is

increased and may even become very large leading to buckling of the
columns.
 This is where sufficient number of ties and adequate cover to steel plays a
role in creep.
 Creep deflections may also lead to instability of arched structures.
 Creep at stress levels above 70% of short term compressive strength, the
micro cracks formed at the aggregate cement interface may spread and
propagate to cause complete breakdown.
 This would lead to time dependant failure.
67
Creep mechanisms
Recoverable creep
 Diffusion of water from areas of hindrance to areas of non hindrance,
reduce the swelling pressure on the pore water, leading to a reduction of
inter partial spacing.
 Diffusion of water from high to low pressure areas cause gradual load
transfer from liquid to solid phases in the matrix.
 The removal of inter layer to inter layer water, under the action of external
load, leading to reduction of layer thickness.
Irrecoverable creep
 Weakening of the interlayer particle bonds, facilitating a relative sliding of

the layers.
 Displacement of the gel layers relative to each other (breaking down the
particle bonds).
 Formation of new bonds

68
THE EFFECTS OF
WATER / BINDER RATIO ON CREEP
Creep, is inversely
proportional to the
strength of concrete at
age of loading
69
FACTORS EFFECTING CREEP
 The source of creep in concrete is the cement paste.
 Aggregate, plays a restraint role in creep.
 Water / Binder ratio.
 Relative humidity.
 Temperature.
 Age
 Stress.
70
CREEP IN CONCRETE
gel, to fill pore spaces leading to a denser matrix.
 Early age creep of fly ash concrete is often higher than CEM I concrete,
reducing temp. and shrinkage induced stress (less cracks)
 The “R” types cements, achieves higher early strength compared to “N”
types and would therefore allow earlier loading.
 Fly Ash also contributes to the cement hydration making the concrete
denser and increasing the late strength ( post 28 day strength
development ) with long term creep similar or better than CEM I
 Lower water demand for given workability, compared to CEM I cements.
71
SHRINKAGE
 Concrete experience volume changes in both fresh and hardened

states.
 This concerns volume changes due to moisture movement in and out of

concrete during its lifespan.
 Conventional concrete generally contain more water than required for
the chemical reaction of cement to take place.
 This lead to the consequence that in normal drying conditions moisture

will be lost from the concrete into the environment leading to Shrinkage.
 Shrinkage and creep are closely related in that they both are moisture
dependant deformations, and the source of the moisture loss generally
is from the cement paste
72
SHRINKAGE
73
SHRINKAGE
 Shrinkage is caused by loss of water by evaporation, hydration of

cement and carbonation.
 The loss of water, lead to reduction in volume of the member i.e.
volumetric strain is equal to three times linear contraction.
 In practice we express shrinkage as linear strain.
74
SHRINKAGE
 Shrinkage in concrete is due to the cement paste.
 Aggregate plays a role in modifying ways.

1. Dilution
2. Restraint
 Shrinkage can be grouped in four different components.

1) Drying Shrinkage
2) Early Age Shrinkage
3) Autogenous shrinkage
4) Carbonation Shrinkage
Note: once shrinkage exceeds strain capacity of concrete cracking will

occur
75
EARLY AGE SHRINKAGE
 Capillary or Plastic Shrinkage is caused in fresh concrete due to surface

moisture loss.
 Plastic shrinkage is often accompanied by surface cracks.
 Plastic shrinkage is the process of moisture loss to the environment by
evaporation.
76
EARLY AGE SHRINKAGE
77
DRYING SHRINKAGE
 Changes in moisture content in

the cement paste, leads to
volumetric changes.
 The decrease in volume due to

moisture loss, is called drying
shrinkage.
 The increase in volume on

rewetting, is called swelling.
 Shrinkage consist of reversible

and irreversible components
78
DRYING SHRINKAGE
79
MECHANISMS OF DRYING SHRINKAGE
 Capillary tension
This occurs in the capillary pores, the
loss of moisture causes tensile
stresses in the capillary water.
 Swelling pressure
Where gel particles closely approach
each other, absorbed water could
exert swelling presure, if the free film
thickness is greater than the interlayer
distance.
 Surface tension
Compressive stresses occurs inside
solid particles due to surface tension.
Drying increase surface tension, with
a increase in compressive stress in
the solids
80
FACTORS INFLUENCING DRYING SHRINKAGE
 The cement paste is the source of shrinkage, the porosity of concrete

will determine the rate of water transport and diffusion.
 Irreversible shrinkage is normally linear to the strength of concrete and

therefore a lower water / cement ratio would lead to increase in strength
and increase in hydration.
 Paste hold water, the gel pore water is more tightly held than the
capillary water.
 During evaporation moisture initially lost from the capillaries, and as the
concrete matures moisture is lost from the gel pores, causing larger
sections of contraction.
81
FACTORS INFLUENCING DRYING SHRINKAGE
Paste structure
 Hardened cement paste consist of solid & soft gel particles, as well as
two types of pore structures.
 Very small gel pores formed by spaces between gel layers.
 Larger capillary pores formed by excess water, not required for

hydration of cement
 Lower water cement ratio and greater degree of hydration, will

lead to more hydration product being produced. Increasing the
ratio gel pore to capillary pore.
82
CARBONATION SHRINKAGE
 Carbonation shrinkage is caused

by the reaction between carbon
dioxide from the atmosphere,
and the constituents in the
cement paste.
 Shrinkage caused by
carbonation is slow, but could in
some severe cases exceed
drying shrinkage in magnitude.
83
AUTOGENOUS SHRINKAGE
 Autogenous shrinkage is volume reduction as result of internal water

consumption during hydration.
 Concrete with Water / Cement ratio of 0.40 and below, has a much
higher consumption of mix water, leading to higher risk of Autogenous
shrinkage.
 Approximately 40% of Autogenous shrinkage occurs within the first 24h,

resulting in early age cracking.
 The incorporation of fly ash has been proven to lower Autogenous

shrinkage compared to CEM I cement types (Pane & Hansen)
84
SHRINKAGE IN CONCRETE
Factors affecting shrinkage

Cement effects
 There is evidence that high Alkali cement has greater risk of shrinkage
cracking, Lafarge Lichtenburg Clinker has a very low Alkali cement.
 0,25% Sodium equivalent against a maximum limit of 0,6% as per ASTM
Aggregates
 Aggregates has two effects on shrinkage.
 Dilution : shrinkage will decrease with increase in aggregate
 Restrain : shrinkage will be reduced by increase in aggregate due
to increase in stiffness.
85
SHRINKAGE IN CONCRETE
permeability of the concrete.
 Fly Ash also contributes to the cement hydration making the concrete
denser and increasing the late strength ( post 28 day strength
development)
 Lower water demand for given workability, compared to CEM I cements,
leading to lower moisture movement.
 The good early strength achieved when using the “R” cement types,
gives better resistance to early age cracking.
86
RELATIVE SHRINKAGE POTENTIAL
Lower water demand for given workability of Powercrete Plus

42,5R and Civilcrete 32,5R, compared to CEM I cements, could
potentially reduce shrinkage by up to 75%.
87
CHEMICAL DEFORMATION OF CONCRETE
Dirk Odendaal
88
CONCRETE
 Alkali Silica Reaction
 Heat of Hydration
 Sulphate Attacks
 Chloride Attacks
89
ALKALI SILICA REACTION
What is ASR?
 Reaction between Active Silica constituents of aggregate and the Alkali’s

in the cement paste and water.
 Reactive forms of silica are Opal (amorphous), Chalcedony (Crypto

Crystalline), Tridymite (crystalline).
 Reactive minerals are present in Opaline and Chalcedonic Cherts,

Siliceous lime tones, Rhyolitic tuffs, Dacite tuffs, Andersite tuffs and
Phyllites.
90
91
How does the reaction take place.
 The reaction starts by attacks on siliceous mineral available in the
aggregate, by the alkaline hydroxides from the cement paste.
 As a result Alkali Silicate gel is formed, either in the pores in the aggregate,
or on the surface of the aggregate.
 This destroy the bond between aggregate and the surrounding hydrated
cement paste.
 The gel (of swelling nature) consumes water, increasing in volume.
 Because this gel is confined by the surrounding hydrated cement paste,

internal pressures are created.
 This internal pressures will eventually lead to expansion, cracking and

92 disruption of the cement paste.
 Typical appearance:
 Random crack pattern.
 White rim around the aggregate.
 Large crack width.
 Time:
 May take years to develop.
 Structural Effects:
 Loss of strength
 Loss of stiffness
 Cracking
 Deflection
93
 Lichtenburg clinker has a low Alkali content, making Powercrete Plus
42,5R and Civilcrete 32,5R low Alkali cements
 Sodium equivalent of about 0,25%, well below the 0,6% for a Low Alkali
cement (ASTM definition).
 By using a low Alkali cement type, will minimize the risk of ASR
 Fly Ash in Civilcrete 32,5R and Powercrete Plus 42,5R, has the ability to
react with Alkali Hydroxides in the paste, making them unavailable to
react with aggregates.
Low Alkali cement from Lafarge

Lichtenburg was used together
with fly ash and high potential
ASR aggregates (Rhyolit) for
the Mozal smelter, Bauxite silo’s
and pier in Maputo
94
HEAT OF HYDRATION
 Hydration of cement compounds is an exothermic process, with Energy

of up to 500J/g can be achieved.
 On the other hand, concrete has a very low thermal conductivity, and
acts as an insulator.
 In mass concrete however, the heat created by hydration could lead to
significant rise in internal temp, compared to normal structures.
 Rule of thumb is that the gradient between core of the concrete and the
exterior surface should not be more than 20°c.
 It is therefore advisable to know the heat generating properties of the
cement to be used in this type of concrete.
 For practicality, it is not necessarily only the total heat of hydration that
matters, but also the rate of heat development and the peak temperature
achieved that need to be considered.
 Heat generated over longer periods, and with lower peaks can dissipate
to a greater degree.
95
HEAT OF HYDRATION
 The fineness of the cement also has an impact on rate of heat

development, as the increased surface area will speed up the reaction.
 Early age heat development from Hydration of cement/cementitious.
 Long term caused by environmental conditions.
 Effects are similar to those of drying shrinkage.
 Random crack patterns.
96
HEAT OF HYDRATION
Reducing temp:
 Use a Low Heat cement (LH) with an energy generation of less than 270
J/g of cement at 41Hours, as per SANS 50197-1, tested according to EN
196-9 (semiadiabatic Heat of hydration).
 Powercrete Plus 42.5R = 227 J/g* at 41hours
 Civilcrete 32.5R = 166 J/g* at 41 hours *Typical vales
Typical Heat of Hydration of Concrete

80
- 7.1 oC
70 OPC
- 12.6 oC
OPC/30FA
60 OPC/40FA
Temp. (oC)
+ 64 hours
50
+ 48 hours
40
30
20
Time (days)
97
SULPHATE ATTACKS
What is sulphate attack?

 Sulphates are regular constituents in ground water, industrial waste water
and sewage water.
Different types of sulphate attacks

 Calcium Sulphate attack (CaSO4)
 Magnesium Sulphate attack (Mg(OH)2
 Ammonium Sulphate attack (2NH3)
98
SULPHATE ATTACKS
 Sulphates are common in areas where mines are operating.
 These are generally calcium, sodium, potassium, and magnesium.
 Sulphates, permeates the concrete (in solution with water), and reacts
with:
 Portlandite in the cement paste CA(OH)2
 Calcium Aluminates C3A
99
SULPHATE ATTACKS
Calcium Sulphate
 When hardened cement paste is in contact with sulphates two principal
reactions takes place
• Conversion of monosulfate into ettringite
• Formation of gypsum
 After the Ca(OH)2 has been consumed the sulphate solution will react with
C-S-H paste, yielding more gypsum.
 This reduces the C-S ratio in the C-S-H paste reducing mechanical
strength.
 Un-reacted C3A will also react with the sulphate yielding ettringite.
 Ettringite is very expansive, leading to spalling of the surface, while at the

same time reducing mechanical strength by decomposition of the C-S-H
for the production of ettringite.
100
SULPHATE ATTACKS
Magnesium Sulphate
 Ca(OH)2 is converted into Brucite (magnesium Hydroxide).
 C-S-H paste undergoes a decalcification, reducing C-S ratio in the C-S-H

paste.
 The low lime C-S-H converts to near amorphous serpentine crystals,

exhibiting no cementing properties, forming additional Gypsum.
 The degration of C-S-H in the presence of Mg(SO4) is faster and more

complete than other sulphate attacks.
 Eventually a double surface layer is formed, consisting of a layer of Brucite

followed by a layer of gypsum.
 Magnesium sulphate attack is characterised by loss of strength and total

101 disintegration of the concrete under attack
SULPHATE ATTACKS
Ammonium sulphate attack
 When hardened concrete is exposed to solution of ammonium sulphate,

the compound will decompose the highly alkaline environment of the
concrete.
 Releasing gaseous ammonia.
 The Ca(SO4) formed reacts with other constituent within the concrete,
producing Ettringite and causing expansion.
 The overall action of ammonium sulphate is a combination of acidic and
sulphate corrosion.
102
SULPHATE ATTACKS
 Attacks of Soduim sulphates Na2SO4
 Gypsum has an volume increase of 20% compared to Ca(OH)2
 Ettringite formation
 Volume increase of 200 – 600%
103
SULPHATE ATTACKS
 The formation of Gypsum and Ettringite will cause:
 Expansion
 Cracking
 Scaling
 Aggregate de-bonding from the cement paste
 The severity of the Sulphate attack is dependant on the exposure,

concrete type, permeability and available water
104
SULPHATE ATTACKS
105
SULPHATE ATTACKS
 Powercrete Plus 42,5R and Civilcrete 32,5R are blended Fly Ash
cements.
 The incorporation of Fly Ash in the cement, decreases the amount
available alkali’s, thus preventing the formation of Ettringite.
 Cement with a total Fly Ash content of more than 25%, would be
considered beneficial under Sulphate conditions .
106
SULPHATE RESISTING CEMENTS (SR)
The new revised cement specification EN197-1:2011,which is currently in the

process of being implemented, defines basically three classes of SR
cement:
 Cement with no or low (< 5%) C3A (Tri-calcium Aluminate) content
 Cement of type CEM III/B or C ( “Blast-furnace cements”,
meaning >65% or 90% slag content)
 Cement of type CEM IV/A or B (“Pozzolanic cements”, incorporating
either siliceous fly ash or volcanic ash)
CEM IV / B-V 32,5R Civilcrete / Buildcrete is a SR cement
107
SULPHATE ATTACKS
The decrease in water absorption from 28 days to 56 days reflects an

increase in density as result of the refined pore structure
108
CHLORIDE ATTACKS
Sources of chlorides
 Available on RAW materials for concrete production

 External sources
 Penetration through various transport systems
109
CHLORIDE ATTACKS
Effect of chloride on durability

Reinforcement corrosion
 Steel embedded in concrete is protected by passivation of the steel by
the high alkaline nature of the surrounding pore water.
 Carbonation encourages the neutralization of hydration products, until

the passive layer becomes unstable.
 Free chloride ions dissolve in the pore water and will destroy the passive
film around the steel, causing anodic iron dissolution.
 Chloride induced corrosion of reinforcement may cause the general

corrosion if the chlorides are spread over the surface of the steel.
 With sufficient supply of oxygen, rapid dissolution could occur, creating

deeper pits, leading to considerable reduction in load bearing capacities.
110
CHLORIDE ATTACKS
 Chloride ions reacts with cement matrix as they pass through the
concrete matrix.
 A large portion of chlorides will be bound by the cement paste, physically
or chemically.
 Chloride binding is beneficial to durability as that reduce the amount of
“free” chlorides in the pore water.
111
CHLORIDE ATTACKS
Types of chlorides in Concrete
 Two types of chlorides must be distinguished.

 Free chlorides in pore solution
 Chloride ions bound to hydration products
 For corrosion to occur only the free chlorides will have an impact.
 Concrete containing fly ash cements is known to bind chlorides
 Cement containing a relative high C3A content is desirable, due to the
chemical binding of the chloride ions to create Friedel salts.
 Fly ash cements also has increased C-S-H which also binds chlorides by
absorption due to surface forces.
 Whilst carbonation might release some of the bound chlorides over time,
whilst local investigations of old structures in the Cape have proven the
benefits of fly ash concretes
112
CHLORIDE ATTACKS
 Transport Mechanisms:
 Fluid is drawn into porous material by the capillary forces.
 Amount is dependent on the saturation level of material.
 Surfaces most at risk:

 Surfaces where chloride concentrations are high.
 Surfaces exposed to wetting and drying cycles.
113
CHLORIDE ATTACKS
Transport Mechanisms:
Permeation
 This transport mechanism becomes relevant for ingress of chlorides only if
penetrating liquids carries chlorides
 During the initial period of penetration, chloride from the salt solution will
combine with the hydration products of the cement paste until an
equilibrium is achieved
 The concentration of chlorides will then decrease as the depth of
penetration increase
 Mostly relevant to extreme exposures, eg. marine structures
114
CHLORIDE ATTACKS
Capillary suction
 Similar to permeation, the ingress due to capillary action of the pore
system absorbing chlorides containing solution
 The driving force is controlled by the pore size and the effective surface
tension.
 Absorption of chloride solution must be considered especially in alternating
exposure conditions.
 Wetting / drying cycles are most detrimental
 Depending on the relative humidity of the environment, the salts will
eventually prevent more and more moisture from evaporation increasing
the moisture concentration
 With sufficient liquid paths these ions will penetrate deeper and deeper
into the concrete
115
CHLORIDE ATTACKS
Diffusion
 Caused by gradient of chloride concentration

 Does not depend on the flow of water to transport chloride ions
 If sufficient moisture is available, it will provide a continues liquid path in
the capillary system for transportation of the chloride ions into the matrix.
 The diffusion mechanism stops if there is a interruption in the liquid path
 Incorporation of cements containing Pfa assist in binding these chloride
ions and limiting the depth of penetration.
116
CHLORIDE ATTACKS
 Powercrete Plus 42,5R and Civilcrete 32,5R are blended Fly Ash
cements.
 The incorporation of Fly Ash in Powercrete Plus and Civilcrete improve
the permeability, reducing penetration and diffusion of chlorides.
 Chlorides are also chemically bound by alumino-silaceous pozzolans.
117
OPC OPC 30%PFA
CHLORIDE ATTACKS
.
Maputo harbor: Chloride corrosion in front and the new bridge
containing fly ash concrete in back
118
MASONRY, MORTARS & PLASTERS
Quintin Wolmarans
119
MASONRY APPLICATIONS
Problems & common mistakes
120
 Problems & common mistakes
Name Description Cause Solution

Grinning Positions of the Different rate of suction between the Apply plaster undercoat
mortar joints are mortar and the bricks or spatterdash coat
clearly visible before plastering
through the plaster
Crazing Network of closely •Over trowelling a rich mix, or Use a better plaster sand
spaced, fine •Sand that contains too many fines.
cracks
Cracking Larger cracks •Movement of the wall or shrinkage of Do not use very rich
randomly spaced the plaster which is caused by mixes (too much cement).
excessive loss of water from the plaster. Use good quality sands.
•Using a badly graded sand that lacks Limit plaster thickness to
fine material. a maximum of 15mm per
•Excessive suction by the bricks or coat.
blocks.
•Exposure to direct sun or wind.
121
 Problems & common mistakes
Name Description Cause Solution

Lack of Plaster that is easily •Plastering in full sun and wind. Avoid causes listed
chipped away or is •Not wetting absorbent bricks.
hardness easily scraped off after •Addition of extra water after first
hardening mixing.
•Using a very lean mix (too little
cement).
Debonding Plaster not staying on •Dust on the wall when Prepare surface properly
the wall after plastering. before plastering.
hardening •Over-rich mixes. Limit plaster thickness to a
•Very thick layers of plaster (> maximum of 15mm.
15mm) Do not use very rich mixes
122
Important Cement properties Important Sand properties
 Workability  Free of organic matter
 Volume stability  Grading (SABS 1090 and in particular

be well graded from 5 mm particle size
 Consistent cohesive mix
downwards).
 Open time
 Maximum particle size
 Good strength gain
 Particle shape
 Formulated for end use by
 Clay content
large building and civil projects,
requiring site custom blending
 Versatile products to suite

contractors
123
 Sand grading properties
124
125
READYMIX CONCRETE
Roelof Jacobs
126
READYMIX CONCRETE CONSITUENTS
COARSE AGGREGATE
(granite, dolomite, hornfells, quartzite, recycled..) – SANS 1083
 9.5mm concrete stone

Aggregate size does not have an effect on concrete strength however good
quality aggregate may influence strength and durability.
127
READYMIX CONCRETE CONSTITUENTS
FINE AGGREGATE
 Natural filler sand

 Manufactured crusher sand
Sands have the biggest effect on the water demand of concrete and its
quality could also influence strength and durability..
128
CEMENTITIOUS BINDERS
 Lafarge Powercrete Plus

 Fly Ash
 GGBS
 Silica Fume
The cement / water ratio of concrete determines its strength. Cement

extenders such as Fly Ash, Slag and Silica fume may reduce / increase
water demands while improving durability by lowering heat of hydration as
well as lowering the risk of ASR, Chloride and Sulphate attack.
129
CHEMICAL ADMIXTURES
 Water reducing plasticisers

 Super-plasticisers
 Retarders
 Air-entrainers
 Accelerators
 Water proofing agents
These are used for reasons ranging from; reduced water content, reduced
cement contents, workability retention, retarding the hydration process,
improving freeze-thaw resistance, quick setting as well as internal
waterproofing of concrete.
130
WATER
 Recycled water from internal processes

 Fresh water
Fresh water yields marginally better results due to impurities present in some
recycled water sources.
131
SELF COMPACTING CONCRETE
 Self Compacting Concrete

originated in Japan in the late 80’s
to combat complex structures and
high labour costs
 Lafarge’s development of Agilia

began in 1995 with Lafarge South
Africa launching in Cape Town and
Durban in 2007 and Gauteng in
2008.
 Definition: A concrete which flows

under its own weight, and is able to
completely fill all spaces within the
formwork, while remaining
homogeneous
132
133
BENEFITS OF AGILIA
 Reduces placing time
 Aesthetically pleasing
 Improved compaction in deep level piling
 Excellent compaction in areas of heavily congested rebar and difficult

access
 No need for power floating or screeding
 Thinner walls and columns
 Quicker turnaround of shutters
 No requirement for finishing crews working into late evening hours
 More efficient use of labour means quicker completion of jobs
134
135 Peri Wiehan - Midrand
Le Corbusier’s Church of Saint
Pierre, posthumously completed, 40
years after his death, this structure
genuinely breathes true to his
fascination with concrete, his belief in
simplicity, functionality, building on a
human scale, and master plans that
were “in harmony with nature – sun,
space, and greenery”.
136
Spinnaker Tower, Portsmouth
by Scott Wilson Advanced
Technology Group, is the UK’s
tallest public viewing tower
outside of London. Once again
Agilia supported this innovative
design giving a perfectly
finished high quality off shutter
aesthetic.
137
ARTEVIA ADVANTAGES
 Low Maintenance
 Artevia Polish eliminates the need for
screeds, tiles or carpets.
 Aesthetically pleasing
 Monolithic slab
 Colour throughout
Print
 Robust
 Can be moulded into different shapes
 Can be used in combination with other
products
Colour
Polished
138 Polished Exposed

ARTEVIA EXPOSED EXAMPLES
Garden World Johannesburg Durban beach front
Riverside Office Park Oprah Winfrey Leadership

Academy for Girls
139
139
ARTEVIA COLOUR EXAMPLES
Oprah Winfrey Leadership

Academy for Girls
Goo Chi Café Durban Westville Park Durban
Private Residence CapeTown Durban beach front

140
140
ARTEVIA POLISHED EXAMPLES
Oprah Winfrey Leadership

Academy for Girls
Yamaha Johannesburg Private Residence Durban
Spier Wine Estate

Stellenbosch University Stellenbosch
141
141
EXTENSIA™
EXTENSIA™ is a low-shrink design alternative to steel, mesh and fibre

reinforcement concrete.
142
Date 1
EXTENSIA™
 Ideal for large internal industrial and warehouse

floors. Controlled shrinkage enables saw cuts to
be pushed up to 15m x 15m sections (225 m2
seamless panels) where proper design
principles are followed.
 The High flexural strength of 6N–mm², allows

reduced thickness of the floor, high surface
durability and reduced floor maintenance.
 Floors can be coloured and polished.
 The environmental profile of EXTENSIA™ is

less than that of conventional steel-meshed
flooring.
 Saves the customer money,time and effort by

reducing the need for steel reinforcement
143
WHAT IS HYDROMEDIA?
 Also known as “no-fines” concrete or “pervious” concrete.

 Hydromedia is a unique and effective means to address important
environmental issues and support green, sustainable growth.
 By capturing storm water and allowing it to seep into the ground,
Hydromedia is instrumental in recharging groundwater and reducing
storm water runoff.
 This pavement technology creates more efficient land use by reducing the
need for retention ponds, swales, and other storm water management
devices.
 In doing so, Hydromedia has the ability to lower overall project costs on a
first-cost basis.
144
Date 1
HYDROMEDIA: BENEFITS
 Manages storm water efficiently and

reduces demand on infrastructure,
rapid water removal and safe dry
surfaces.
 Can reduce the quantity of first flush
runoff in urban areas.
 Sustainable Urban Drainage,
minimizes urban impact on natural
water cycle.
 Filters particulate including pollutants
(metals and hydrocarbons) from
storm water.
 Reduced storm water management
costs and infrastructure.
 Higher permeability, more consistent
performance, cleaner finish.
145
HYDROMEDIA: TECHNCIAL DATA
 Compressive strength of 10 – 20Mpa

 Flexural strength of 1.5 – 3Mpa
 Porosity 20 - 30%
 Workable up to 90 minutes
 Permeability rate ≥ 150 litres / m2 / min
146
Children's water fountain in Forever Resorts Bela Bela
1. Ultra Enviro (Low CO2 concrete)
2. Ultra Fibre (Polypropylene or Steel)
3. Ultra Waterproof (Xypex)
4. Ultra Piling NS, SD, T
5. Ultra Industrial Floor
6. Ultra Lightweight
7. Ultra Pool
8. Ultra Post Tension
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Lafarge The Production of Extended Cements & The Impact On Concrete Durability

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Lafarge The Production of Extended Cements & The Impact On Concrete Durability

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Production of extended cements

& the impact on concrete

3. The Lafarge Specifier Handbook

4. Cement manufacturing & extenders

6. Physical deformations on concrete

7. Chemical deformations on concrete

8. Masonry, Mortars & Plasters

9. Ready-mixed Concrete Products

 15,2 billion Euros in Sales turnover

 Almost 130 million Euros dedicated to research,

 Lafarge South Africa has 2500 employees

 All four divisions present in South Africa

 First in the industry to sign a BBBEE deal in South Africa valued at

 Internationally recognized HIV/Aids campaign in place

 First cement producer to become a member of the Green Building

 Grinding facility in Richards Bay and Randfontein

 Quality Department of Southern Africa

1. Roads & Earthworks

Portland cement is an extremely fine grey powder manufactured

Quarrying Raw Milling & Packing &

 Alumina source -Al2O3 (PozzSand, Bauxite, etc)

 Iron ore –Fe2O3 (Magnetite)

 Silica source –SiO2 (PozzSand)

 These materials are heated to temperatures of1450°C to produce a

 Clinker is then inter-ground with Gypsum to create cement powder.

Mining of limestone requires the use of drilling and blasting techniques.

 Limestone is mined from different faces in the quarry to produce a blend

 The limestone is then transported to site where it is blended and stored

Limestone on its own do not contain all the

Pozzsand and Bauxite is added to introduce

When proportioned correctly they will combine in the kiln

 C3S (Alite) 3CaO.SiO2 Tricalcium Silicate

Kiln Preheat Tower Stack

Quenching to set clinker reactions:

Finish Mill Cement Silo’s

• A cement particle is:

All these phases will hydrate

• C3S + water = Hydrated calcium silicates + portlandite

• C2S + water = CSH + CH

• Free lime + water = Ca(OH)2 Portlandite

CEM I Portland Cement

CEM II Portland “Composite” Cement

CEM III Blast furnace Cement

CEM IV Pozzolanic Cement

CEM V Composite Cement

CEM II / B - M (V-S) 32.5N

CEM I : Portland cement

CEM II / B - M (V-S) 32.5N

CEM I : Portland cement

Quantity of main constituents

CEM II / B - M (V-S) 32,5N

CEM I : Portland cement

Quantity of main constituents

Cement with at least

CEM II / B - M (V-S) 32.5N

Cement with at least

CEM II / B - M (V-S) 32.5N

Cement with at least

CEM II / B - M (V-S) 32,5N

Strength Class Compressive Strength , MPa

Early Strength Standard Strength

2 days 7 days 28 days

32,5 N - > 16,0 > 32,5 < 52,5