c 1997 M. Alfaro et al. (Eds.) Proceedings of the International Workshop on Orthogonal Polynomials in Mathematical Physics.

Leganes, 24-26 June, 1996.

ORTHOGONAL POLYNOMIALS: CONNECTION AND LINEARIZATION COEFFICIENTS A. Ronveaux Abstract

Let fPn (x)g1 and fQm(x)g1=0 be two families of orthogonal polynomials. The linearization n=0 m problem involves only one family via the relation:

Pi (x) Pj (x) =
n X

i+j X k=ji?j j

Lijk Pk (x)

and the connection problem mixes both families:

Pn (x) =

In many cases, it is possible to build a recurrence relation involving only m , satis ed by the linearization coe cients Lijk and connection coe cients Cm (n) , in particular if the families Pn (x) and Qm (x) are classical: continuous or discrete. We intend to examine these coe cients from the point of view of recurrence properties, emphasizing mainly the structure of these recurrence relations. This article contains some results already published, in print or in preparation, by A. Ronveaux, A. Zarzo, E. Godoy, I. Area, R. Alvarez-Nodarse, S. Belmehdi, N. M. Hounkonnou and S. Lewanowicz.

m=0

Cm (n) Qm(x):

1 Connection problem.
Let fPn (x)g1 and fQm (x)g1=0 be two sequences of polynomials of degree exactly equal to n. m n=0 The so-called Connection Problem asks to nd the coe cients Cm (n) in the expansion:

Pn (x) =

n X

m=0

Cm (n) Qm(x) ;

(1)

and goes back to Stirling 35] as pointed out by Askey in his 1975 survey 4]. Let us represent the polynomials Pn (x) and Qm (x) in the monomial basis fxk g1 , and k=0 analyze the structure of the connection coe cients Cm (n) as depending on several assumptions on families Pn (x) and Qm (x)

Pn(x) =

n X

k=0

an;k xk ;

Qm(x) =

m X

k=0

am;k xk ;

an;k ; an;k 2 IR :

(2)

Other bases like x n] , (x)n or Bernstein basis can also be used, and polynomials Pn (x) and Qm (x) can be de ned by some properties or equations. So let us use in this article the following de nitions:

1. Falling factorial or Stirling polynomial 1] n x n = x(x ? 1) (x ? n + 1) = P Snm xm , where Snm are Stirling numbers of rst kind
] ( ) ( )

35].

m=0

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2. Rising factorial or Pochhammer symbols 1] (x)n = x(x + 1) (x + n ? 1), (x) = 1 . 3. Appell family fPn (x)g 7]
0

4. Orthogonal family fPn (x)g 7, 8]

0 Pn (x) = (n)Pn?1 (x)

Monic polynomial Pn (x) of degree n generated by the three-term Recurrence Relation (R.R.)

xPn (x) = Pn+1 (x) + nPn(x) + n Pn?1 (x) ; P?1 (x) = 0 ; P0 (x) = 1 ;
n 6= 0 ;

n 0; n 0:

5. Classical orthogonal polynomials (continuous) 25, 26]

L ;n Pn (x)]
2

Polynomial solution Pn (x) of degree n of the second order Di erential Equation (D.E.):
00 0 Pn + Pn ? n (0n?1)=2 Pn = 0 ;

= + r 0 , = (x) polynomial of degree 2: Jacobi (J), Bessel (B); of degree 1: Laguerre (L); of degree 0: Hermite (He), and (x) polynomial of rst degree.
r

6. Classical orthogonal polynomial (discrete) 25, 26]

D ;n Pn(x)]
2

Polynomial solution Pn (x) of degree n of the second order Di erence Equation

rPn +

Pn ? n (0n?1)=2 Pn = 0

(x) polynomial of degree 2: Hahn (H) and Hahn-Eberlein (H-E), and polynomial of degree 1: Krawtchouk (K), Meixner (M), Charlier (C). = (x) polynomial of rst degree. ( f (x) = f (x + 1) ? f (x) ; rf (x) = f (x ? 1))

7. Semi-classical orthogonal family (continuous and discrete) 11, 24]

(x)LPn (x) =
n+t?1 X k=n?s?1 k;nPk (x)

Family of orthogonal polynomial Pn (x) which satis es a structure relation (S.R.) ( k;n constants)

where L = d=dx (continuous) or L = (discrete). For t = 0; 1; 2 and s = 0 semi-classical orthogonal polynomials (O.P.) are classical O.P.

8. Hildebrandt classical polynomial (continuous) 12]

Polynomial solution Pn (x; k) of degree n of the Di erential Equation:

00 0 0 (x)Pn (x; k) + k?n(x)Pn (x; k) ? n k?n=2?1=2 Pn (x; k) = 0 : These polynomials: H-J, H-B, H-L, H-He, reduce to the family #5. (orthogonal) when ( ( k = n , and to the family Pnr) (x) , when k ? n = r ( Pnr) (x) , r-th derivative of Pn(x) ; Pn+r (x; n + r)](r) = Pn (x; n + r) ). For xed k , Pn (x; k) is an Appell family.

9. Bernstein Basis (continuous) 34]

Bin (x) =
n n xi(1 ? x)n?i = X(?1)j?i n i j j =i
! !

j xj ; i

0 i n:

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10. Bernstein Basis (discrete) 34]

bn(N; x) = i n x i] (N ? x) n?i] ; 0 i n N i N i]
!

The bases Bin(x) and bn (N; x) are of degree n ( 0 i n N ) for all i , contrary to the i previous polynomials Pn (x) and Qn (x) of degree equal to n .

~t The vectors Pn = (P0 ; matrix Cn;m ]

~ ; Pn) and Qtn = (Q0 ; ~ ~ Pn = Cn;m ]Qn

; Qn ) de ne now a lower triangular connection

with Cn;m = Cm (n) (3) which has a speci c structure (see Table 1) following the assumptions #1 to #10. In general, we work with monic polynomials ( an;n = an;n = 1 ). In that case, the set of all connection matrix of size n +1 by n +1 forms a multiplicative group called T (n +1; IR) , subgroup of SL(n + 1; IR) . Let us emphasize the structure of the connection coe cients in two following cases: i) assumption #4 (families Pn and Qn both orthogonal) and ii) assumption #7 (families Pn and Qn both semi-classical). It is important to realize rst (and to prove easily by derivation of the S.R.) that the existence of a S.R. for the family Pn (x) implies that Pn (x) is solution of a second order di erential (or di erence) equation: ( D2;n P (x)] = 0 ): (4) These operators L2;n and D2;n are of course more general than the operators considered in the assumptions #5 and #6.
2

L ;n Pn(x)] = 0 ;

i) fPn (x)g1 and fQm (x)g1=0 are both orthogonal families. (assumption #4). Both m n=0 families of polynomials involved in the connection problem (1) satisfy a three-term recurrence relation which, considering monic polynomials without loss of generality, are respectively:

x Pn (x) P?1 (x) x Qm (x) Q?1 (x)

= = = =

Pn+1 (x) + n Pn (x) + n Pn?1 (x) ; n 0 ; 0; P0 (x) = 1 ; Qm+1 (x) + m Qm(x) + m Qm?1 (x) ; m 0 ; 0; Q0 (x) = 1 ;

(5) (6)

where n 6= 0 and m 6= 0 . Then, multiplication of (1) by x , the use of (5) and (6) and expansion of Pn+1 , Pn and Pn?1 in terms of Qm by means of (1), generates the \cross-rule": ( m ? n ) Cm (n) + Cm?1 (n) + m+1 Cm+1 (n) ? Cm (n + 1) ? n Cm (n ? 1) = 0 (7) which is valid for m = 0; 1; ; n + 1 , with the convention Ck (j ) = 0 when k < 0 or k > j . Notice that this \cross-rule" mixes the three adjacent coe cients ( m?1; m; m+1 ) of the row n , crossing at the (m; n) position the column m of the aforementioned Cn;m ]{matrix. Any coe cient Cm (n) can be computed from this \cross-rule" starting from the initial condition: Cn (n) = 1 (monic polynomials), Cn?1 (n) = an ? an and Cn?2 (n) = bn ? bn ? (an ? an )an?1 , where an and bn (respectively an and bn ) are the rst coe cients in the expansions of Pn (x) and Qn (x) , an = aa ?1 , bn = aa ?2 .
n;n n;n n;n n;n

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Pn(x) =

n X m=0

Cm(n)Qm (x)

Pn(x)
arbitrary

Qm (x)
arbitrary

Connection matrix
Cn;m ] = Cm (n)]
no structure (except Cn(n) 6= 0 ) hook structure
( ( ( snm) = snm?1) + msnm)1 ?1 ?

xn

x m]

( snm) = Stirling numbers

of second kind hook structure

( ( ( snm) = snm?1) ? (n ? 1)snm)1 ?1 ? ( snm) = Stirling numbers

x n]
8 > > < > > :

xm

of rst kind

Appell orthogonal semi-classical O.P.

xm
Appell

diagonal structure

Cm+1 (n + 1) = k(m; n)Cm (n)

cross structure row structure row structure row structure row structure row structure no structure (full square matrix)

orthogonal semi-classical O.P. semi-classical O.P. semi-classical O.P. semi-classical O.P. semi-classical O.P. Bernstein basis (continuous or discrete)

xn
Hildebrandt classical
8 > > <

Lr;n Pn (x)] = 0 > > : Dr;n Pn (x)] = 0

primitive of semi-classical arbitrary

Table 1: Structure of the connection matrix.

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ii) fPn (x)g1 and fQm (x)g1=0 are both semi-classical (assumption #7) These assumpm n=0 tions transform the \cross-rule" given in (7) in a \row-rule", avoiding the mixing between m and n . The connection coe cients Cm (n) are now linked by the relation (n xed):

L ;n Pn (x)] =
2

n X

from the Di erential (or Di erence) Equation satis ed by Pn . Each term xk Lj Qm (x)] can be expanded in Qm (x) using iteration of the S.R., the R.R., and also by multiplication by polynomials. This is the basis of our algorithm described and summarized in Section 3.

m=0

Cm(n)L2;n Qm (x)] = 0

(same with D2;n )

(8)

2 Linearization problems
Let fPk (x)g1 be a system of polynomials of degree exactly equal to k . The traditional link=0 earization problem 4] is based in the expansion of the product Pi Pj in the fPk (x)g1 basis k=0

Pi Pj =

i+j X

The rst attempt to nd the coe goes back to Neumann 13] in the Legendre case using the 4-th order di erential equation satis ed by a product of two Legendre polynomials. In the linear space of polynomials Pi Pi (x) , the problem of linearization of products of two polynomials occurs very naturally in a lot of situations ranging from combinatorics and statistical mechanics, to group theory in relation with Clebsch-Gordan coe cients 14, 10, 26, 15]. k From the algebraic point of view, the coe cients Li;j;k = Lj;i;k are the structure constants Cij of the basis ei Pi in the in nite dimensional associative and commutative algebra of polynomials: k (10) ei ej = Cij ek ; using Einstein summation convention. Again the following assumption changes drastically the relation satis ed by Li;j;k . i) At the level of this associative and commutative algebra, Li;j;k verify complicated nonlinear algebraic relation obtained by expanding relation (9) after multiplication by Pr
r+i X

k=0 cients Li;j;k

Li;j;k Pk :

(9)

and expanding in terms of Pt

r+i X s=0

s=0

Lr;i;sPs Pj =
i+j X k=0

i+j X

k=0

Li;j;k Pr Pk ; Lr;k;t

(11)

Lr;i;s

s+j X t=0

Ls;j;t =

Li;j;k

r+k X t=0

8 i; j; r ;

(12)

ii) The orthogonality structure, inside the Pi family (making now the summation from k = ji?j j to k = i + j ), gives a three-term recurrence relation. Multiplying the R.R. (assumption #4 in section 1) by Pi and using equation (9), we get
i+j X k=ji?j j

Li;j;k(Pk+1 + k Pk + k Pk?1 )
i+j +1 X

k=ji?j ?1j

Li;j+1;k Pk +

i+j X k=ji?j j

j Li;j;k Pk +

i+j ?1 X k=ji?j +1j

j Li;j ?1;k Pk

8 i; j

(13)

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from which, using the linear independence of Pk , we get a linear relation between the

Li;j;k

Li;j+1;k + j Li;j;k + j Li;j?1;k

X

Li;j;k?1 +

k Li;j;k +

k Li;j;k+1

8 i; j :

(14)

Even the fact that the orthogonality structure inside the Pi family transforms nonlinear relations into linear relations, equation (14) is practically intractable because two families of indices ( i and j ) are already involved in this recurrence. iii) The restriction to semi-classical orthogonal polynomials allows to obtain again the linear relation between the Li;j;k but involving only one index k, using the fourth order di erential (or di erence) equation satis ed by the product Pi Pj and reducing therefore the linearization problem in this case to a connection problem (see section 1).

3 Algorithm building

R C

m+p(n); Cm?q (n)] = 0

In this work, we approach the connection and linearization coe cients as solution of a recurrence relation. Let us summarize the algorithm we have developed in 29, 31] building a one index recurrence relation for the connection coe cient Cm (n) . The assumptions are slightly more general than the assumptions used in the derivation of the \row-rule" in section 1. Our method requires only two assumptions: 1. The fPn (x)g-family in equation (1) has to be a solution of a linear di erential or di erence equation of any order r : r X Aj (x; n) Lj Pn (x)] = 0 (15) where the operator L can be either the derivative ( D = d=dx ) or the di erence operator ( ) and Aj (x; n) are polynomials in the variable x , of degree independent of n . 2. The fQm (x)g{family in equation (1) should satisfy rst a recurrence relation of type:
j =0

x Qm(x) =
and also:

m+1 X k=m?h

k;m

Qk (x)
k;m

(16) (17)

(x) LQm (x) =

n?1+t X k=n?1?s

Qk (x)

where (x) is a polynomial of degree t , k;m and k;m , are constants. When h = 1 , the fQm (x)g1=0 family is orthogonal. m The relation (17) (also called \Structure Relation" in orthogonal context 24]) is satis ed not only by classical orthogonal polynomials continuous and discrete, but also by a very large class of orthogonal polynomials called semi-classical 11]. Any family of orthogonal polynomials which satisfy second order di erential or di erence equations of the form (15) is semi-classical and for such family a structure relation exists. All orthogonal polynomials with orthogonality measure

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(x) = c (x) + Mi (x ? ci ) , (x) = (x) c (x) or (x) = c(x) , where c denotes a classical i weight, are for example semi-classical ( (x) rational function of x , (x) the step function: (x) = 0 , x < ; (x) = 1 , x ). The algorithm runs in the following steps 1. Apply relation (15) to the de nition (1)
n r X X m=0 j =0

Cm(n)Aj (x; n)Lj Qm (x)] = 0 :

2. Expand all terms in Aj (x; n)Lj Qm (x)] in a constant coe cient relation between the polynomials Qm (x) . In order to do that, all power in Aj (x; n) and all derivatives (or di erences) in Lj Qm(x)] are expanded using relation (16) and (17), iterates a number of times depending on the highest degree in Aj (x; n) and the order j in Lj Qm (x)] . 3. From the linear independence of polynomial Qm (x) (other basis like Q0m (x) or Q00 (x) are m possible and sometimes more appropriate 9, 3]), a shift of indices generates the search recurrence R Cm+p (n); ; Cm?q (n)] = 0 : For problems involving classical orthogonal continuous or discrete (sect. 1, assumptions #5 and #6), all the data contained in (15), (16), (17) are computed via relations given in 38] from the polynomials (x) and (x) appearing in assumptions #5 and #6 of section 1. These (x) and (x) give also the orthogonality weight = (x) via the Pearson equations ( )0 =

( )=

These two polynomials and are the basic input in the program which follows automatically steps 1 to 3. Among the many results partly published, let us select the connection between two Meixner polynomials (assumption #6).

Meixner-Meixner
(x) = x ; (x) =

? x(1 ? )
n X m=0

>0; 0< <1:

The coe cients for the connection problem

( Mn ; ) (x) = ( Cm (n)Mm ; ) (x)

satisfy the three-terms recurrence relation

(1 ? )(1 ? m + n)(?1 + )2 Cm?1 (n) +m(?1 + ) (?1 + + 2m ? n) + (1 ? ? m + (? + ? m + n) )]Cm (n) +m(1 + m)( + m)( ? ) Cm+1 (n) = 0 valid for 1 m n , with initial conditions

(18)

Cn(n) = 1 ? + +? Cn?1 (n) = n (1 ? ? n) + (? 1 )(1 ? () + ) + n) ] : (1

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In case = , it reduces to a two-terms recurrence relation, whose solution is 31, 21]:

n Cm (n) = m
In case = , the (new) result is 3]

1?

n?m

( ? )n?m :

(19)

n Cm(n) = m

?(n + ) ?(m + )

(1 ? )(1 ? )

n?m

(20)

Table 2 presents informations on explicit results or on the structure of the recurrence relation satis ed by Cm (n) connecting essentially Classical Orthogonal Polynomials. Many results are already published, in print or in preparation. We refer mainly to works related to the recurrence relation approach in which, of course, other approaches and results are mentioned.

4 Group properties
The Lie group T (n + 1; IR) of lower triangular n + 1 matrices with diagonal elements being equal ~ to 1 contains n(n2+1) parameters. If for a family of polynomials Pn (x; i ) with r parameters i = 1; ; r , we can solve explicitly the connection problem, we generate automatically a r dimensional subgroup of T (n; IR) as a realization of this. The group property generates the following multiplicative law between the matrices connecting parameters ; ; : Cn;m ] ; Cm;k ] ; = Cn;k ] ; with ~ ~ Pn (x; i ) = Cn;m ] ; Pn (x; i ) Cn;m ] ; Cm;k ] ; = 1 = Cn;k ] ; : As an example of one dimensional subgroup, let us consider the Charlier-Charlier connection problem: n X ( ( Cn ) (x) = Cm (n)Cm ) (x)

n for which Cm (n) = m ( ? )n?m . With = ? , the one dimensional subgroup appears as
2 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 4

m=0

1 .. . .. .
2

0 1
k
1

Cn;m] =

.. . .. .

k?1 n?1
?n
2

?n
1

0 0 1 .. . 0 .. .

.. .
n?2

.. .

0 0 0 .. . 0 .. . 1

3 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 5

which gives the matrix property

Cn;m ] Cm;k ] = Cn;k ]

f Cn;m] g? = Cn;m]?
1

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(J,B,L,He) (H,H-E,K,M,C))
8 < 8 < : :

Pn (x) xn x n]

Qm (x)
(J,B,L,He) (H,H-E,,K,M,C)) (J,B,L,He) 8 < (H,H-E,K,M,C)
:

R Cm+p(n);

; Cm?q (n)] = 0

Pn (x + b); Pn (ax) Pn = (J,B,L,He) Pn (x + y); Pn = (H,H-E,K,M,C)

Bernstein basis - continuous - discrete

x( m]

(J,B,L,He) (H,H-E,K,M,C) shifted Jacobi Hahn polynomial (J,B,L,He) (J,B,L,He) (H,H-E,K,M,C) (J,B,L,He) (H,H-E,K,M,C) (J,B,L,He) (H,H-E,K,M,C)
8 < :

max 3 terms, solved, 39, 23] max 3 terms, solved, 39] max 3 terms, partly solved, 9] max 3 terms, partly solved, 31, 3, 21] max 3 terms, partly solved, 39] 8 < Q (x) Pm (x) m : max 5 terms, partly solved, 9] 8 <Q (x) Pm (x) m :max 3 terms, partly solved, 31, 3] 5 terms, solved, 33] no mixture max 3 terms, in progress
8 < :

(H-J,H-B,H-L,H-He)
8 > > > > > < > > > > > :

Pi Pj Pi ; Pj = (J,B,L,He)

Pi ; Pj = (H,H-E,K,M,C) Pi ]N P = (J,B,L,He) > i > > : Pi = (H,H-E,K,M,C)

8 > > > <
( Pnr) ; r associated

JJ,BB,LL,HeHe 3 terms 28, 20] mixture, max 5 terms, 30] no mixture, max 3 terms, 6]

in progress (N = 2, max 5 terms) 28] in progress (N = 2, max 9 terms) 22]

8 < : 8 < :

8 > > > > > > > < > > > > > > > :

Pn = (J,B,L,He) Pn = (H,H-E,K,M,C)
8 <

(J,B,L,He) : (H,H-E,K,M,C) 8 < even part of (J,B,L) : odd part of (J,B,L) reciprocal of (J,B,L,He)

Dm(J,B,L,He)
(J,B,L,He) (J,B,L,He)

r = 1 ; 29, 18, 17] arbitrary r , 27, 18, 17] r = 1 ; 5, 32] arbitrary r , in progress
Gram-Charlier series in progress in progress in progress

m (H,H-E,K,M,C)

Table 2: Applications of the algorithm involving classical O.P.

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This one-dimensional subgroup is, of course, abelian, but it should be interesting to investigate two dimensional subgroups coming from Jacobi-Jacobi, Meixner-Meixner, Hahn-Hahn, . . . From the fact that there exists only two real Lie algebras of dimension two (nine of dimension three, . . . ), which family of two parameter orthogonal polynomials corresponds to the abelian or solvable case?

Remarks: This short survey presents in some way a new approach in order to study systemati-

cally connection and linearization problems involving polynomials orthogonal and also not orthogonal. An one variable recurrence relation is the basic tool which allows to compute or to study these connection and linearization coe cients. For a large class of polynomials these recurrence relations are built almost automatically by a very simple algorithm which applies in all cases. In many situations, these recurrences are solved by the computer using Mathematica, Maple, Reduce, . . . Even if the explicit solution is not given by the computer, properties of these coe cients can be obtained: positivity, asymptotics, limit relations, 36, 37, 16]. This global approach, which applies already for some q-orthogonal polynomials 2], is quite di erent from other more traditional approaches using for each family an ad hoc technique: generating functions, hypergeometric series properties (se e.g. 4]). ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS It is a pleasure to thank the Universidad Carlos III de Madrid for the kind invitation and for the nancial support which allowed me to present this material in Leganes with the ocasion of the International Workshop on Orthogonal Polynomials and Mathematical Physics (24-26 June 1996). Parts of the published results presented in this work were supported by a NATO grant (CRG-960213).

References
1] M. Abramowitz and I.A. Stegun: Handbook of Mathematical Functions. Dover, 1965. 2] R. Alvarez-Nodarse and A. Ronveaux: Recurrence relations for connection coe cients between q-orthogonal polynomials of discrete variables in the non-uniform lattice X (s) = q2s . J. Phys. A: Math. Gen. 29 (1996), 1{11. 3] I. Area, E. Godoy, A. Ronveaux and A. Zarzo: Minimal recurrence relations for connection coe cients between classical orthogonal polynomials: Discrete case. 1996 (submitted). 4] R. Askey: Orthogonal Polynomials and Special Functions. Regional Conference in Applied Mathematics. 21, SIAM, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 1975. 5] N. M. Atakishiyev, A. Ronveaux and K.B. Wolf: Di erence equations for the associated polynomials on the linear lattice. J. Theor. Math. Phys. (Moscow) 106 (1996), 76{83. 6] S. Belmehdi, S. Lewanowicz and A. Ronveaux: Linearization of product of orthogonal polynomials of a discrete variable. (1996), (submitted). 7] T. S. Chihara: An Introduction to Orthogonal Polynomials. Gordon and Breach Publ., New York, 1978. 8] A. Erdelyi Ed.: Higher Transcendental Functions. Vol. I, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1953. 9] E. Godoy, I. Area, A. Ronveaux and A. Zarzo: Minimal recurrence relations for connection coe cients between classical orthogonal polynomials: Continuous case. (1996), (submitted). 10] C. D. Godsil: Algebraic Combinatorics. Chapman and Hall, New York, 1993.

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A. Ronveaux Facultes Univ. N.D. de la Paix, Namur, Belgium E-mail: Andre.Ronveaux@fundp.ac.be